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This book is written for engineers involved in the operation, and control of
electric power systems. The book also provides information and tools for
researchers working in the fields of power system security, stability,
operation and control. It consists of two volumes. In the first volume, the
traditional techniques for stability and dynamic equivalence are presented.
In addition, an overview of the main drivers and requirements for
modernization of the traditional methods for online applications is
discussed. The second volume includes advances in the security, stability,
control, and stabilization of electrical power systems. The given material is
written in graded complexity for facilitating their inclusion in
undergraduate, postgraduate, and technical training courses. For online
dynamic security systems, a major part of this volume includes the
derivation, analysis, and stabilization of the SMIB equivalence of power
systems. This volume also includes the operation and dynamical
characteristics of variable renewable power generation (wind and solar-PV)
as well as their dynamical interactions with power systems and the
interconnection requirements are presented in details.
Mohamed EL-Shimy
EL-Shimy
978-3-659-80714-5
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.36832.07683
DYNAMIC SECURITY OF INTERCONNECTED
ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS – VOLUME 2
Dynamics and stability of conventional and renewable energy systems
Mohamed EL-Shimy
Ain Shams University – Cairo, Egypt
Contact info:
mohamed_bekhet@eng.asu.edu.eg
shimymb@yahoo.com
002 01005639589
http://shimymb.tripod.com
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
PREFACE
This book is written for engineers involved in the operation, control, and
planning of electric power systems. In addition, the book provides
information and tools for researchers working in the fields of power system
security and stability. The book consists of two volumes. The first volume
provides traditional techniques for the stability analysis of large scale power
systems. In addition, an overview of the main drivers and requirements for
modernization of the traditional methods for online applications is discussed.
The second volume (i.e. thus volume) provides techniques for offline and
online stability and security studies. In addition, the impact of variable
generation on the stability, and security of power systems is considered in the
second volume.
The book covers some essential aspects related to the modeling,
simulation, and analysis of power systems. Its contents are useful for
educational and research objectives as well as training of engineers and high
level technicians. Fast and online assessment of the dynamic security and
stability of power systems are given significant attention in this volume. The
stability of grid-connected variable renewable energy sources is presented
considering wind and solar-PV technologies. In addition, the impact of these
renewable sources on the transient stability of power systems is presented
with sufficient details for providing an understanding of various dynamic
phenomena. Several numerical examples and elaborated case studies are
given to enhancing the capability of the engineers in the modeling,
simulation, analysis, and control of power systems.
Corrective actions for transient stability preservation and restoration are
also presented with a focus on the load shedding for restoring and
enforcement of power system stability. For these targets, the minimization of
load shedding is considered as a techno-economical solution for solving
stability problems associated with a sudden drop in the power generation.
These sudden drops may be caused by several reasons such as forced outage
of generating units, or the intense reductions in the renewable resources. The
load shedding minimization for dynamic security preservation is also
considered in this book. Reasonable approaches for online security and
corrective actions studies are presented. These approaches are based on the
electromechanical equivalence of power systems that is based on online
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 1.
ISBN 978-3-659-71372-9, LAP LAMBER Academic Publisher, Germany, 2015.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Stability
Equival-
analysis & Renewable energy
ence
control
Stability control
Nomenclature
Fundamentals
Modeling and
Conventional
Introductory
Impacts and
Renewable
Grid codes
simulation
and data
sources
sources
Offline
Online
Ch. 1
Volume 1
Ch. 2
Ch. 3
App.
Ch. 4
Ch. 5
Ch. 6
Ch. 7
Ch. 8
Ch. 9
Ch. 10
Ch. 11
Volume 2
Ch. 12
Ch. 13
App. 1
App. 2
App. 3
App. 4
App. 5
App. 6
App. 7
App. 8
App. 9
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
5.4 Transient stability and the Equal Area Criterion (EAC) 131
5.4.1 Classification of power system stability 133
5.4.2 The equal area criterion (EAC) and advancements 135
5.4.3 Transient Stability Enhancement 170
5.5 Measurement-based SMIB Equivalence of Multi-machine
193
power systems – A case study
Chapter 6 199 -
Load Shedding and Online Applications 246
6.1 Introduction 199
6.2 Voltage Stability and UVLS – an overview 202
6.2.1 Basic Definitions 202
6.2.2 Classifications of voltage stability studies 205
6.2.3 Connection between Voltage Stability and Rotor Angle
207
Stability
6.2.4 Fundamentals of Voltage stability analysis 207
6.2.5 UVLS schemes 230
6.3 UFLS – AN OVERVIEW 234
6.4 Dynamic load shedding based on online measurements 237
Chapter 7
247 -
Damping Improvement and Stabilization through FACTS-POD
306
controllers
7.1 Introduction 247
7.2 FACTS devices – Definitions 249
7.3 Modeling and Modal Analysis 254
7.3.1 Linearized Modeling for POD design 254
7.3.2 TCSC Dynamic Modeling and Control 256
7.4 POD Design and Tuning 258
7.4.1 Frequency Response Method 259
7.4.2 Residue Method 262
7.5 Study System 1 – SMIB system 265
7.6.1 Impact of the TCSC on the small- signal stability 267
7.6.2 Observability and controllability of various input signals 267
7.6.3 POD designs 268
7.7 Case Study 2 – Weakly interconnected multi-machine system 274
7.8 Placement of FACTS Devices 286
7.8.1 Preliminary mathematical modeling 287
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Chapter 4
Dynamic Modeling, Simulation, Control, and Analysis of
Simplified Power Systems
4.1 Introduction
In the first volume of this book, the construction and evaluation of the
coherency-based electromechanical equivalence is presented. The presented
method uses the traditional approach which relies on the availability of the
required data sets of system parameters as well as its variables. The method
presumes that the required data sets are complete and accurate; however, not
only the operating conditions of power systems vary with time, but also the
parameters of various components; for example, aging and operating stresses
affect the values of the parameters of various components and may cause
significant change in their recorded historical values. In addition, the
information provided by the data sets is highly uncertain and may suffer
incompetence or at least they may not be in agreement with the actual system
data. The modeling and analysis presented in the first volume consider only
conventional power systems. The integration of recent generation
technologies causes changes in the dynamic behavior and interaction between
system components. Therefore, the impact of these technologies as well as
advanced modeling approaches and methods for online stability and security
studies are presented in this volume.
The problems associated with the availability and accuracy of the data sets
of power systems as well as the estimation of the operating conditions are
highly reduced by the use of synchronized online monitoring of power
systems. Therefore, electromechanical equivalency techniques that solely use
online measurements instead of the traditional data sets are presented in this
volume. The method can be effectively executed online and this becomes
possible due to the availability of WAMS and PMUs. The WAMS and PMUs
are recently introduced in power systems for time-synchronized
measurements, telemetry, and recording of critical quantities (such as state
variables, and status of components). Consequently, accurate online analysis
and management of large-scale power systems becomes possible. An
overview of the functionality and characteristics of these systems is
summarized in the first volume of the book (chapter 1 and 2).
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
The objectives of this chapter also include the analysis of some critical
issues associated with the modeling, stability, security, operation, and control
of power systems.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
II. Fast (or sudden) changes with small magnitudes: In this case, the ratio
of the active and reactive power mismatches to the respective total
generation ( are small. In this case linearized
modeling of the system nonlinearities is usually acceptable. For the
linearized modeling to be acceptable, the steady-state deviation of the
system variables should be small (e.g. 10% of the initial steady state
values).
III. Fast (or sudden) changes with large magnitudes: In this case, the ratio
of the active and reactive power mismatches to the respective total
generation ( are large. System nonlinearities
should be carefully modeled for such kind of disturbances. Large
disturbances usually cause violations in the normal state requirements
and the system in this case is said to be in an emergency state or
extreme state as defined in chapter 1 of the first volume of this
textbook.
2
Further readings:
Kundur, P. (1994). Power system stability and control (Vol. 7). N. J. Balu, & M.
G. Lauby (Eds.). New York: McGraw-hill.
Venikov, V. A. (1977). Transient processes in electrical power systems. Mir
Publishers.
Machowski, J., Bialek, J., & Bumby, J. R. (1997). Power system dynamics and
stability. John Wiley & Sons.
Savulescu, S. C. (Ed.). (2014). Real-time stability in power systems: techniques for
early detection of the risk of blackout. Springer.
Kundur, P., Paserba, J., Ajjarapu, V., Andersson, G., Bose, A., Canizares, C., &
Vittal, V. (2004). Definition and classification of power system stability
IEEE/CIGRE joint task force on stability terms and definitions. Power Systems,
IEEE Transactions on, 19(3), 1387-1401.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
reactive power mismatch causes local voltage problems at the mismatch bus
and its vicinity.
3
Ravalli, P. (1986). Frequency Dynamics and Frequency Control of a Power System,
Particularly Under Emergency Conditions (Doctoral dissertation, University of
Melbourne).
4
Andersson, G. (2012). Dynamics and control of electric power systems. Lecture notes
227-0528-00, ITET ETH, EEH - Power Systems Laboratory, ETH Z¨urich
5
Eremia, M., & Shahidehpour, M. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of electrical power system
dynamics: modeling, stability, and control (Vol. 92). John Wiley & Sons.
6
Wall, P., Gonzalez-Longatt, F., & Terzija, V. (2012, July). Estimation of generator
inertia available during a disturbance. In Power and Energy Society General Meeting,
2012 IEEE (pp. 1-8). IEEE.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
releasing kinetic energy stored in their rotors (Fig. 4.1: from t = 0 sec to 10
sec). As a result, the power imbalance is reduced while the turbine governors’
increase the input mechanical power to the generators. The lowest frequency
(or the frequency nadir) is reached when the mechanical power equals to the
electrical power). Since at the frequency nadir the frequency is still below the
normal value, then the governors increase the mechanical power input to the
generators. Therefore, the initially lost kinetic energy values from the rotors
are now starting to be restored and the system frequency increases.
Eventually, the power balance and the frequency are restored in the system
has sufficient capacity to compensate the lost generation. This control action
is called primary Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC)7. This
frequency control loop causes a stationary frequency error determined by the
droop characteristics (or function) of the turbine governor. Fine tuning of the
system frequency is achieved by another control loop called the secondary
ALFC. These control loops are shown in Fig. 4.2. The overall objective of
the ALFC is to maintain an active power balance (or load tracking) at the
generator buses by maintaining a constant frequency. Consequently, the
ALFC systems collectively maintain active power balance and frequency on
the system wide basis. The response of the primary ALFC loop is faster in
comparison with the secondary ALFC loop. The primary ALFC loop
responds to frequency (or speed) error signal, which is an indirect measure of
the active power imbalance. Via a speed governor and control valves, the
steam (or hydro) flow is regulated with the intent of achieving an active
power balance to relatively fast load fluctuations. On the other hand, the
secondary ALFC loop maintains fine adjustment of frequency (i.e. it
eliminates the small frequency error which still remaining after the action of
the primary ALFC loop); however, the secondary ALFC is insensitive to
rapid load and frequency variations, but it responds to drift-like (or slow)
changes that take place over a period of minutes.
The mechanism by which a generator supplies power to the grid is
summarized in the following points. Consider a generator operating in its
normal state, delivering a steady state active power Pgo MW to the network.
In this case,
7
Elgard, O. I. (1982). Electric energy systems theory. New YorkMc Graw-Hill.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
The frequency shown in Fig. 4.1(a) is the system frequency which is the
average frequency of the system. As shown in Fig. 4.3, the frequencies of the
individual generators can be regarded as comparatively small variations over
the system frequency. The system frequency is also called the frequency of
the Center of Inertia (COI).
