Nondestructive Testing

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Nondestructive Testing
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Inspection
File Reference: COE10304
For additional information on this subject, contact

W.P. Lamp on 875-2742
Inspection
CONTENTS
PAGES
ULTRASONICS ..................................................................................................... 1
Application of Ultrasonics........................................................................... 4
Limitations of Ultrasonics............................................................. 5
Interpretation of Ultrasonic Data ................................................................. 8
RADIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................... 9
Theory of Radiography ............................................................................... 9
Application of Radiography ...................................................................... 12
Limitations of Radiography ........................................................ 13
Interpretation of Radiographic Data............................................ 14
MAGNETIC PARTICLE...................................................................................... 15
Theory of Magnetic Particle Inspection .................................................... 15
Particle Application Techniques................................................................ 15
Field Application ....................................................................................... 16
Magnetizing Field Adequacy .................................................................... 18
MAGNETIC FLUX .............................................................................................. 21
Theory of Magnetic Flux........................................................................... 21
DYE PENETRANT .............................................................................................. 23
Field Application of Dye Penetrants ......................................................... 24
THERMOGRAPHY ............................................................................................. 29
Theory of Thermography .......................................................................... 29
Field Application of Thermography .......................................................... 30
GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................... 31
Inspection
ULTRASONICS
Theory of Ultrasonics
Ultrasonic testing is a nondestructive method of determining wall thickness or the location of
flaws within any material capable of conducting sound. The general principles used in
ultrasonic testing are quite similar to sonar and radar echo-ranging techniques developed
during World War II.
Ultrasonic waves are generated by a device called a transducer. Transducers are crystals that
exhibit a phenomenon known as the piezoelectric effect, which transforms electrical pulses
into mechanical vibrations and mechanical vibrations into electrical pulses. A rapidly
fluctuating voltage will cause the transducer to vibrate at the same frequency as that with
which the voltage fluctuates, producing an ultrasonic sound wave. Ultrasonic equipment uses
conventional echo-ranging instrumentation and incorporates electronic circuits for the
generation of signals. Various types of transducers convert the sound echoes into the
mechanical vibrations (sound) and reversibly convert the sound echoes into electrical voltage
pulses. Additional circuitry then amplifies the weak returning signals and displays them on
the data read-out device. This may either be a cathode-ray oscilloscope or a meter or digital
thickness read-out.
For testing, ultrasonic vibrations of the transducer are generally introduced into the material
through a couplant such as oil, grease, glycerine, or water. Within the test material, the
ultrasonic waves produced by the sending transducer are beamed waves that progress
almost as a column, like light from a flashlight. These sound waves will reflect from various
boundaries within the part, similar to the reflection of light rays from reflecting surfaces such
as mirrors. These reflected sound waves return to the transducer, causing it to vibrate and
send an electrical signal to the instrument. The total time elapsed from when the electrical
signal is sent to the transducer until the reflected signal is returned is electronically measured
on a cathode-ray tube (CRT) and empirically converted to either thickness or distance from a
reflecting defect.
Figure 1 illustrates the principle of straight-beam ultrasonic nondestructive testing.
Figure 1(a) represents the propagation of sound within a test specimen that does not contain
any flaws. A typical CRT screen presentation (Figure 1(b)) is illustrated to show the initial
pulse, time base line, and back reflection. Figure 1(c) represents the propagation of sound
within a test specimen containing a known flaw. Note the flaw indication shown on the CRT
screen display (Figure 1(d)).
Inspection
Angle-beam or shear-wave ultrasonic testing can be defined as testing in which the sound
beam is sent into the test piece at an angle, using a type of ultrasonic sound wave known as a
shear wave. Angle-beam testing is used to locate flaws or cracks that are not oriented
properly in the test piece to be located by means of straight-beam tests. This method of
testing is most favorable for weld inspection. Figure 2 represents ultrasonic examination of
welded test specimens using the angle-beam (or shear-wave) method of sound propagation.
Note the angular position of the transducer within the wedge in Figure 2(a). The CRT screen
presentation (Figure 2(b)) illustrates the initial pulse of sound produced by the transducer in a
welded test specimen that does not contain any flaws. The absence of the back reflection,
which indicates material thickness and is usually visible in straight-beam tests, is attributed to
the angle of the sound beam. A welded test specimen containing a known flaw is illustrated
in Figure 2(c). Note the transducer position and the distance between the transducer and the
weld area. The flaw indication as illustrated on the CRT screen display is shown in
Figure 2(d).
Inspection
FIGURE 1. Principle of Straight-beam Ultrasonics
Inspection
FIGURE 2. Principle of Angle-beam or Shear-wave Ultrasonics