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.1: Frequency and power dynamics of an interconnected power system
as subjected to a generator outage. (a) Frequency dynamics. (b) Active power
and mechanical power dynamics
8
Elgerd, O. (1981). Control of electric power systems. IEEE Control Systems Magazine,
2(1), 4-16.
20
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
9
Eremia, M., & Shahidehpour, M. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of electrical power system
dynamics: modeling, stability, and control (Vol. 92). John Wiley & Sons.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.6: Frequency variations; (a) Variations under small and large
disturbances; (b) various ranges of frequency deviations and associated
control actions
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
system obeys the Newton’s second law of rotational motion which takes the
form,
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.8: Normal-state controls for conventional synchronous generators; (a)
block diagram; (b) connection layout
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
This equation is called the equation of motion or the swing equation. The
term represents the rotor acceleration. According to the torque
balance presented on the RHS of eq. (4.3), the rotor will accelerate if the
RHS term of eq. (4.3) is positive while rotor deceleration is associated with a
negative value of that term. In case of perfect torque balance (i.e. the RHS of
eq. (4.3) = 0), then the rotor will rotate at a fixed speed which is the
synchronous speed. It is clear from eq. (4.3) that the impact of torque
imbalance on the rate of change of the rotor speed is inversely proportional to
the monument of inertial. Therefore, for the same torque imbalance subjected
to two identical generators except their moment of inertia, the generator
having a higher moment of inertia is less sensitive to torque imbalance in
comparison with the generator with lower inertia. It is also important to note
that the changes in the turbine torque are significantly slow in comparison
with the electromagnetic torque. This is attributed to the long time constants
associated with the prime mover system while the electromagnetic changes
are almost instantaneous.
Since the power angle ((shown in Fig. 4.9) represents the rotor position
with respect to a synchronously rotating reference frame axis (see Fig. 4.10),
then the rotor speed as a function of the rate of change of (takes the form,
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
In eq. (4.4), m presents the mechanical angle of the rotor in mech. rad.,
m presents the rotor speed in mech. rad/s. Based on (4.4) can be written as
. It is clear that the deviation in the rotor speed can be
represented by . The damping torque in (4.3) can be
presented by,
Substituting (4.4) in (4.5) and the resulting equation as well as eq. (4.4) in
(4.3), then
The term presents the net mechanical shaft torque (Tt) and
the term presents the rotor speed deviation , then (4.7)
becomes,
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Therefore, the momentum equals to double the value of the K.E of the
rotating elements. The momentum can also be presented in terms of the
mechanical time constant . The mechanical time constant can be explained
by considering a generator at rest and suddenly a mechanical torque equals to
is applied to the shaft. In this case, the rotor speed will be linearly
increased and the rotor will take a time to reach the synchronous speed.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Since all the upcoming equations will include electrical quantities, the
suffix e will be removed. Equation (4.9) can be transformed to include the
electrical quantities as follows,
or
where
H d 2
Pm Pe PD (4.18)
f o dt 2
PD Dd sin 2 Dq cos2 D ( ) (4.19)
The function D() takes the form shown in Fig. 4.11. It is depicted from
the figure that the damping increases with the increase of the power angle till
a power angle of 90o. Afterward, the damping declines. It is known that the
maximum allowable steady state power angle of an uncontrolled cylindrical
pole machine is 90o; higher angle values cause instability of the machine. In
most types of power systems studies, the average value Dav of the damping
coefficient is used instead of representing the actual variations of the
damping coefficient.
Fig. 4.11: Variations of the damping coefficient with the power angle
The value of the damping coefficient D depends on many factors such as:
10
Machowski, J., Bialek, J., & Bumby, J. R. (1997). Power system dynamics and stability.
John Wiley & Sons.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
The instabilities that may be seen with small disturbances are always
attributed to low damping of oscillations.
11
Krause, P. C., Wasynczuk, O., Sudhoff, S. D., & Pekarek, S. (2013). Analysis of electric
machinery and drive systems (Vol. 75). John Wiley & Sons.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Fig. 4.12: vector diagram of the SMIB system with cylindrical pole generator
Fig. 4.13: vector diagram of the SMIB system with salient pole generator
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Fig. 14 Fig. 15
E qV V 2 1 1 E q'V V 2 1 1
P sin sin 2 (22) P sin ' sin 2 (23)
X d 2 X q X d X d' 2 X d X q
Salient pole generator
Fig. 16 Fig. 17
The difference (’) shown in Fig. 4.12 and 4.13 is small enough to
consider that,
33
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
E 'V
Pe ' sin Pmax sin (4.25)
xd
H d 2 d
P P sin D (4.26)
f o dt 2 m max
dt
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Consider a small deviation oin power angle from the initial operating point
o, i.e.
(4.28)
f o
Pm Pe D
H (4.29)
where
Pe
Pe Pmax cos o ( ) (4.30)
o
The term Pmax cos o is known as the synchronizing power coefficient. The
higher the synchronizing power coefficient, the more stable the system. The
Ps is given by:
f o
Pm Ps D (4.32)
H
f o f o
f o
D Ps
d H H
H Pm (4.33)
dt 0
1 0
x A x B u (4.34)
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Example
Simulation and analysis of the linearized classical model of the SMIB
system
Fig. 4.20: The simulink model of the linearized dynamic model of the
SMIB system of the numerical example – the machine is represented by the
classical model
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Case #2: in this example, the impact of the damping on the system
response is evaluated. The original value of the damping coefficient of the
system is assumed to be 0.1; new values are given to the damping coefficient
for the same disturbance of case #1 and comparative analysis is performed.
The new values are 0.2, 0.0, and -0.1 and the results are shown in Fig. 4.22
and Fig. 4.23. The value of the damping coefficient associated with each
curve is shown in the figures.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Time (s)
Fig. 4.21: Response to a step change of -10% in the mechanical power
input
Time (s)
Fig. 4.22: Impact of the positive values of the damping coefficient on the
linearized transient performance of the SMIB system – Classical model (D
are the shown numbers)
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Fig. 4.23: Impact of the negative value of the damping coefficient on the
linearized transient performance of the SMIB system – Classical model
It is clear from Fig. 4.22 that the amplitude and the settling time of the
transient oscillations are highly dependent on the damping coefficient value.
The higher the damping coefficient, the better the response (lower amplitudes
and settling time). It is also shown that the frequency of the oscillations is
insensitive to the damping coefficient.
Based on Fig. 4.22, and 4.23, it can be easily depicted that the positive
damping results in damped oscillatory response (a stable situation) while the
negative damping is associated with oscillatory response with increasing
amplitudes (instability situation). The case of zero damping is associated with
sustained oscillations of constant amplitude (critical or marginal stability).
Negative damping can be realized in reality in the situations where the
parameters of the generator controllers are incorrectly tuned. In addition,
positive damping is associated with some types of loads.
Zero damping is a sort of a theoretical assumption or a situation where
negative damping sources compensate the positive damping of the system.
Generators have the inherent damping capability due to their electric power
40
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
losses, and eddy current flow in the magnetic core of the machine as well as
other energy losses such as windage, and friction.
Case #3: in this study the impact of the generator’s inertia on the
transient response is considered. In comparison with the data of case #1, in
this case only the inertia constant of the generator is changed. The original
value of the inertia constant H = 10 sec. In this case, two additional values
are considered which are 5 sec, 20 sec, and 100 sec. The simulation results
are shown in Fig. 4.24.
It is clear from the results that increasing the inertia reduces the
magnitudes of the speed oscillations; however, the frequency and the settling
time of the speed oscillations increase. This is attributed to the increase in the
K.E stored in the rotating system with the increase of the inertia constant.
This means that the energy needed to alter the speed of the generator.
Consequently, the amplitude decreased with the increase in the inertia while
restoration of the normal K.E takes more time, which results in increasing the
settling time and reducing the frequency of the speed oscillations.
From the power angle deviations point of view and considering the
increase in the rotor K.E energy with increase in the inertia, it is clear that the
increase of the inertia increases the amplitudes of the angle oscillations. In
addition, the settling time is increased and the frequency of the angle
oscillations is reduced. Same comments can be given to the electrical power
due to its tight relation to the power angle.
Although the increase of the inertia constant causes some drawbacks
such as a reduction in the frequency of oscillations and increase of the
settling time, the speed (or the frequency) deviations are reduced. This is of
great importance in keeping the system synchronized. Therefore, with higher
inertia, a disturbance is unlikely to move the system to the extremes state in
comparison with a system with lower inertia.
From the damping power point of view and considering the impact of
increase the inertia on the speed deviations, higher initial amplitudes of the
damping power are available with lower inertia values. This is because the
damping power is directly proportional to the speed deviations. Therefore,
increasing the damping ratio of low inertia generators can be a good measure
for enhancing its stability. This is can be achieved via Power System
Stabilizers (PSS) for the conventional synchronous machines or generally
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
12
M. Mandour, M. EL-Shimy, F. Bendary, and W. Ibrahim, “Damping of Power Systems
Oscillations using FACTS Power Oscillation Damper – Design and Performance
Analysis”, 16th International Middle East Power Systems Conference (MEPCON’14),
Dec. 23-25, 2014, Cairo, Egypt, pp. 1- 8.
13
M. Mandour, M. EL-Shimy, F. Bendary, W.M. Mansour. Impact of Wind Power on
Power System Stability and Oscillation Damping Controller Design. Industry Academia
Collaboration (IAC) Conference, 2015, Energy and sustainable development Track, Apr. 6
– 8, 2015, Cairo, Egypt
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Case #4: In this example the impact of the grid coupling strength on
the performance of the SMIB system is considered. The grid coupling
strength is inversely proportional to the value of the network connecting the
generator to the infinite bus. In the considered simplified model, the
equivalent reactance network is the external reactance (xe). If xe is small, then
strong coupling is achieved while high value of xe is referred to weak
coupling. With the SMIB system data as given in case #1, only the external
reactance is given some new values. These considered values are 0.1 p.u, 0.4
p.u (the original value), 0.7 p.u, and 1.0 p.u. Consequently, the values of the
initial power angle, the transient emf, and the synchronizing power are
changed. Table 4.2 lists these values for various values of the external
reactance. These values are shown in Fig. 4.25 and the simulation results are
shown in Fig. 4.26.
The changes shown in Table 4.2 and Fig. 4.25 reveal some important
stability and operational issues. Fig. 4.25(b) shows a general shape of the
synchronizing power and transient power functions. This figure shows that
increasing the electrical power is associated with an increase in the power
angle and a decrease in the synchronizing power. In addition, Table 4.2
shows that increasing the external reactance results in a decrease in the
synchronizing power. Therefore, the synchronizing power decrease with
either an increase in the generator loading or decrease in the network
coupling strength or both of them. Actually, Fig. 4.25(b) shows that the
increase in the external reactance simultaneously increases the power angle
and decreases the synchronizing power. As previously stated and also shown
in Fig. 4.26, better transients are associated with higher synchronizing power.
The phrase better refers to lower the amplitude of oscillations, and settling
time. For example, in Fig. 4.26, the increase in the external reactance which
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Fig. 4.25: Impact of the external reactance on the variables and stability
SMIB system
Fig. 4.25(b) also shows that increasing the external reactance requires a
significant increase in the transient emf (the steady state emf also should be
increased as shown in Table 4.1). This required increase in the emfs
mandates an increase in the design rating of the generator excitation system.
In addition, for a given design, increasing the emf reduces the active power
production capability. This is because the active and reactive power of a
generator are dependent quantities and related to the generator MVA rating
by . From a practical point of view, the reactive power needed
for compensating long lines is not only provided by the centralized
generators. Instead, distributed reactive power compensators are installed
along the long lines for reactive power support, voltage control, and voltage
stability enhancement.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Case #5: The given linearized model can be used for representing
some other disturbances such as a sudden permanent disconnection of a
line. Consider the SMIB system shown in Fig. 4.27 in which two lines
connect the generator to the infinite bus. The generator normal frequency is
50-Hz generator and having an inertia constant M = 2H = 20 sec. The
transient reactance equals to 0.3 p.u. The generator is connected to the
infinite bus through a purely reactive circuit with XT = 0.2 p.u., and XL = 0.4
p.u. The generator is delivering power of 0.6 p.u at 0.8 lagging power factor
to the infinite bus at 1.0 p.u voltage. The p.u damping coefficient is assumed
to be 0.10. In this example, it is assumed that the line outage disturbance is
small enough for the linearized model to be valid.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
E 'V
P I sin Pmax
I I
sin
X 12
The pre-outage (I) system reactance = X d X 12
'I I
2 2
P I Q I
E o X 12
'
V o X 12
V V
PI = 1.97 sin
II
The post-outage reactance = X 12 = 0.9 p.u.
The post-outage approximated transient power angle
characteristics is then:
E 'V
P II sin Pmax
II II
sin = 1.53 sin
X 12
Pmo P I P II oI
Pmax
I
sin oI Pmax
II
sin oI
From a physical point of view, the line outage causes an increase in xe.
Therefore, the final steady state angle is expected to be high in comparison
with the initial steady state angle. The response verifies this issue. In
addition, the sudden increase in xe causes sudden decrease in the electrical
loading on the generator. Consequently, it is expected that the frequency will
increase just after the line outage.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
1 f
o Pm Ps D (4.35)
s Hs
1 f
o Pm Ps Ds (4.36)
s Hs
f o D f o Ps f o
s 2 ( ) s( ) ( ) Pm (4.37)
H H H
f o D f o Ps
s2 s 0 (4.38)
H H
Equation (4.38) is similar to the standard 2nd order differential equation of the
general form:
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
s 2 2 n s n2 0 (4.39)
f o
n Ps (4.40)
H
D f o
(4.41)
2 HPs
x Ax (4.42)
Considering the SMIB system shown in Fig. 4.33, suppose that the breakers
of one of the transmission circuits open and close quickly. As previously
described, the disturbance is equivalent to a small deviation in the power
angle from the initial operating point o i.e.
= o + (4.43)
Fig. 4.33: SMIB system for the analysis of the zero-input response
d 2 d
2
2 n n2 0 (4.44)
dt dt
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
s 2 2 n s n2 0 (4.45)
The roots of the characteristic equation 1,2 (which are the eigenvalues of the
state matrix A) are given by:
1, 2 n n 2 1 (4.46)
= j (4.47)
Case 1: 1 2 and both are real. This is case occurs when 2 > 1. The
general solution in this case is
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
d (t )
(0) 0 and (0) 0 (4.49)
dt t 0
Therefore, (4.47) becomes:
(t )
o
2 1
2 e 1t 1e 2t (4.50)
(i) 1 > 0 and 2 > 0. In this case, as shown in eq. (4.50), the
time domain (TD) response is a rising exponent with time
constant = 1/ as shown in Fig. 4.35. This situation, of
course, is corresponding to an unstable response.
(ii) 1 < 0 and 2 < 0. In this case, as shown in eq. (50), the time
domain (TD) response is a falling exponent with time
constant = -1/ as shown in Fig. 4.36. This situation, of
course, is corresponding to a stable response.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
(t ) e t A1 A2t (4.51)
Using (4.51) to find the constants A1 and A2. Then the solution
becomes:
(t ) e t o 1 t (4.52)
1, 2 n j d (4.53)
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
d n 1 2 (4.54)
o
(t ) e nt sin( d t ) (4.55)
1 2
1
(4.56)
n
n o
(t ) e nt sin( d t ) (4.57)
1 2
The stability of the system in this case is governed by the signs of the
real parts of the eigenvalues according to the following situations.
(i) i > 0 and 0. The time domain response of this situation
is harmonic oscillations with exponentially rising amplitude
(i.e. unstable response) as shown in Fig. 4.37.
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Demonstrating problem
The reader may use the following data for applying the time domain
solutions.
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b) The data for the system of Fig. 33 are: fo = 50 Hz. H = 9.95 sec. x’d =
0.30 p.u. xe = 0.40 p.u. V = 1.0 p.u. D = 0.15. Consider a small disturbance
o = 10o. It is required to plot the response (t) and (t) for various
values of the active power delivered to the infinite bus form, say zero to 0.95
Pmax. Also, plot the functions P(), Ps(), , n(). Assume that E’ = 1.4
p.u. is kept constant for all load values. Analyze the results.
d 2 d f o
2n n
2
Pm u (4.58)
dt 2 dt H
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
The TD solutions of the s-space solutions (i.e. eq. (62) and (63)) take the
forms,
f o Pm 1
(t ) 1 e n t
sin d
t (4.64)
H n2 1 2
and
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
f o Pm
(t ) e nt sin d t (4.65)
H n 1 2
Demonstrating problem
The reader may use the following data for applying the time domain
solutions. A 50-Hz generator having inertia constant M = 20 sec and a
transient reactance of 0.3 p.u is connected to an infinite bus through a purely
reactive circuit shown in Fig. 4.42. With XT = 0.2 p.u., and XL = 0.4 p.u. The
generator is delivering power of 0.6 p.u at 0.8 lagging power factor to the
infinite bus at 1.0 p.u voltage. Assume a per unit damping power coefficient
is 0.14. While the system is operating under steady state condition, the
breakers of one of the lines are suddenly open and remain open. Assuming
the initial power imbalance caused by the disturbance is small enough to
utilize linearized system equations, and assume that the transient emf E’
remains constant at prefault value. Obtain and plot the functions describing
the motion of the rotor i.e .(t) and f(t).
E 'V
P I sin Pmax
I I
sin = 1.97 sin
X 12
The initial operating angle = oI sin1 Po Pmax
I
= 17.732 o = 0.309485 rad.
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The post-disturbance approximated transient power-angle characteristics take the
form,
E 'V
P II sin Pmax
II II
sin = 1.53 sin
X 12
The pre- and post-disturbance characteristics are shown in Fig. 4.43.
Pmo P I P II oI
Pmax
I
sin oI Pmax
II
sin oI 0.1340 p.u
Since the system dynamics occurs along the post-disturbance power angle
characteristics. Then, the synchronizing power is calculated as:
Ps Pmax
II
cos oI = 1.457 p.u.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
1. Stable if the real part of all eigenvalues are negative i.e. all eigenvalues
are on the left-half complex plane , j.
2. Unstable if the real part of at least one of the eigenvalues is positive i.e.
at least one of the eigenvalues is on the right-half complex plane , j.
3. Bifurcation o if the real part of at least one of the eigenvalues is zero
i.e. at least one of the eigenvalues lies on the imaginary axis complex plane
, j.
14
Demello, F. P., & Concordia, C. (1969). Concepts of synchronous machine stability as
affected by excitation control. IEEE Transactions on power apparatus and systems, 88(4),
316-329.
15
Kundur, P. (1994). Power system stability and control (Vol. 7). N. J. Balu, & M. G.
Lauby (Eds.). New York: McGraw-hill.
16
Rogers, G. (2012). Power system oscillations. Springer Science & Business Media.
17
Padiyar KR. Power System Dynamics: Stability and Control: Anshan; 2004.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Given the stated assumptions, the machine model becomes a third order
model instead of a second order model. The additional differential equation
describes the field circuit dynamics. This model is as follows.
or
or
18
Kundur, P. ‘Chapter 5: Simplifications essential for large-scale studies – example 5.1’
in: ). Power system stability and control (Vol. 7). N. J. Balu, & M. G. Lauby (Eds.). New
York: McGraw-hill.
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Note that the generator field voltage (Efd) equals to 1.0 p.u for 1.0 p.u
terminal voltage at open circuit conditions (i.e. on the air gap line). The
linearized form of this model is defined by the Heffron-Phillips Constants as
follows,
The block diagram representing the linearized model of the SMIB system
with field circuit dynamics included is shown in Fig. 4.45. As shown in the
figure, additional control systems can be included. These control systems
include the prime mover and the excitation control systems as well as
additional stabilization controls. In addition, the model can now simulate the
machine terminal voltage.
The equations representing these constant can be found through the
linearization of the machine model represented by equations (4.67) to (4.75).
In order to do so, linearization of equations (4.67), (4.68-a), (4.69-a), (4.71)
to (4.75) are prepared as they will be needed during the derivation of the K-
constants.
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Fig. 4.45: Block diagram representing the linearized model of the SMIB
system with field circuit dynamics included with approximate modeling of
the machine damping (i.e. damper windings, eddy currents, electrical losses,
friction, and windage)
Equation (4.67):
Equation (4.68-a):
Equation (4.69-a):
Equation (4.71):
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Equation (4.72):
Equation (4.73):
Equation (4.74):
Equation (4.75):
Based on (4.82),
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Substituting (4.89) and (4.90) in (4.88) and considering (4.87), results in:
Based on (4.82):
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
It is clear that K3 represents the impedance factor that correlates the steady
state and transient reactances while K4 represents the demagnetizing effect of
change in rotor angle i.e. armature reaction as it is negative emf that oppose
the transient emf that corresponding to Efd.
Based on (4.78), the constants K5 and K6 are defined as follows.
The values of K1, K2, K3, K4, and K6 are usually positive while the
value of K5 is usually negative. In fact, the increase in the machine active
power loading (in other words, the increase in the machine power angle,
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
reduces the terminal voltage) while the increase in the transient emf increases
the terminal voltage. Given that . Therefore, the
negative value of K5 and the positive value of K6 are expectable.
The required initial conditions for estimating the K-constants are: EQo, Vo,
o, Vtdo, Vtqo, and Vto. These variables are determined based on the
mathematical models presented in Appendix 1. The value of Vo is supposed
to be a known quantity as it is the infinite bus voltage magnitude while the
other variable can be estimated as follows.
2 2
P Q
EQo o X q V o o X q (4.102)
V o Vo
(Po /V o )X q
tan (4.103)
V o (Qo /V o )X q
2 2
P Q
V to o X e V o o X e (4.105)
V o Vo
(Po /V o )X e
tan eo (4.108)
V o (Qo /V o )X e
With the field circuit dynamics neglected (i.e. the classical model), Ps and
the natural frequency of oscillations are given by,
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or
Therefore,
Equation (4.113) shows that at steady state (i.e. s 0), the synchronizing
power coefficient is reduced by ( ) with the field circuit dynamics
included in comparison with the classical model. This reduction is due to the
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction. The reduction in Ps is expected to
have a negative impact on the settling time and the frequency of oscillations.
Since the values of K1, K2, and K3 are usually positive, then it is possible to
say that the due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction adds a
positive damping (DAR). This can be easily seen by replacing s by j in
(4.112) and decomposing the resulting equation into real and imaginary parts.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Note: that if o is represented in p.u (i.e. equals to 1.0 p.u), then D = Kd.
Example
Simulation and analysis of the linearized model of the SMIB system
considering field circuit dynamics
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
and inertia constants are represented in seconds. The system data are typical
values of generators in nuclear power plants19.
The steady state initial conditions and the K-constants as well as some
other parameters are consequently determined using the presented model.