Application of Ultrasonics
Ultrasonic testing can be used to determine wall thinning, pitting, erosion, and flaws in
metals, plastics, and rubbers. Today ultrasonic testing is used mostly in the steel industry and,
to a lesser extent, in concrete inspection and medical examinations.
In Saudi Aramco, ultrasonic testing monitors the condition of operating systems by
determining the rate of reduction in wall thickness due to erosion (mechanical wear) or
corrosion (chemical wear).
Ultrasonic testing can also be used to measure the changes in structure that can occur in
certain materials due to factors such as high temperature and hydrogen penetration.
Inspection
New, improved models are introduced each year by manufacturers, but there are several
instruments now available that perform well. In order to select the proper equipment, the
requirements for each application should be evaluated. Many factors determine the best
choice of an ultrasonic instrument for a specific application.
The use of ultrasonics for inspection, maintenance, corrosion monitoring, and quality
assurance/control work is rapidly expanding. Ultrasonics has proven to be a fast, accurate
method for nondestructively obtaining wall thickness measurements of plant/production
equipment and piping, both during a turnaround and while a plant or production unit is onstream.
Limitations of Ultrasonics
Understanding where to expect corrosion in equipment such as towers, drums, heat
exchangers, and piping is essential to successful ultrasonic corrosion monitoring. Figures 3
through 6 illustrate typical locations where corrosion would be most likely to occur in a
piping system.
The main limitation of ultrasonic inspection is the large number of readings required to
determine the general condition of the material. Other limitations of ultrasonics include:
Pitting corrosion is not easily located.
Exact orientation of the detector probe (transducer) is required in order to obtain

reproducibility.
Interpretation requires a trained operator.
Readings must be taken over a period of time to determine the corrosion rate.
High temperature measurements may have to be adjusted.
Surfaces must be free of scale or other foreign substance such as liquids (except for the
thin film of couplant required for signal transmission).
Inspection
FIGURE 3. Typical Corrosion Monitoring of a Reducer
FIGURE 4. Typical Corrosion Monitoring of a Tee
Inspection
FIGURE 5. Typical Corrosion Monitoring of an Elbow
FIGURE 6. Typical Corrosion Monitoring of a Pipe

Inspection
Interpretation of Ultrasonic Data

The overall accuracy of ultrasonic measurements is a function of several variables including
temperature. The higher the surface temperature, the greater the potential for error due to
material expansion and a lower acoustic velocity. The engineer must take this into account
and adjust the readings downward to determine actual wall thickness.
Readings must be taken over a period of time to determine the corrosion rate. A skilled,
experienced operator using a properly calibrated instrument should obtain consistently
accurate measurements to within 0.010 inch under field conditions.
Inspection
RADIOGRAPHY
Theory of Radiography
Radiography is a technique using differential absorption of a radiation source to inspect
welds or detect corrosion. Radiography can determine the wall thickness of pipe as well as
detect pitting or other localized corrosion damage. A source emits radiation through a test
area. Variations in thickness, composition of the material, and wavelength of the radiation
will cause different amounts of the radiation to be absorbed. The unabsorbed radiation is
collected and correlated to a wall thickness. Photographic film or a fluorescent screen placed
adjacent to a solid body on the side opposite the source of radiation thereby shows an image
of subsurface defects as illustrated in Figure 7. Cracks, voids, inclusions, and other defects
can be detected by radiography as shown in Figure 8. The more radiation penetrating the
object and striking the film, the darker the film appears when developed.
FIGURE 7. Production of a Radiological Image
Inspection
FIGURE 8. X-rays Reveal Defects in Material