Their values of the K-constants are,
The main objective of this example is to show the effect armature reaction
damping. Since D is set to zero, the performance of the classical model was –
19
http://mkpalconsulting.com/
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
1. A step decrease in the mechanical power of 10% (Fig. 4.48 and 4.49)
as an example of the forced response of the system due to sudden change in
the load.
2. A step decrease in the field voltage of 10% (Fig. 4.50 and 4.51) as an
example of the forced response of the system due to sudden change in the
field voltage caused by a very fast acting excitation regulator, and
3. A sudden change in the power angle by 10 o (Fig. 4.52 and 4.53) as an
example of the zero-input response of the system due to sudden change in the
network topology.
All simulations show clearly the damping effect of the field circuit
dynamics. The model can provide many other simulations and analysis that
may be implemented by the interested readers.
Fig. 4.48: Linearized response of the SMIB system for Pm = -10%
considering field circuit dynamics
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Fig. 4.49: Linearized response of the SMIB system for Pm = -10%
considering field circuit dynamics – the electrical power components
Fig. 4.50: Linearized response of the SMIB system for Efd = -10%
considering field circuit dynamics
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Fig. 4.51: Linearized response of the SMIB system for Efd = -10%
considering field circuit dynamics – the electrical power components
Fig. 4.52: Linearized response of the SMIB system for o = 10o
considering field circuit dynamics
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Fig. 4.53: Linearized response of the SMIB system for o = 10o
considering field circuit dynamics – the electrical power components
4.6 Including AER and PSS in the linearized third-order model of the
SMIB system
As stated in Appendix 1, an excitation system and an excitation control
system are a combination of devices designed to generate a field current and
control it by means of Automatic Excitation Regulators (AER) which is also
called Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR). An excitation control system is
composed of three main components. These components are the field
winding, exciter (i.e. a DC power source), and a regulator (AER or AVR).
The AER controls the value of Efd as shown in Fig. 4.54. The regulator is
nonlinear due to the presence of the Efd limiter.
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The excitation control system model can be integrated with the 3 rd order
linearized model of the machine as shown in Fig. 4.55.
Fig. 4.55: SMIB 3rd order linearized machine model with excitation
control
4.55; however, the interested reader may refer, for example, to Kundur’s
textbook20.
Example
Simulation and analysis of the linearized model of the SMIB system with
excitation control system
With the gain of G(s) is set to zero, the effect of the excitation control
system is deactivated. In this case, the effect of the effect of the field circuit
dynamics is considered as shown in Fig. 4.47. In this example, it is assumed
that the terminal voltage regulator is fast enough for neglecting the time delay
effect of its time constant (TR). In addition, it is assumed that the capacity of
the AER is large enough for neglecting the AER output limiter; consequently,
the AER becomes a linear network. A fast acting excitation control system
with a time constant TA = 0.1 sec and gain KA = 50 (i.e. high gain) is
considered. Proper selection of the gain KA is usually based on a stability
criterion for the AVR loop21. A sudden decrease of 10% in the mechanical
power input is considered as a disturbance. The effect of the excitation
control system on the system damping in comparison with the unregulated
system is investigated considering the mentioned gain (KA = 50) and a gain
KA of a zero value. The simulations of the system with each of the mentioned
gains are performed. The Simulink model is shown in Fig. 4.56 while the
results are shown in Fig. 4.57. The yellow lines are corresponding to the KA =
50 while the other lines are corresponding to the KA = 0. It is clear from the
20
Kundur, P. (1994). Power system stability and control (Vol. 7). N. J. Balu, & M. G.
Lauby (Eds.). New York: McGraw-hill.
21
Elgard, O. I. (1982). Electric energy systems theory. New YorkMc Graw-Hill.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
results that the considered AVR significantly reduces the system damping
and causes instability due to negatively damped oscillations.
Time (s)
Fig. 4.57: Effect of the excitation system control in comparison with the
unregulated system
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Reducing the AER gain improves the stability. This is shown in Fig. 58
with KA = 30 (yellow lines) and KA = 10. In both situations, the system is
stable; however, the stability suffers from two issues: (1) The steady state
error in the terminal voltage is high and its value is increased with the
increase in the gain KA.; (2) The settling time of the oscillations is also high.
Therefore, the stabilization gain (or damping enhancement) caused by the
reduction of the AER gain is counteracted by the high steady state errors and
the long settling time.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
The impact of the gain KA can be demonstrated and explained using the
root locus of the system which is shown in Fig. 4.59. Fig. 4.59(a) shows the
full root locus of the system while Fig. 4.59(b) shows the root locus focused
near the imaginary axis for gain selection purposes.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.59: Root locus of the regulated SMIB with AER – the effect of
AER gain on stability and performance; (a) Full view; (b) Zoomed view
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
It is clear from the figure that the critical value of the gain is 42.9 at which
the system is critically stable. Higher values of the gain result in system
instability while with lower values the system is stable but its damping is
poor. Appendix 2 provides an overview of the extraction of linear transfer
from a Simulink model and the linearized analysis of transfer function as well
as gain selection based on the root locus analysis.
frequency change. The output limiter prevents the stabilizer output signal
from interfering with the action of the voltage regulator during severe system
disturbances.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.60: AER with PSS supplied from the speed deviation; (a) general
block diagram; (b) the PSS details are shown
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Example
Simulation and analysis of the linearized model of the SMIB system with
excitation control system and simplified PSS
With an AER gain of 50, the system of Fig. 4.56 shows instabilities due to
the negative damping cause by the high-gain AER. In this example, PSS is
used for system stabilization. The parameters of the PSS in this example are
selected based on the experience; however, the parameters should be
optimized for the best additional damping, performance enhancement, and
stability. A simplified PSS is considered where the transducers and high pass
filters are assumed to be fast enough for their transfer functions to be
neglected. In addition, the effect of the PSS output limiter is neglected. One
stage lead-lag compensator is considered. The parameters of the PSS are
shown in Fig. 4.61 and the system response in comparison with the system
performance without PSS (yellow lines) is shown in Fig. 4.62(a) and the PSS
output is shown in Fig. 4.62(b).
Fig. 4.61: The linearized third-order model of the SMIB system with AER
and PSS
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Although the PSS parameters in this example are roughly estimated (i.e.
they are not well tuned) and the PSS model is simplified, the results show
that the PSS stabilized the system even if the AER gain is too high (caused
instability without the PSS). Better performance can be obtained by PSS
optimized tuning; however, this issue is out of the scope of this chapter.
Time(s)
(a)
Time(s)
(b)
Fig. 4.62: Performance of the linearized third-order model of the SMIB
system with AER and PSS for a sudden drop in the mechanical power by
10% (a) and PSS output (b)
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or
128)
where Po and Qo are the load active and reactive power at the nominal
voltage Vo (usually 1.0 p.u). Kpf and Kqf represents respectively the active and
reactive load sensitivity to frequency variations. The exponents and
represent respectively the load active and reactive power sensitivity to
voltage variations. The coefficients p, p and p represents respectively the
p.u share of constant power, constant current, and constant impedance in the
active power load while the coefficients q, q and q represents the same
quantities for the reactive power load. The relation between these coefficients
is,
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Based on block reduction theory, the block diagram of Fig. 4.64 can be
reduced to Fig. 4.65 which can be represented as shown in Fig. 4.66.
where
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
The time domain (TD) solution of the system is can be then obtained as
follows,
The inverse Laplace can be easily determined by partial fraction and the
use of the Laplace transform table23,24 i.e.
23
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/DE/InverseTransforms.aspx
24
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/DE/Laplace_Table.aspx
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
This function is shown in Fig. 4.69 and the steady state speed deviation is
then,
Fig. 4.69: Speed deviation for a sudden change in the load in governor-
less system
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
For ,
or in p.u
Therefore,
The integration constant can be obtained from the steady state initial
conditions i.e. . Hence, in p.u,
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
There many designs of steam and hydro turbines. Three popular designs
are considered in the following analysis. These designs are non-reheat steam
turbines, reheat steam turbines, and hydro-turbines. Details about these
turbines can be found in Kundur’s textbook. Table 4.3 summarizes the
transfer functions of these turbines as well as the typical values of their
parameters.
25
The model of the reheat steam turbine is applicable to non-reheat steam turbines but the
value of TRH should be set to zero.
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EXAMPLE
LOAD-FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF GENERATOR WITH AN ISOCHRONOUS
GOVERNOR
In this example, the load-frequency response of a generating unit equipped
with an isochronous governor is considered. The non-reheat steam turbine
model shown in Table 4.3 will be simulated. The model shown in Fig. 4.73 is
implemented on the Simulink (Fig. 4.74) and typical parameters are used. For
all models a disturbance of 10% step increase in the load is applied. The
typical parameters of the turbine transfer functions are shown in Table 4.3
while the rest of parameters are: H = 5 sec, Dpf = 1.0 while the impact of the
gain KG is tested by setting its value to 0.035, 0.1, 3.0, and 5.0; the results are
shown respectively in Fig. 4.75 to 4.78.
The results show that with a gain of 0.035, a critically damped response is
achieved. Higher values of the gain result in oscillatory performance while at
a gain of 5.0 the oscillations become unstable. Therefore, proper design of the
gain for a desired load-frequency performance is essential for stable and
satisfactory dynamic performance of the governor. The most important
characteristics of the isochronous governors are that the steady state errors in
the speed (or frequency) are zero. This is due to the reset action of the
integrator, which results in continuous control actions of the governor till the
zero error in the speed is achieved.
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Time (sec)
Fig. 4.75: Performance of a generator with isochronous governor and non-
reheat turbine; KG = 0.035
Time (sec)
Fig. 4.76: Performance of a generator with isochronous governor and non-
reheat turbine; KG = 0.1
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Time (sec)
Fig. 4.77: Performance of a generator with isochronous governor and non-
reheat turbine; KG = 1.0
Time (sec)
Fig. 4.78: Performance of a generator with isochronous governor and non-
reheat turbine; KG = 3.0
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Time (sec)
Fig. 4.79: Performance of a generator with isochronous governor and non-
reheat turbine; KG = 5.0
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Example
Load-frequency response of generator with a speed-droop governor
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4.80: Droop Governors; (a) Block diagram of a generator with a
droop governor; (b) Generator with a droop governor model for load-
frequency response; (c) Reduced block diagram model of the governor
( )
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Fig. 4.82: Simulink model of a generator with a droop governor and non-
reheat steam turbine
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Time (sec)
Fig. 4.83: Performance of a generator with a droop governor and non-
reheat steam turbine; KG = 0.035
Time (sec)
Fig. 4.84: Performance of a generator with a droop governor and non-
reheat steam turbine; KG = 1.0
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27
WECC Control Work Group. WECC Tutorial on Speed Governors. Une 20002. WECC.
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The load sharing between generators can also be provided by the droop
governors and the speed-changers. If two generating units operating in
parallel for supplying a load and both of them equipped with isochronous
governors with a very slight difference in their speed settings (design
parameter), then one of the units will try to carry the entire load and the other
will shed all of its output. Therefore, neither load sharing nor control of
sharing is possible when units operating in parallel have isochronous
governors. This is can also be explained by considering two isochronous
units coupled together on the same load and the speed settings are not the
same.. Since there cannot be two different speeds (or frequencies) on one
system, one unit will have to decrease its actual speed and the other unit will
have to increase its actual speed to an average speed between the two units.
The governor on the unit that decreased speed will move to increase steam to
try to correct for the decrease in speed, and the governor on the other unit that
increased speed will move to decrease the steam to try to correct for the
increase in speed. The result will be that the unit with the higher speed setting
will continue to take all of the load until it reaches its power limit, and the
other unit will shed all of its power and become motored (driven by the other
unit). Therefore, the system will become unbalanced when isochronous units
coupled together. Consequently, in the power generation system, only one
generator can be equipped with an isochronous governor while the rest of
generators are to be equipped with droop governors.
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With droop governors, the load sharing is possible as shown in Fig. 4.86.
As shown, the governors will share the load increase (P) at a lower common
frequency value. This new frequency is defined by
while P= P1+P2. The system frequency can be restored by adjusting the
speed changers (or the reference power settings). Consequently, the speed-
power relation is changed such that the frequency is restored.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4.87: Droop Governors; (a) Block diagram of a generator with a
droop governor and load reference control; (b) Generator with a droop
governor model and load reference control for load-frequency response; (c)
Reduced block diagram model of the governor with the load reference control
( )
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Example
Load-frequency response of generator with a speed-droop governor and
load reference control
increased by 10%, the positive steady state frequency error is appeared with
both values of KG. The solution to this issue is demonstrated in the next
example.
Fig. 4.88: Simulink model of a generator with a droop governor and load
reference control with non-reheat steam turbine
Example
Load-frequency response of generator with a speed-droop governor and
load reference control – AGC for restoring system frequency
system operates in an AGC mode for restoring the system frequency. The
simulink model of the system is shown in Fig. 4.91 while the results are
shown in Fig. 4.92 and 4.93.
Fig. 4.91: Simulink model of a generator with a droop governor and load
reference control with non-reheat steam turbine – AGC mode
Time (sec)
Fig. 92: Performance of a generator with a droop governor and load
reference control with non-reheat steam turbine – AGC mode; KG = 0.035
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It is clear from the results that the proper load reference control reduces
the speed error signals to zero and also enhances the overall dynamic
performance of the system.
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Chapter 5
Measurement-based SMIB Equivalence of Multi-
Machine Systems AND Transient Stability
5.1 INTRODUCTION
It can be seen from Fig. 4.1 that a system subjected to a disturbance reacts
to that disturbance by frequency dynamics. The system frequency is then the
average of the frequency of individual generator in the system. Just after a
disturbance, the system frequency dynamics (Fig. 4.1) can be characterized
by two quantities; the frequency gradient ((df/dt), and the frequency
deviation.
In the previous chapter, the linearized modeling and simulation of
various components and controllers in the SMIB system (Fig. 4.7 or 4.27) is
presented. The model of Fig. 4.55 represents a synchronous machine and an
AER. In that model, the synchronous machine is represented by the third-
order linearized model i.e. the field circuit electromagnetic dynamics are
considered. The PSS model is represented by Fig. 4.60 while the droop
governor model with load reference control is represented by Fig. 4.87. The
AGC supplementary control for restoring the system frequency is represented
in Fig. 4.91. The stated models represented the overall structure of the SMIB
system with machine controls included. This overall model is shown in Fig.
5.1.
In this section, this model is simulated considering various levels of
modeling details. The main objective is to investigate the impact of the
dynamic response of various components in the SMIB system on the
frequency dynamics of the system. The changes in the frequency gradient and
frequency deviations are the main focus. This is because the values of these
quantities will be shown to have a major impact on the measurement-based
equivalence that will be presented in this chapter. A secondary objective of
the considered simulations includes a more clear understanding of power
system dynamics and their governing issues.
The parameters of the considered system and main variables of the
considered system are given as follows such that the reactances, voltages, and
power values are represented in p.u while the time and inertia constants are
represented in seconds.
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Fig. 5.1: The linearized 3rd order model of the SMIB system with various
controllers included.
Generator data:
The steady state initial conditions and the K-constants as well as some
other parameters are consequently determined using the presented model.
Their values of the K-constants are,
The most important conclusion that can be easily depicted from the results
is that the characteristics of the initial frequency dynamics are the same
regardless of the modeling details as well as the available controllers. In all
cases, the initial frequency gradient, deviation, and nadir are the same. This
can be easily explained based on the fundamentals given in the previous
chapter. At the beginning of the transient process, the system dynamics are
dependent mainly on the system inertia. This is because the changes in the
electrical power response are instantaneous (Fig. 5.3(b)); the electromagnetic
transient causes by, for example, the machine’s field circuit dynamics and the
other dynamics caused by various controllers are inherently suffering from
time delays.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.3: Frequency and electrical power transients for various cases
shown in Table 5.1
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El-Shimy, M. (2015). Stability-based minimization of load shedding in weakly
interconnected systems for real-time applications. International Journal of Electrical
Power & Energy Systems, 70, 99-107.
29
Tsai, S. J., Zhang, L., Phadke, A. G., Liu, Y., Ingram, M. R., Bell, S. C., ... & Tang, L.
(2007). Frequency sensitivity and electromechanical propagation simulation study in large
power systems. Circuits and Systems I: Regular Papers, IEEE Transactions on, 54(8),
1819-1828.
30
Wall, P., González-Longatt, F., & Terzija, V. (2010, August). Demonstration of an
inertia constant estimation method through simulation. In Universities Power Engineering
Conference (UPEC), 2010 45th International (pp. 1-6). IEEE.
31
Chassin, D. P., Huang, Z., Donnelly, M. K., Hassler, C., Ramirez, E., & Ray, C. (2005).
Estimation of WECC system inertia using observed frequency transients. Power Systems,
IEEE Transactions on, 20(2), 1190-1192.
32
Zhang, Y., Bank, J., Wan, Y. H., Muljadi, E., & Corbus, D. (2013). Synchrophasor
Measurement-Based Wind Plant Inertia Estimation: Preprint (No. NREL/CP-5500-
57471). National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO..
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samples per second for 50 Hz systems and 2880 samples per second for 60Hz
systems. Therefore, the changes in the mechanical power in a sampling
duration t can be neglected. This is due to the relatively slow mechanical
system dynamics in comparison with electromechanical and electromagnetic
dynamics. In addition, the changes in the rotor speed during are small enough
for the PD = D to be neglected. Just after a disturbance, typical inertial and
frequency responses of power systems (Fig. 5.3) are initially governed by the
system inertia as demonstrated in the previous examples. Therefore, the
measurements used for estimating the inertia of the system should be just
after a disturbance (i.e. at to+ where to is the disturbance instant).
Consequently, for a small sampling time of measurements ( t), the inertia
constant M can be estimated at the location of measurements using,
In (5.2), the power and frequency are in p.u while the inertia constant and
the time are in seconds.
The buses at which the tie-link is connected are called the interface buses.
These buses are required to be equipped with WAM devices for online
measurement of the voltage phasors at the interface buses via PMUs,
frequency, and tie-line active and reactive power values. Either area 1 or area
2 may be considered as the study area (SA) while the other one is considered
as the external area (EA). In the following modeling and analysis, the
equivalency of both areas will be considered. The objective is the
minimization of the dynamic order of the overall interconnected systems for
dynamic security studies that will be considered in later in this book. It is
assumed that the generators of each area are coherent. Therefore, their
electromechanical aggregation is feasible. In this chapter, only conventional
sources are considered while various renewable resources will be considered
later in this book.
The equivalency approach is based on two stages both of them is based on
online synchronized measurements of the frequency, voltage phasors and tie-
line power flow. The first stage as shown in Fig. 5.5, involves the estimation
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of the equivalent inertia at the interface buses while the second stage (Fig.
5.6) involves the estimation of the electrical parameters of the equivalent
generator of each area.
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estimating the equivalent inertia. Since the inertia estimation is based solely
on measurements, the internal structure of the considered area is not required
and the area can be considered as a black-box. Therefore, the method is
general and can be applied to any mix of generating technologies as well as
large areas. This kind of flexibility cannot be provided with traditional
methods of equivalency which are mainly based on system data sets. For the
purpose of the estimation of the inertia at a specific interface bus, equation
(5.2) is to be used.
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33
Chow, J. H. (2013). Power system coherency and model reduction. London: Springer.
34
Chow, J. H., Chakrabortty, A., Vanfretti, L., & Arcak, M. (2008). Estimation of radial
power system transfer path dynamic parameters using synchronized phasor data. Power
Systems, IEEE Transactions on, 23(2), 564-571.
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where Pmax is the maximum power across the interconnection; Pg1 and Pg2
are respectively the power production of the equivalent generators of area 1
and area 2 respectively; Pd1 and Pd2 are the equivalent active power demands
on area 1 and area 2 respectively; 12 is the phase angle difference across the
interconnection which is equal to 1 - 2. Therefore, the swing equation at
each interface bus and the equation of the relative motion can be represented
by,
Therefore,
35
El-Shimy, M. (2015). Stability-based minimization of load shedding in weakly
interconnected systems for real-time applications. International Journal of Electrical
Power & Energy Systems, 70, 99-107
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where
It is clear from eq. (5.17) that a drop in Pg2 increases the equivalent power
(Peq) by M1/(M1+M2) while a reduction in Pd2 reduces Peq by M1/(M1+M2).
Therefore, changes of Pg2 and Pd2 have opposite impact on the value of Peq
but its sensitivity to both of them is the same. This is also applicable to the
impact of the changes in Pg1 and Pd1 on Peq; however, a drop in Pg1 reduces
Peq and a drop in Pd1 increases Peq. In this case the sensitivity factor is
M2/(M1+M2). As a direct application of the SMIB equivalence in security
analysis is the estimation of the maximum sudden drop in the power
generation Pg2. In addition, the presented model can be used to determine
corrective actions such as the minimum amount of load shedding for ensuring
the stability of the system if the drop in the generation is higher than the
maximum limit. The validity of this analysis as well as the entire equivalency
approach and the efficiency of the EAC in assessing the stability of the
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36
Kundur, P., Paserba, J., Ajjarapu, V., Andersson, G., Bose, A., Canizares, C., ... &
Vittal, V. (2004). Definition and classification of power system stability IEEE/CIGRE
joint task force on stability terms and definitions. Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on,
19(3), 1387-1401.
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(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 5.9: Stability conditions; (a) Stable transients; (b) Unstable transients;
(c) Critically stable transients (sustained transients)
defined for the power system under study”. For example, the steady-state
acceptable operating points of an unregulated non-salient pole synchronous
generator connected to an infinite bus (see Appendix 1) are shown in Fig.
5.11; as illustrated, an increase in the mechanical power must be associated
with an increase of the power angle for stable operation. Therefore, the left-
hand side of the power-angle curve with respect to the 90o power angle is
stable while the other side is unstable.
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The EAC37 ,38 is a graphical method for fast assessment of the transient
stability and possibly fast analysis of the feasibility of some corrective
37
Kimbark, E. W. (1995). Power system stability (Vol. 1). John Wiley & Sons.
38
Venikov, V. A. (1977). Transient processes in electrical power systems. Mir Publishers.
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actions. The method is traditionally used in the analysis of the SMIB system
or two generators. In addition, the method suffers from oversimplifications
such as classical modeling of synchronous generators with damping
neglected; however, this issue is not critical if the method is used for
assessing the first stage of the transient process (also called first swing
stability). In addition, methods for enhancing the EAC modeling are
constructed as will be shown in this section. This scope of stability analysis is
shown to be indicative about the transient stability, but not sufficient under
some conditions. The possibility to produce high quality equivalent models
of power systems and the possibility, for a given large disturbance, to model
a large scale power system by only two machines, extend the applications of
the EAC to cover real power system sizes. For example, if a group of
considered generators connected to a large system through weak link(s) (i.e.
long transmission line(s)), then the study system can be transformed to SMIB
if the group of generators shows sufficient coherency level between them. In
another situation, if two groups of generators tied through weak link(s), the
overall system can be represented by two generators given that each group
show sufficient coherency between its generators. These situations will be
clearly presented in this book. It is worthy to me mentioned that the
equivalences presented in this book are independent on a specific
disturbance.