Under Inspection
10
Inspection
The developed film, called a radiograph, provides positive visual evidence of defects and
corrosion damage. The amount of radiation that passes through a metal in a given length of
time is inversely proportional to its thickness. This means that more radiation will pass
through a thinned, corroded area than through a thicker, undamaged area. Therefore, pits or
corroded areas show up as dark spots or areas on a radiograph.
X-ray equipment is portable but bulky and requires electrical connections in order to operate.
X-ray equipment is normally used for the inspection of thin material, 0.125- to 0.750-inch
steel. However, gamma ray radiography is the most widely used method for field inspection.
The most widely used gamma radiographic sources are iridium-192 and cobalt-60. Iridium192 is used for material thickness of 0.250 to 3.500 inch for steel. Cobalt-60 is used for
material thickness of 2.50 to 8.00 inch for steel. Gamma sources do not require electrical
connections and are much smaller than X-ray machines.
There are two basic types of radiographic inspection: manual and real-time radiography.
Manual radiography collects the unabsorbed radiation on sensitive film. In real-time
radiography, the image is sent directly to a viewing screen or television monitor and may be
taped for future viewing. With real-time radiography, the test piece can be manipulated
during inspection to achieve the proper orientation for flaw detection.
11
Inspection
Application of Radiography
Radiography allows inspection of selected key areas in a system without shutdown. For
example, selected areas in a flowline might include elbows, restrictions, or other places where
higher corrosion rates are expected. It is usually not economical to inspect 100% of a system
with radiography. Therefore, selection of the test sites is critical. Radiography has been used
for many different types of inspection including:
Measuring pipe and tube wall thicknesses, both on-stream and during shutdowns, with
or without insulation
Checking plugged lines and measuring scale or coke thickness
Evaluating small diameter, threaded pipe nipple fit-ups and measuring internal corrosion
Evaluating the effectiveness of chemical cleaning in scaled furnace tubes

Measuring pit depth in pipelines by film density differences
Examining valves for explanations of malfunctions such as those caused by broken
stems, corroded seats, broken springs, etc.
Externally examining a column for evidence of tilted or missing trays
Thus radiography provides a permanent, visible record of the internal condition of a material.
Radiography can be used with all materials and is independent of the magnetic and electrical
properties of the material. Using special X-ray tubes, it is also possible to examine objects
that are moving rapidly, for instance, motors.
12
Inspection
Limitations of Radiography
The limitations imposed upon the use of radiography are set in part by the type of material
through which the radiation must penetrate and in part by the material thickness. The thicker
the material the radiation must pass through, the more scattered (that is, the more noise) is
generated in the object. With a sufficiently thick object, the signal-to-noise ratio becomes too
large for a usable image to be obtained.
Access to both sides of an object is needed so that the film can be placed on one side and the
radiation source on the other.
Certain types of flaws are difficult to detect by radiography. Cracks cannot be detected if they
are essentially parallel to the radiation beam. Tight cracks in thick sections may not be
detected at all, even when properly oriented. Small defects such as inclusions or
microfissures may not be detected unless they are grouped close enough to give a detectable
gross defect.
Another limitation of radiography involves safety. Since these exposures are normally
performed using radioactive isotopes, penetrating radiation is released. Both X-rays and
gamma radiation are health hazards. Personnel who operate X-ray or gamma radiation must
carry exposure film for their personal monitoring and must close off the area when making
exposures to avoid exposing the public to radiation. The distance from the barrier to the
exposure site will typically be about 60 feet for iridium-192 and 150 feet for cobalt-60.
Safe operation is ensured by a combination of the following:
Movable shielding (usually lead)
Exclusion of all personnel from the immediate area during exposure
Restrictions on the intensity and direction of radiation emitted from the source during
exposure
The best protection is afforded by distance because radiation intensity decreases in proportion
to the square of the distance from the source. As long as personnel stay far enough away
from the source while an exposure is being made, portable sources can be used with adequate
safety.
13
Inspection
Interpretation of Radiographic Data