The Extended Equal Area Criterion (EEAC) is another well-known
method for the Single Machine Equivalence (SME) of power systems;
however, the produced equivalence is dependent on a specific disturbance or
a set of disturbances. The MSE using the EEAC method can be determined
based on classical dataset approaches or using online measurements. The core
idea of the EEAC is based on the fact that regardless of the system size, the
mechanism of loss of synchronism originates from the irrevocable separation
of the system machines into two groups: critical machines, which comprise
the units responsible for the loss of synchronism; and noncritical generators,
that is, the remaining machines. Accordingly, when analyzing an unstable
situation, the SME procedure starts with the identification of the critical
group of machines as soon as the system enters the postfault phase.
Therefore, the EEAC equivalence approach gathers temporal information
about the system dynamics. An equivalent two machine system is then
constructed such each group of machines are s reduced to one machine. Then
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the two machine equivalent system is reduced to the SMIB system by the
Kimbark’s method. Originally the EEAC is based on datasets and
mathematical modeling of various components in the detailed system while
its recent applications are based on on-line measurements.
Suppose the system of Fig. 5.8 is operating in the steady state delivering a
power of Po at an angle of 0. This is operating point a in Fig. 5.13. The
initial power Po equals to the mechanical power input Pm. Due to malfunction
of the line, its circuit breakers open reducing the real power transferred to
zero. This is also equivalent to a temporary 3-phase to ground short-circuit at
the generator terminals. Consequently, the generator power-angle relation
becomes zero instead of the initial relation Pe = Pmax sin . This is illustrated
in Fig. 5.13. Due to its inertia, the speed of the rotor cannot be changed
suddenly i.e. = d/dt = 0 at the instant of the fault. Therefore, the
transition from the initial power-angle curve to the new power-angle relation
is done with constant power angle i.e. vertical transition a b. At point b,
due to the power imbalance between the electrical and mechanical power, the
speed of the generator starts to change. Since, the mechanical power is higher
than the electrical power, the generator accelerates i.e. gaining kinetic energy
(KE); the accelerating power Pa becomes equal to Pm; which gives rise to the
rate of change of stored kinetic energy in the rotor masses. Therefore, the
rotor will accelerate under the constant influence of non-zero accelerating
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power (equals to Pm) and hence the load angle will increase in a continuous
manner. Consequently, the operating point moves from b toward c.
Now suppose the circuit breaker re-closes at an angle cl (point c). The
power will then revert back to the normal operating curve. Therefore, the
operating point moves suddenly from c to e. At point e, the electrical power
will be more than the mechanical power and the accelerating power will be
negative i.e. it becomes decelerating power. This will cause the machine to
decelerate; however, due to the inertia of the rotor masses, the load angle will
still keep on increasing along the path e f. The increase in this angle may
eventually stop if the rotor losses the excess KE during the acceleration stage.
This is shown at point f where the rotor is at higher KE with respect to
normal KE at the synchronous speed but at that point the KE gained due to
the inertia of the generator is lost and the rotor starts to decelerate to move
back along the f e d a path. When the rotor reaches point a, its speed
equals to the synchronous speed but also due to its inertia, the rotor continue
to decelerate and moves along the path a 0 while it is subjected to
accelerating power as Pm > Pe. This action continue till the rotor starts to
accelerate again. The rotor in this case oscillate around point a (which is the
post-disturbance steady state operating point) and settles at that point again
after a period of oscillations (Fig. 5.14).
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It can be easily depicted from Fig. 5.13 that the stable situation is limited
by a rotor angle cr after which the subsequent operating points are associated
with acceleration (Pm > Pe) rather than deceleration. The possible
deceleration region (dehd) defines the maximum acceleration energy gain
which can be absorbed by the system without causing loss of synchronism
i.e. without causing instability. Otherwise, the system will be unstable. The
KE gain due to the considered disturbance will be shown to be proportional
to the area abcda. Note that,
d d d d
2 2
2 2 (5.18)
dt dt dt dt
H d d d
2
Pmo Pe (5.19)
f o dt dt dt
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2
H d
f o dt
Pmo Pe d (5.20)
0 0
cl
A1 Aacc Pmo 0d 0 (5.21)
0
cr
A 2 A possdec Pe Pmo d 0 (5.22)
cl
Let Adec (or A3) be a deceleration area that counteracts the acceleration
area Aacc i.e. Adec = Aacc. If the fault is cleared such that Adec Apossdec, then
the system is stable and the maximum angle of swing is m. In this case, the
difference A = Apossdec – Aacc is considered as the transient stability margin
(Kt); as described by (5.23), it can be used as an indicator of the stability. In
addition, as A increases, the stability is stronger. The value of A can be
used also to study the effect of various factors on the transient stability.
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addition, the maximum angle of swing in this case equals to cr. This is
represented by (5.24) while the general stability criterion is stated by (5.25).
ccl cr
where
For the considered case shown in Fig. 5.13, the critical clearing angle
(CCA) ccl can be determined using (5.24) and the result is,
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d 2 f o
Pmo (5.30)
dt 2 H
d t f o f
Pmo dt o Pmot (5.31)
dt 0 H H
t
f o s
Pmot dt Pmot 2 0 (5.32)
0
H 4H
4H
t 0 (5.33)
s Pmo
4H
t ccl 0 (5.34)
s Pmo ccl
Example 1
Critical clearing and transient simulation of a temporary three phase
fault at the generator terminals
The value of Po is given as 0.9 p.u while the value of V is given as 1.0
p.u. The transient emf is unknown but can be determined using,
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All values in this equation are known except the value of the reactive
power Qo; however, this value can be determined using the measured
terminal voltage phasor. Considering that,
The value of the reactive power injected to the infinite bus is 0.024097
p.u. Consequently, the value of E’ is 1.107584 p.u and its phase angle can be
obtained from,
39
Milano, F., Vanfretti, L., & Morataya, J. C. (2008). An open source power system
virtual laboratory: The PSAT case and experience. Education, IEEE Transactions on,
51(1), 17-23.
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The ID of each shown quantity refers to the clearing time case. It is clear
from the results that the estimated TTC is accurate. The results also reveal
some dynamic characteristics of power systems without considering various
damping providers and impact of controllers. Approaching the CCT results in
an increase in the amplitude of the angle oscillations and reduces their
frequency. This is also shown in the voltage, speed, and active power
responses. Clearing the fault at a time larger than the CCT results in an
unlimited increase in the power angle. The transient voltage performance
shows a voltage collapse when the clearing time is larger than the CCT.
Therefore, the TVS as well as the angle are lost. The active power transients
show a tight relation with the EAC. This is illustrated by the acceleration and
deceleration areas from the power-time prospective. It is clear that the
instability (case 3) is caused by the increase of the acceleration areas in
comparison with the deceleration areas. In addition, in this case, the generator
could not decelerate after the second swing and it continuously accelerates. In
the other cases (i.e. 1 and 2), the acceleration areas are less than the
deceleration areas.
It is also interesting to see the (-) and (Pe-) trajectories for the
considered cases. The results are shown in Fig. 5.21 and 5.22. As shown in
these figures, that the stable cases (i.e. cases 1 and 2) are characterized by
sustained oscillations around the initial steady state operating point. As
shown in Fig. 5.21 and 5.22, the instability is shown as an unlimited increase
in the speed and the outage of the generator power.
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(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 5.21: The - trajectories for various cases
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(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 5.22: The Pe- trajectories for various cases
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(c) Pe-t
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Fig. 5.24: The SMIB system with 3-phase fault on a transmission line
As shown in Fig. 5.25, three stages characterize the fault process each of
which is characterized by a power-angle curve. These curves are:
The pre-fault curve (I); describes the initial power-angle curve of the
system. The operating angle in this case is .
The during-fault curve (II); describes the power-angle characteristics
during the fault i.e. before clearing the faulty line.
The post-fault curve (III); describes the power-angle characteristics
after clearing the fault. If the system is stable, then the final steady state
operating angle is . Otherwise, the system will
not reach a post-fault steady-state equilibrium point due to its instability.
The figures also show the stable and unstable conditions from the P- and
P-t prospective.
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(a) Stable conditions; P- domain (b) Stable conditions; P-t domain
The three curves are modeled by the same equation which is the
approximate transient power-angle characteristics; however, in each of the
three conditions the transfer reactance is different. This is illustrated in Table
5.2.
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(II) During-fault
(III) Post-fault
The values of X12 are determined using standard circuit reduction methods
(i.e. series, parallel, -Y, and Y- transformations) as will be illustrated in
the following example. It can be easily shown that the CCA (i.e. the angle at
which Aacc = Apossdec) takes the following form. Due to the nonlinearities of
the system with the considered fault, the CT and CCT cannot be expressed by
analytical expressions; however, numerical methods such as the trapezoidal
rule or the Euler method may be utilized for obtaining TD solutions.
It is important to note that for the same CCA, the CCT may be changed
from a system to another system. This is because the CCA is based on the
P.E/K.E balance while the CCT is a function of the system inertia. The
increase in the system inertia leads to increase in CCT while the CCA
remains the same for the same electrical quantities, topology, and
disturbance. It is of critical importance to understand that the dynamic
security is mainly guaranteed by the transient stability; however, the transient
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stability is not a guarantee of the static security (or adequacy); see Appendix
6 for more details.
Example 2
Critical clearing and transient simulation of a three phase fault in the
transmission system
Let the current flowing from the generator to the infinite bus be denoted
by I. Then the power delivered to the infinite bus is
The total impedance during the time when both the lines are operational
(Fig. 5.27 (a)), the impedance between the generator and the infinite bus is
j(0.3+0.1+0.1) = j0.5 p.. Then the generator internal emf is
Therefore the machine internal voltage is E = 1.2 per unit its angle is
24.625 or 0.4298 rad. The equivalent circuit of the system for various stages
of the disturbance (i.e. pre-fault, during-fault, and post-fault) are shown in
Fig. 5.27. In the during-fault phase the equivalent reactance X12 is determined
by the two method described in section A1.4 of Appendix 1.
Fig. 5.27: Various transfer reactances; (a) Pre-fault; (b) During-fault; (c)
Post-fault
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1.2
Pre fault: PeI sin 2.4sin
0.5
During fault: PeII 0.857sin
1.2
Post fault: sin 2.0sin
PeIII
0.6
The three power-angle curves are shown in Fig. 5.28. From this figure we
find that
1
cr sin 1 2.618 rad
2
Fig. 5.28: Power-angles curves for the three phases of operation of the
system
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SLG LLG LL
Representation
Sequence network connection
40
Grainger, J. J., & Stevenson, W. D. (1994). Power system analysis (Vol. 31). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
41
Nagrath, I. J. (2003). Modern power system analysis. Tata McGraw-Hill.
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Balanced loads
Lines
Generators
* The magnetization current and core losses represented by the shunt branch are
neglected (they represent only 1% of the full load current). The transformer is modeled
with the equivalent series leakage impedance Zl.
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Example 3
EAC for unbalanced faults
Consider a simple system with two identical transmission lines, as shown
in Fig. 5.30. A single-line-to-ground (SLG) fault is assumed in this example
and the fault is cleared by disconnected the three phases of the faulted line.
reactance can be obtained as shown in Fig. 5.31. The rest of the EAC-based
analysis or TD simulations can be performed using the resulting power-angle
diagrams. It can be easily depicted that the during fault transfer reactance
with the SLG fault will be high in comparison with a three-phase at the same
location. Consequently, the peak of the during-fault will be higher and the
acceleration area will be smaller. As a result, the impact of the SLG fault on
the transient stability is lower than the impact of three-phase fault.