The presence of pitting in piping is distinguished by a mottled or black appearance. Pit
depth can be estimated by the density differences. For comparison, sample pipes can be
prepared with holes (representing pits) drilled to different depths. Test radiographs can then
made and the film densities at the pits accurately measured with a film densitometer. A plot
of pit depth versus film density (for equal background densities) thus enables an accurate
estimate to be made of the depth of unknown pits.
Radiographs should be viewed in an area with subdued lighting to minimize reflections from
the viewing surface. Radiographic film images are usually viewed on an illuminated screen.
The viewing apparatus should have an opal-glass or plastic screen large enough to
accommodate the largest film to be interpreted. The screen should be illuminated from
behind with light of sufficient intensity to reveal variations in photographic density.
Radiographic coverage, which refers to the percentage of area or volume of a test piece that
appears in a radiograph or series of radiographs, must be evaluated to ensure that all regions
of the test piece have been radiographed with adequate clarity.
14
Inspection
MAGNETIC PARTICLE
Magnetic particle inspection is a nondestructive means for detecting surface and slightly
subsurface discontinuities and cracks. Any part made of a ferromagnetic material pipe,
structural steel, plate, turbine blades, bolts, nuts can be inspected by the magnetic particle
method. There are no restrictions as to the shape and size of the part. Nonferromagnetic
materials that cannot be strongly magnetized cannot be inspected by this method. Austenitic
stainless steels and most nonferrous materials are essentially nonmagnetic and, therefore,
exclude the use of magnetic particle inspection.
Theory of Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetic particle inspection consists of four basic procedures:
Establishing a suitable magnetic field in the test object

Applying magnetic particles to the surface of the test object
Examining the test object surface for accumulations of the particles (indications)
Evaluating the serviceability of the test object
A suitable magnetic field can be induced into a part by a variety of methods, including bar
magnets, prods, or coils. A crack or other surface discontinuity causes leakage of electrical
flux, which establishes a local magnetic field. Cracks show up more clearly when they are at
right angles to the magnetic lines of force. The magnetic lines of force are in turn at right
angles to the current flow (right hand rule). For crack detection, the crack should be oriented
in the direction of current flow. In practice, a part should be examined in two directions, that
is, the magnetic field should be induced in two directions at 90 to be sure that defects are
adequately surveyed. Normally, this is done by moving the prods 90.
Particle Application Techniques
Magnetic particles applied to the test surface will collect in the local magnetic field at the
discontinuity and reveal its size and shape. The particles can be applied dry, or the part can
be sprayed or dipped using a suspension of particles in water or oil. This test can be made
much more sensitive by using fluorescent particles in a liquid suspension and examining the
part under black (near ultraviolet) light. With fluorescent particles, even very minute
amounts of particles are easily seen in complete or semidarkness. The chance of an inspector
missing an indication is greatly reduced.
15
Inspection
Dry particle inspection is most sensitive for use on very rough surfaces and for detecting
defects beneath the surface. It is normally used with portable equipment. The wet magnetic
particle inspection is used with stationary equipment. It is best suited for the detection of fine
surface discontinuities such as fatigue cracks.
Field Application
Magnetic particle inspection has been used for detecting fatigue cracks in vibrating or rotating
equipment. This type of inspection is normally intended for surface inspection, but it will
frequently detect defects that are slightly below the surface.
Usually satisfactory results are obtained when the surfaces are in the as-welded, as-rolled, ascast, or as-forged conditions. However, surface preparation by grinding or machining may be
necessary in some cases where surface irregularities would otherwise mask the indication or
discontinuity. Prior to magnetic particle inspection, the surface to be examined and any
adjacent area within at least 1 inch (25 mm) of the surface to be examined should be dry and
free of any dirt, grease, scale, welding flux, spatter, or any other matter that would interfere
with the inspection. Small openings and holes that lead to areas from which it would be
difficult to remove magnetic substances should be plugged before the part is inspected.
During magnetic particle inspection, the inspected parts surface should be covered with an
abundant source of suspended particles. Each area of interest should be examined at least
twice so the lines of flux in the first test are approximately perpendicular to the lines of flux in
the other.
16
Inspection
There are many techniques used to apply the magnetic field to the area of interest. The
following table lists some of these techniques along with a few advantages and disadvantages.
Technique
Permanent magnets
Advantage
Relatively low cost for the
unit
No power requirements
Can be configured to gain
access in tight spaces
AC yokes
DC/AC probes
Good field strength in, or

closer to, the test surface
Smaller area to be cleaned
Coils and coil

encirclement
Large areas can be

magnetized
Disadvantage
Limited field strength that
tends to deteriorate with time
and use
Field penetrates deep into
heavy walls (if more than
1/2-inch thick) leaving an
unacceptably weak field
strength at testing surface
Area to be cleaned of
coating
Power supply and cable
required
Inspection area to be cleaned
Field strength will vary with
probe spacing
Heavy cable and high
current required
Placement of coils difficult
at complex geometries
Uniform distance wire-tosurface required
Heavy cable and high
current required
A linear indication is one in which the length is equal to or greater than three times its width.
A rounded indication is one that is circular with its length less than three times its width.
Usually, if the indication is relevant (worth another look), alternate inspection methods such
as dye penetrant can be used to establish if it is critical and needs to be removed by grinding
or if it needs to be repaired.
17
Inspection
Magnetizing Field Adequacy

In the coil technique, magnetization is accomplished by passing a current through a multiturn
coil looped around the material or a section of the material to be inspected. A magnetic field
parallel to the axis of the coil is produced. Discontinuities at right angles to the axis of the
coil can be located as shown in Figure 9.
FIGURE 9. Longitudinal Magnetism Encircling Coil Technique

The required field strength can be calculated based on the length (L) and the diameter (D) of
the part to be inspected as follows:
Parts with L/D ratios equal to or greater than 4

The magnetizing ampere-turns should be within 10 percent of the ampere-turns value
determined as follows:
Ampere-turns =
(35,000)
(L/D + 2)
For example, a part 10 inches long and 2 inches in diameter has a L/D ratio of 5.
Therefore,
(35,000)
= 5000 ampere-turns
(5 + 2)
18
Inspection
Parts with L/D ratio less than 4 but not less than 2
The magnetizing ampere-turns should be within 10 percent of the ampere-turns value
determined as follows:
Ampere-turns =
(45,000)
L/D
The current required to obtain the necessary magnetizing field strength can be
determined by dividing the required ampere-turns by the number of turns in the coil as
follows:
Ampere =
ampere-turns
turns
For example, if a 5-turn coil is used and the ampere-turns required are 5000, then
5000
= 1000 amperes.
5
If, at any time, the operator suspects that the magnetizing field is insufficient, the field can be
checked with a magnetic particle field indicator such as the pie gauge as shown in
Figure 10.
FIGURE 10. Magnetic Particle Field Indicator

19
Inspection
20
Inspection
MAGNETIC FLUX
Magnetic flux leakage is a technique used to detect metal loss in pipelines.
Theory of Magnetic Flux
Powerful permanent magnets, coupled to the pipe wall by steel brushes, induce a magnetic
field in the pipeline as shown in Figure 11. When the magnetic field encounters a defect such
as a metal loss area, a change takes place in the leakage field (Figure 12). This change in the
leakage field is monitored by sensors.
FIGURE 11. Magnetic Flux Leakage Principle No Defect Present
FIGURE 12. Magnetic Flux Leakage Principle Defect Present
21
Inspection
Rows of sensors, covering the complete circumference of the pipe wall, are set between the
poles of the magnets. These sensors detect changes in the magnetic flux in the leakage field
as the tool moves through the pipeline.
Two arrays of sensors are situated at different positions on the tool. The sensors A, as shown
in Figure 13, are positioned between the brushes where the pipe wall material is magnetically
saturated. These sensors receive full strength signals from both inside and outside metal loss.
Sensors B measure the flux leakage at a remote position. As the pipe wall is no longer
saturated at this position, the signals are generally weaker. As a rule, internal metal loss can
be seen much better here than external defects. In most cases, sensors A record both internal
and external defects, and sensors B record only internal defects. Therefore, by comparing the
two readings, it is possible to distinguish between internal and external metal loss.
FIGURE 13. Placement of Sensors
22
Inspection
DYE PENETRANT
The dye penetrant inspection method is used to reveal defects that reach the surface of
nonporous materials. Defects such as cracks, porosity, and small holes can be detected in a
very simple process on both ferrous and nonferrous alloys. This method is quick and
inexpensive to perform.
Theory of Dye Penetrant Inspection
During this inspection, a liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the part to be inspected.
This penetrating liquid (penetrant), which is dyed (usually red) or fluorescent, is applied to a
clean and smooth surface as shown in Figure 14.
FIGURE 14. Procedure for Examining with a Penetrant:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Preclean, remove grease, and dry the component.