This is also valid in multi-machine power systems 43. In all cases, the
generators are assumed to initially running at the synchronous speed. The
42
Willems, J. (1969). Generalisation of the equal-area criterion for synchronous machines.
Electrical Engineers, Proceedings of the Institution of, 116(8), 1431-1432.
43
Willems, J. L. (1971). Direct method for transient stability studies in power system
analysis. Automatic Control, IEEE Transactions on, 16(4), 332-341.
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modification in the EAC for inclusion of the damping effect is shown in Fig.
5.32 considering a sudden increase in the mechanical power input.
Fig. 5.32: Modified EAC for inclusion of the effect of the damping –
sudden increase in the mechanical power
In the original EAC, the stability condition is that A1 A2 while with the
damping power considered the acceleration and deceleration areas are
modified as shown in the figure and the stability condition becomes:
where
In this case,
(5.41)
It can be easily depicted from Fig. 5.32 and eq. (5.40) and (5.41) that A3 <
A4. Therefore, the resultant increase in the acceleration area is less than the
resultant increase in the possible deceleration area. Consequently, as
expected, the system is more stable with the damping considered. In other
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Fig. 5.33: Modified EAC for inclusion of the effect of the damping –
short-circuit faults
In this case,
(5.41)
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be used for restoring the system stability when the instability is caused by
negative damping caused, for example, by high-speed high-gain AERs.
In this section, analysis of the impact of various controllers on the stability
and the areas of the EAC will be presented considering stable and unstable
conditions. The system of Example 1 is considered, but the following
modeling and operational conditions are implemented:
The generator is represented by the third-order dynamic (non-linear)
model; however, the same initial power produced.
The transmission system is constructed of two-parallel lines as shown
in Fig. 5.34.
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(a) Case 1
(b) Case 2
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Fig. 5.40 shows the variations of the terminal voltages. It is shown that the
high gain AER (case 4) could not surpass the other cases, although it
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provided the highest field forcing at the beginning of the transient process;
however, due to its inherent negative damping, the magnitudes of the voltage
oscillations could not be bounded.
Fig. 5.41 shows the electrical power as a function of time. These functions
can be used to study the EAC in the time-domain as illustrated in Fig. 5.25. It
is shown that the high-gain AER causes small reduction in the acceleration
area and a relatively large reduction in the deceleration area. This is due to
the negative damping provided by this AER. This phenomena can also be
explained through the P- curves shown in Fig. 5.41. These curves are
obtained from the TD simulations using appropriate time and other settings.
The impact of positive and negative damping on the transient stability can
be explained using the Willems’s method presented in the previous section.
This is shown in Fig. 5.42. In comparison with a system with damping
neglected, the positive damping increases both the acceleration and possible
deceleration areas; however, the gain in the possible deceleration area is
much higher. With negative damping, both areas are reduced, but the
reduction in the possible deceleration area is very high. Therefore, the
instability in this situation is very likely.
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Case 1 Case 2
Case 3 Case 4
Fig. 5.41: P- relations
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Unregulated system
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In this section, some methods for the transient stability enhancement will
be summarized; however, some other methods such as AER and PSS are
already presented, while some other techniques such as FACTS-POD will be
presented in the next chapters. Consider the SMIB system shown in Fig. 5.43.
Fig. 5.43: SMIB system with a fault at one of the transmission lines
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A. Fast Valving. The impact of fast changes in the mechanical power for
stability enhancement on the EAC-based stability is demonstrated in Fig.
5.44(a). As shown, these changes cause significant reduction in the
acceleration area and simultaneously significant increase in the possible
deceleration area. Consequently, the system stability is highly enhanced. The
control action required within the turbine to produce such rapid changes in
the mechanical power is called fast valving44 which is also called early valve
actuation. The sequence of operations encountered and characterizing
durations of a fast valving process are shown in Fig. 5.44(b).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.44: Turbine fast valving; (a) EAC analysis; (b) Sequence of valve
operations
44
Edwards, L., Gregory, J. D., Osborn, D. L., Doudna, J. H., Pasternack, B. M., &
Thompson, W. G. (1986). Turbine fast valving to aid system stability: benefits and other
considerations. Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on, 1(1), 143-153.
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Fast valving requires a very fast response from the turbine. To be useful,
the reduction in the mechanical power should be as soon as the fault
occurred. For example, after 30% of the first swing period, which is in the
order of a few tenths of a second following a disturbance. The mechanical
power restoration to the initial pre-fault value should also be fast provided
that the reduction causes system stability. For example, the mechanical power
should be restored in less than a second.
Due to their slow capability of dynamic changes in the mechanical power
(see Appendix 5), hydro-turbines cannot usually provide fast valving. Steam
turbines, on the other side, have faster response in comparison with hydro-
turbines and fast valving is possible. As shown in Fig. 5.44, the change in the
mechanical power is a function of the rotor speed; however, additional
supplementary control action should be added to the standard closed-loop
STG governors. These controllers are needed for compensating the slow
changes in the speed at the beginning of a transient process due to the STG
inertia. Therefore, this supplementary control should be capable of
identifying fault conditions and perform fast-valving within a reasonable
time.
45
Karady, G. G. (2002). Improving transient stability using generator tripping based on
tracking rotor-angle. In Power Engineering Society Winter Meeting, 2002. IEEE (Vol. 2,
pp. 1113-1118). IEEE.
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enhancing the stability. The positive impact of rapid switching on the system
stability is demonstrated in the previous section. Fig. 5.45 shows the impact
of reducing the fault clearing time on EAC areas. As shown, the reduction
the clearing angle results in a reduction in the acceleration area and an
increase in the possible deceleration area. Consequently, the stability is
enhanced.
D. Reclosers. The use of reclosers also secures the system stability for the
momentary faults conditions. Two-cycle circuit-breakers, together with high
speed relays and communication, are now widely used in locations where
rapid fault clearing is important. Recently, a one-cycle circuit breaker by the
Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) combined with a rapid response
over-current type sensor is constructed for special applications that need very
fast fault clearing. Recently, ultra-high-speed relaying systems for EHV lines
are available. The operation of these relays is based on traveling wave
detection.
46
Wang, Y., Mohler, R. R., Spee, R., & Mittelstadt, W. (1992). Variable-structure FACTS
controllers for power system transient stability. Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on,
7(1), 307-313.
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The terminal voltage as a function of the infinite bus voltage takes the
form,
The line current as a function of the generator and resistor currents takes
the form,
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.46: Braking resistors for stability enhancement; (a) System
topology; (b) Equivalent circuit
Eliminating Vt from (5.43) using (5.46) and separating Ig, the result is,
Therefore, the active power production with the presence of the braking
resistor takes the form,
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It can be easily shown that (5.49) is reduced to (5.42) when Rbr = i.e.
disconnected.
As an example, the parameters and operating conditions of the system of
Fig. 5.46 are Po = 0.6 p.u, Qo = 0.45 p.u, E’ = 1.3172 p.u, V = 1.0 p.u, x’d =
0.3 p.u, xe = 0.4 p.u, and M = 20 sec. Consequently, Vt = 1.3804 p.u, and Pmax
= 1.8817 p.u. Using (5.49), the changes in the power-angle relation as
affected by Rbr are shown in Fig 5.47. It is clear from the figure that reducing
the braking resistance shifts-up the P- relation. The braking power
consumption for a given resistance can be determined at the initial voltage
applied to the resistance i.e.
The initial braking power is reduced with the increase in the barking
resistor; see Fig. 5.47. As the braking resistors increased, the braking power
decreased and consequently the impact of the barking resistor on the P-
relation is reduced.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 5.47: Braking resistance; (a) Effect on the P- relations; (b) Braking power; (c)
Increase in the maximum power with increase in the braking power
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where
Fig. 5.49: P- characteristics with the presence of a braking resistor – various
models and approximations
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Therefore, the P- relation with the presence of the braking resistor is
reduced to the P- relation without the braking resistor added but shifted up
by the factor KP. The stated assumptions show acceptable accuracy as shown
in Fig. 5.49.
It important to note that the braking power is of a constant value;
however, it is not constant as the resistor is connected to a variable bus
voltage. With the classical model considered (i.e. E’ assumed to be constant),
the variations of the braking power with the power angle can be found using
where
The relation Pbr- is shown in Fig. 5.49 which reveals that the braking
power is decreased with the increase of the power angle. The maximum value
of the braking power occurs at = 0. This characteristics is beneficial in the
transient stability enhancement as the acceleration area (which is usually at
low power angles < 90 o) will be highly reduced due to the braking power.
The impact of the braking power on the possible deceleration area is positive;
however, its impact is minor as the values of the braking power at high
angles are low.
The impact of sudden addition of a braking load on the power-angle
characteristics as well as the associated dynamics is illustrated in Fig. 5.50.
The figures show the insertion of a braking resistor at = br. The model of
(5.57) is used for this demonstration.
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At the insertion of the braking resistor (point a), the generator will
decelerate and goes through oscillatory response till the operating point
settles at point (c). The angle at point c is less than the initial angle due to the
braking power. Braking resistors are connected to the system just after a fault
that causes system acceleration. Usually, braking resistors are disconnected
from the system after a short duration of a transient process.
As an illustrative example, consider the SMIB system of Fig, 5.46. The
system is subjected to a forced outage of one of the lines due a fault. The
resistor in this case operated only during the acceleration and deceleration
periods. As shown in Fig. 5.51(a), the braking resistor causes a decrease in
the acceleration area and increase in the possible deceleration area.
Therefore, it can enhance the system stability or even stabilize the system.
During the second and possibly during higher order of swings, the braking
resistor may also be connected to securing the transient stability.
From the techno-economic feasibility point of view, braking resistors are
only inserted during the acceleration periods i.e. during the increase of the
system frequency (as shown in Fig. 5.51(b)). The braking control in this case,
inserts the resistor when the frequency of the system increases above the
normal. Therefore, the resistors are provided by bang-bang control (i.e. A
control mode in which an element, such as a braking resistor is switched on
and off) at appropriate moments. By doing so, the cost of the resistor and its
heat dissipation capability are reduced. In addition, as shown in Fig. 5.49, it
will be well utilized as its impact during the deceleration periods if
effectively minor.
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.51: Impact of braking resistors on the transient stability; (a) The
braking resistor operates during the acceleration and deceleration; (b) The
braking resistor only operates during the acceleration.
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F. Fault Current Limiters (FCLs) are devices that are capable of limiting
fault currents47,48,49. This is achieved by providing impedance against the
excessive increase of abnormal currents; for example, during faults. Resistive
FCL can be considered as a series switched barking resistor. Therefore,
resistive FCLs help to reduce the impact of faults on the transient stability of
generators by increasing the electrical power consumption during fault
conditions. Therefore, reduce the acceleration energy and enhance the
transient stability. For this purpose, the FCL must be resistive or containing
large resistance for consuming the active power during the during fault period
which causes the stabilization effect.
FCLs are also sometimes called Fault Current Controllers (FCC);
however, they not a real controller that acts all the time. FCLs only acts when
a fault occurs i.e. in the ‘during-fault’ period. In comparison with series
current limiting devices such as reactors or high-impedance transformers,
FCLs do not add significant impedance to the system during normal
47
Japan, I. E. E. (1999). State-of-the art and trends in fault current limiting technologies.
IEEJ Report, (709).
48
Youjie, Z. X. X. L. M., & Xiaoning, X. (2004). The Development and Application of
Fault Current Limiting Device [J]. Transactions of China Electrotechnical Society, 11,
000.