Apply penetrant to the component.
Completely remove excess penetrant from the surface.
Apply developer and dry off.
Inspect for indication of defects.
23
Inspection
The penetrating liquid is allowed to remain on the surface for a specified time, during which it
penetrates into any defects open at the surface. This period of time depends upon the
temperature of the part to be inspected. Dye penetrants are typically used at temperatures
ranging from 15 to 40 C (59 to 104 F), but some have been used with temperatures as low
as 2 C (35.6 F). At low temperatures, the penetration time must be increased by a factor
two to three times the normal rate. At higher temperatures [above 50 C (122 F)], the
penetration time is reduced to just a few minutes.
After excess penetrant is carefully removed from the surface of the part, a developing liquid is
applied and allowed to dry. The developer is usually an absorbent, light-colored, powdered
material. This developer acts as a blotter and draws the penetrant out of the defect by
capillary action. With visible dyes, the color contrast between the penetrant and the
developer makes the bleedout easy to see. With fluorescent dyes, an ultraviolet or black
light lamp is used to make the bleedout fluoresce brightly and allows the defect to be seen
readily.
Dye penetrant inspection can detect cracks as small as about 2 m wide.
Field Application of Dye Penetrants
Special cleaning liquids, dye penetrants, and developers are available in aerosol cans. These
aerosol cans can be taken anywhere in the field or be used where work space is limited. Dye
penetrant inspection can be done both indoors and outdoors.
Both the dye penetrant and the fluorescent penetrant are available in three types. Each type
has a different method for removal of excess penetrant.
Water washable penetrant

Solvent removable penetrant
Post-emulsifiable penetrant
24
Inspection
Water washable penetrants contain an emulsifier that allows excess surface penetrant to be
removed using water. They are the least sensitive penetrants but are used where large surface
areas have to be inspected. The washing operation must be carefully controlled to prevent
overwashing. Figure 15 illustrates this technique.
FIGURE 15. Water Washable Penetrant Test:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Surface preparation: properly clean and dry.

Apply inspection penetrant.
Remove penetrant with water.
Apply developer (dry, water based, or solvent-based developer)
Inspect (visible or black light depending on penetrant type)
Final cleaning to remove penetrant and developer.
NOTE:
A good penetrant system will leave the background free of residual

penetrant without removing penetrant from the flaws, cracks, and other
discontinuities.
Solvent removable penetrants can only be fully removed from the surface by means of an
appropriate organic solvent. These penetrants are used when it is necessary only to inspect a
localized area. The solvent removable penetrant is the most commonly used in the petroleum
industry.
Post-emulsifiable penetrants must have an emulsifier applied to the excess surface penetrant
in order to make it water soluble. The danger of overwashing the penetrant out of the flaws is
greatly reduced. The emulsification time must be carefully controlled so that the surface
penetrant becomes water soluble but the penetrant in the flaws does not. Figure 16 illustrates
this technique. An overview of all three dye penetrant inspection processes is shown in
Figure 17.
25
Inspection
FIGURE 16. Post-Emulsification Penetrant Test:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Surface preparation: properly clean and dry.

Apply inspection penetrant.
Apply emulsifier on top on penetrant.
Surface penetrant is emulsified.
Remove emulsified penetrant with water spray.
Apply developer to draw penetrant out of discontinuity.
Black light causes indications to fluoresce when viewed in the dark.
Perform final cleaning to remove penetrant, emulsifier, and developer.
26
Inspection
FIGURE 17. Overview Flow Chart for the Dye Penetrant Examination Process
27
Inspection
Advantages of Dye Penetrants. This inspection method is simple, quick, and very
inexpensive to perform. Dye penetrants can be used on all sizes and shapes provided they do
not have too many odd angles and depressions that are so large that they are difficult to clean.
In addition, this method can be used in all orientations because the liquid can be drawn up as
well as down into a crack.
Limitations of Dye Penetrants. The cracks or defects must reach the surface to be detected.
The dye penetrant inspection method is very slow if large surfaces are to be examined. In
addition, rough surfaces, such as cast iron, reduce the possibility of an effective examination
because a rough surface is more difficult to clean.
Surface coating, oil, grease, and hammered or sandblasted surfaces exclude the use of dye
penetrant methods.
Precautions. When doing dye penetrant inspection, you should avoid using penetrants,
emulsifiers, cleaning liquids, and developers produced by different manufacturers. It is
extremely important to make sure that all of the materials will work well together.
Instructions provided by the manufacturer should be closely followed. When repeating an
inspection, it is necessary to repeat every step in the process and to be especially careful about
cleaning before a new developer is applied. If a different type of penetrant is used for the
reinspection, then you must be very careful that the original penetrant has been completely
removed from the defects. Remnants of a dye penetrant can react with a fluorescent penetrant
and may negate the fluorescent effect.
When dye penetrants are used, the inspection for defect indications must be carried out in
sufficiently bright daylight or artificial illumination. On the other hand, if fluorescent
penetrants are used, the area in which the inspection is to be made should be darkened. The
inspector must allow at least five minutes for his eyes to adjust to the darkness before the
inspection begins. In addition, the ultraviolet lamp reaches its full intensity after about
15 minutes.
The ultraviolet radiation from the lamp is normally within the wavelength range of 320 to
400 m. Ultraviolet radiation at these wavelengths is not harmful to human skin or eyes.
However, ultraviolet lamps with cracks in the filter glass should not be used because
damaging radiation may be present.
Finally safety requirements must be observed. Highly volatile organic solvents and additives
can be poisonous and very flammable. Typically, their flash points are low, so good
ventilation should be provided during the inspection.
28
Inspection
THERMOGRAPHY
Thermography is an inspection technique that makes use of the infrared spectral region to
identify hot spots on process equipment. It is a relatively fast technique and the results are
easy to interpret.
Theory of Thermography
Any object with a temperature above absolute zero will emit infrared radiation (IR) in
proportion to its temperature. Infrared meaning below the red or outside the visible
spectrum at its red end is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength ranging between 0.75
and 1000 micrometers.
The electromagnetic spectrum is shown in Figure 18.
FIGURE 18. Electromagnetic Spectrum
29
Inspection
Field Application of Thermography

Thermography has been used to determine hot spots on furnace tubes, stacks, structural
members, and rotating equipment. Thermography has been used to reveal external and
internal coatings and corroded regions.
Commercial thermography uses the portion of the IR spectrum corresponding to wavelengths
from 2 to 14 micrometers. Since infrared radiation is not visible to the human eye, its
detection requires special equipment. The invisible heat radiation radiated by an object is
converted into electrical signals that can be displayed on a monitor or recorded on videotape.
The temperature range of the equipment is -30 to 1000 C (-22 to 1832 F).
By monitoring equipment with thermography, a visual display of the temperature differentials
can be displayed. The variations of color indicate temperature differences. One advantage of
thermography is that it can be performed with the equipment in service at normal operating
conditions, that is, no shutdown required.
30
Inspection
GLOSSARY
black light
Light in the near ultraviolet range, just short of visible light
blotting
The action of the developer in drawing out the penetrant from

a surface discontinuity, causing maximum bleed-out for
increased contrast and sensitivity
capillary action
The tendency of certain liquids to travel, climb, or draw into

tight crack-like interface areas due to to such properties as
surface tension, wetting, cohesion, adhesion, and viscosity
couplant
A material used to transmit a sound wave generated by a

transducer to a test specimen during ultrasonic inspection
defect
A discontinuity whose size, shape, orientation, location, or

properties make it detrimental to the useful service of the part in
which it occurs or which exceeds the accept/reject criteria for the
given design
developer
Chemical used to enhance the visibility of small amounts of

penetrant bleeding from small discontinuities. Developers draw
or absorb penetrant material from a surface discontinuity to
allow the penetrant to be visible under natural or black light.
discontinuity
Any interruption in the normal physical structure or

configuration of a part, such as crack, laps, seams, inclusions, or
porosity. A discontinuity may or may not affect the usefulness
of a part.
drums
Metal cylinders used as equipment in process systems
emulsifier
An emulsifier is used with certain types of penetrants to make oil

in the penetrant water dispersible and, therefore, water washable.
ferrous
Containing iron
flash point
The minimum temperature at which a flammable-vapor mixture

exists at the surface of a liquid
fluorescent
Capable of being observed in ultraviolet light
31
Inspection
flaw
Defect or imperfection in a material; hidden fault that may cause

failure of a material under stress
indication
The presence of penetrant on a surface
infrared
Outside the visible spectrum at the red end
magnetic particle field

indicator
Device typically made of low-carbon steel pie sections, furnacebrazed together, used to determine the strength of magnetizing
fields
oscilloscope
An instrument in which the variations in a fluctuating electrical

quantity appear temporarily as a visible wave form on the
fluorescent screen of a cathode ray tube
penetrant
Penetrating liquid used to detect flaws
post-emulsification
penetrant
A type of penetrant containing no emulsifier but which is

cleaned from a surface with water after applying an emulsifier as
a separate step. Often abbreviated as P.E.
piezoelectric effect
Involves a phenomenon that transforms electrical pulses into

mechanical vibrations and mechanical vibrations into electrical
pulses
radiograph
Positive visual evidence of defects and corrosion damage shown

on developed film from radiographic inspection
radiographic coverage
Percentage of area or volume of a test piece that appears in a

radiograph or a series of radiographs
radiography
Technique using differential absorption of a radiation source to

inspect welds or detect corrosion
thermography
An inspection technique that uses the infrared spectral region to

identify hot spots
32
Inspection
turnaround
Planned, periodic inspection and overhaul of the units of a

production system; preventive maintenance and safety check
requiring the shutdown of process or production equipment
ultrasonics
A nondestructive technique that uses the transmission of high

frequency sound waves into a material to detect imperfections
within the material or changes in material properties
33

Nondestructive Testing

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Nondestructive Testing

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

For additional information on this subject, contact

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 1. Principle of Straight-beam Ultrasonics

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 2. Principle of Angle-beam or Shear-wave Ultrasonics

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Pitting corrosion is not easily located.

Exact orientation of the detector probe (transducer) is required in order to obtain

Interpretation requires a trained operator.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 3. Typical Corrosion Monitoring of a Reducer

FIGURE 4. Typical Corrosion Monitoring of a Tee

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 5. Typical Corrosion Monitoring of an Elbow

FIGURE 6. Typical Corrosion Monitoring of a Pipe

Interpretation of Ultrasonic Data

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 7. Production of a Radiological Image

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 8. X-rays Reveal Defects in Material

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Checking plugged lines and measuring scale or coke thickness

Evaluating the effectiveness of chemical cleaning in scaled furnace tubes

Externally examining a column for evidence of tilted or missing trays

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Movable shielding (usually lead)

Exclusion of all personnel from the immediate area during exposure

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Interpretation of Radiographic Data

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Establishing a suitable magnetic field in the test object

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Good field strength in, or

Coils and coil

Large areas can be

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Magnetizing Field Adequacy

FIGURE 9. Longitudinal Magnetism Encircling Coil Technique

Parts with L/D ratios equal to or greater than 4

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 10. Magnetic Particle Field Indicator

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 11. Magnetic Flux Leakage Principle No Defect Present

FIGURE 12. Magnetic Flux Leakage Principle Defect Present

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 13. Placement of Sensors

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 14. Procedure for Examining with a Penetrant:

Preclean, remove grease, and dry the component.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Water washable penetrant

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 15. Water Washable Penetrant Test:

Surface preparation: properly clean and dry.

A good penetrant system will leave the background free of residual

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIGURE 16. Post-Emulsification Penetrant Test:

Surface preparation: properly clean and dry.