49
Noe, M., & Steurer, M. (2007). High-temperature superconductor fault current limiters:
concepts, applications, and development status. Superconductor Science and Technology,
20(3), R15.
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From the technological point of view, there are two main categories of
FCLs; superconducting and solid state FLCs. Technological details of FCLs
are out of the scope of this book; however, the Yadav’s paper 50 entitled
‘Review on Fault Current Limiters’ is a good source about that issue. The
50
S. Yadav, G. K. Choudhary, and R. K. Mandal (2014).Review on Fault Current
Limiters.IJERT 3(4), 1595 - 1603.
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common components of FCLs are (1) Fault detector; (2) FLC controller; (3)
Limiting impedance. A typical characteristic of FCLs is shown Fig. 5.53.
Typical values for the detection and starting times are 2 ms and 1 ms
respectively. As shown in the figure, the impact of the fault detection and
starting durations is a partial stress on the system by the fault current;
however, the magnitude and duration of this stress are small.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 5.53: Typical characteristics of FCLs; (a) Connection; (b)
Characteristics; (c) Impact on fault currents
The analysis of the inclusion of the FCLs and their impact on the
transient stability can be performed in the same manner as the braking
resistance; however, in this case the resistance is added in series with the
faulty line during the during-fault period. Consider the system of Fig. 5.54
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 5.54: SMIB with fault current limiter and its equivalent circuit
reductions
The generator current and the during-fault power can be then represented
by,
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With the absence of the FCL and for a three-phase fault (i.e. ZF = 0), the
during-fault power is then . Therefore, the difference between
the two characteristics is the power consumed by the FCL. The main impact
of the FCLs on the stability is a reduction in the acceleration area. Therefore,
the stability is enhanced by the presence of FCLs.
As an example, the system of Fig. 5.55 is subjected to a momentary three-
phase fault at the generator’s terminals. In this special case, ZF = 0, Za = ,
and Zb = ZFCL + jX’d. Therefore, equation (5.62) is reduced to,
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.55: Impact of FCL on the transient stability
Since in this case the during-fault power in a system without an FCL is
zero, then (5.63) represents the FCL power consumption. This power
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Due to the detection and starting periods, the action of the FCL is delayed
by a small amount of time as shown Fig. 5.53. Therefore, initially, the
during-fault power is zero; however, after this period, the during-fault power
is moved upward by the amount as a result of the FCL. It
should be noted that the equivalent power angle of the detection and starting
times (FCL) is dependent on the system inertia. Therefore, their effect on the
power-angle curves can be neglected if the system inertia is high. As shown
in Fig. 5.55, the acceleration area is significantly reduced. At the fault
clearing instant, the current goes back to low values. Therefore, the FCL
impedance is reduced to its normal near-zero value while the system
characteristic returns to the initial one. Consequently, the possible
deceleration area is not affected by the presence of the FCL while the overall
stability is enhanced.
Unlike the braking resistor, and fast valving, the FCL will not interact
with the system speed variations. This is because FCLs respond to a current
increase rather than frequency changes. Braking resistors and fast viewing,
on the other hand, operates in a bang-bang mode i.e. they will interact during
the entire transient process. Consequently, FCLs enhances only the first
swing stability while braking resistors and fast valving can possibly enhance
all the swings. The distinguishing feature of FCLs is that they can be placed
at any location in a power network for fault current limiting. Therefore, FCLs
may be found in the high-voltage bulk power grid as well as the low-voltage
light-current distribution systems.
In the next chapters, detailed analysis of the impact of FACTS devices on
the stability of power systems will be presented. In addition, stabilization of
power system through oscillation damping controllers integrated with
FACTS devices will be designed. In this section, highlights about the impact
of series and shunt regulated compensators on the system stability will be
presented.
51
Kumar, R., Harada, A., Merkle, M., & Miri, A. M. (2003, June). Investigation of the
influence of series compensation in AC transmission systems on bus connected parallel
generating units with respect to subsynchronous resonance (SSR). In Power Tech
Conference Proceedings, 2003 IEEE Bologna (Vol. 3, pp. 6-pp). IEEE.
52
Rahim, A. H. M. A., & Al-Sammak, A. I. J. (1991, January). Optimal switching of
dynamic braking resistor, reactor or capacitor for transient stability of power systems. In
Generation, Transmission and Distribution, IEE Proceedings C (Vol. 138, No. 1, pp. 89-
93). IET.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
mechanisms for each phase of the circuit breaker 53,54. In such breakers, the
three poles are mechanically separate and have separate tripping mechanisms.
The outcomes of such mechanisms are the isolation of only faulty lines as
well as reduction of the impact of failures in three-phase circuit breakers.
Knowing that the majority of three-phase faults started as single line to
ground faults, the value of singe-pole switching in reducing, from stability
and economically, the impact of fault is high.
53
Balu, N. (1980). Fast turbine valving and independent pole tripping breaker applications
for plant stability. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, 4(PAS-99),
1330-1342.
54
Taylor, C. W., Mittelstadt, W. A., Lee, T. N., Hardy, J. E., Glavitsch, H., Stranne, G., &
Hurley, J. D. (1986). Single-pole switching for stability and reliability. IEEE transactions
on power systems, 2(1), 25-36.
55
El-Shimy, M. (2015). Stability-based minimization of load shedding in weakly
interconnected systems for real-time applications. International Journal of Electrical
Power & Energy Systems, 70, 99-107.
56
Grewal, G. S., Konowalec, J. W., & Hakim, M. (1998). Optimization of a load shedding
scheme. Industry Applications Magazine, IEEE, 4(4), 25-30.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
57
Pilo, F., Celli, G., & Mocci, S. (2004, April). Improvement of reliability in active
networks with intentional islanding. In Electric Utility Deregulation, Restructuring and
Power Technologies, 2004.(DRPT 2004). Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE International
Conference on (Vol. 2, pp. 474-479). IEEE.
58
Rahman, H., & Khan, B. H. (2008). Stability improvement of power system by
simultaneous AC–DC power transmission. Electric Power Systems Research, 78(4), 756-
764.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 5.56: Operation of parallel DC-AC transmission for transient stability
enhancement
Fig. 5.57: Impact of regulated HVDC line for transient stability control on
the transient stability in comparison with uncontrolled HVAC line
59
El-Shimy, M. (2015). Stability-based minimization of load shedding in weakly
interconnected systems for real-time applications. International Journal of Electrical
Power & Energy Systems, 70, 99-107.
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Table 5.5: Machine data of the two-area system on 900 MVA base
Ra Xd Xq Xl Xd’ Xq’ Xd’’ Xq’’ Tdo’ Tqo’ Tdo’’ Tqo’’ H D
0.0025 1.8 1.7 0.2 0.3 0.55 0.25 0.25 8 0.4 0.03 0.05 6.5 0
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.57: The IEEE two-area weakly interconnected system; (a) Single-
line diagram (SLG); (b) PSAT model
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The equivalent inertia and transient reactances of the study system are
determined using the presented method. The disturbance is a temporary 3-
cycle three-phase fault started at t = 1 sec. The fault is applied on bus 8. The
PSAT is used as a simulation environment and the PSAT model is shown in
Fig. 5.57(b). The absolute angle (in radians) responses of the system is shown
in Fig. 5.58 while the speed of the generators are shown in Fig. 5.59. These
results reveal that the system is stable.
Fig. 5.58: The absolute angle responses (in radians) of the detailed system
Fig. 5.59: Rotor speed responses (in p.u) of the detailed system
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(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 5.60: Measurements at the interface buses
Table 5.8: Equivalent inertia (M) in sec, p.u transient reactances, and p.u
transient emf (E’)
Area 1 equivalence Area 2 equivalence SMIB equivalence
In the next chapter, the determined equivalents will be evaluated using the
EAC and TD. In addition, these equivalents will be used for demonstrating an
EAC-based fast method for load shedding minimization.
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Chapter 6
Load Shedding and Online Applications
6.1 Introduction
Load shedding is a controllable reduction of a pre-determined amount
of the load power consumption according to specific shedding criteria. The
pre-determined amount of load to be shed is traditionally determined
according to an analysis of the dynamic security for a set of contingencies. In
this case, look up tables are prepared and the implementation of the load
shedding is performed according to them. A shedding look-up table is
dependent on the operating conditions of the systems, its available topology,
the available reserve, and the contingency. In addition, a look-up table must
be updated for changes in the system. A look-up table determined for a given
operating conditions and a specific set of single contingencies might be not
valid in the situation of multiple contingencies such as cascaded outage of
lines.60. The problems associated with look-up tables will be eliminated in
this chapter through the online dynamic security analysis and load shedding
estimation61.
The main objective of the load shedding is correcting an abnormal
system state (see chapter 1) to either the normal state or the alert state. For
example, the balance of the generation and the load during abnormal
operating conditions is a way for keeping the system stability. As explained
in chapter 5, the load shedding can be applied manually or automatically. In
addition, the automatic load shedding has many philosophies. For example,
the automatic reactive load shedding depends on the value of the absolute
frequency as a shedding criterion while with the proactive load shedding not
only the absolute frequency is used as a shedding criterion but also the rate of
change of frequency or even the acceleration of frequency.
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Hafiz, H. M., & Wong, W. K. (2004, November). Static and dynamic under-frequency
load shedding: a comparison. In Power System Technology, 2004. PowerCon 2004. 2004
International Conference on (Vol. 1, pp. 941-945). IEEE.
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El-Shimy, M. (2015). Stability-based minimization of load shedding in weakly
interconnected systems for real-time applications. International Journal of Electrical
Power & Energy Systems, 70, 99-107.
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the N-1 static security transfer limit) limits. The impact of various
constraining limits on the transfer limits is highly dependent on the operating
conditions of the system where the system loading is the major governing
factor62. This is illustrated in Fig. 6.1. It is clear that at light and medium
loading conditions, the transient stability presents the main constraint. On the
other side, at high loading conditions, the voltage stability becomes the
dominant constraint. The secure operating limits are determined by the
minimum value of various constraints.
62
Uhlen, K., Pálsson, M., Time, T. R., Kirkeluten, Ø., & Gjerde, J. O. (2002, June).
Raising stability limits in the Nordic power transmission system. In 14th Power Systems
Computation Conference.
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Fig. 6.2: An infinite bus supplying a load center via a transmission line
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It can be seen from Fig. 6.2, that either increasing the active power
transfer or the angle separation between the buses, the reactive power transfer
is reduced.
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The voltage stability can be also classified according to the strength of the
disturbances (see Table 6.1). Consequently, two main classifications are
considered; small-disturbances and large-disturbances. Large-disturbance
voltage stability examines the response of power system to a large
disturbance, like faults, loss of load, or loss of generation. The ability to
control voltages following large disturbance is determined by the system load
characteristic and the interactions of both continuous and discrete controls
and protections. The small-disturbance voltage stability considers the power
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system’s ability to control voltages after small disturbances like for instance
small changes in load. It is determined by load characteristics, and controls at
a given instant of time. The analysis of small-disturbance voltage stability
can be done in steady state conditions by static methods like for examples
load-flow programs; however, the voltage stability is a single problem on
which a combination of both linear and non-linear tools can be used.
For the simple 2-bus system shown in Fig. 6.2, the system’s voltage and
active power relation (V2-P2 characteristic) at the load bus can be determined
by writing equations (6.1) and (6.2) in a closed form by eliminating 12 and
using, , and (2 is the power factor
angle at bus 2) as well as considering that and .
Without considering the thermal limit and other physical limits, it can be
seen from (6.5) that the receiving end capability is a circle centered at (0, -B)
and with radius A. This is shown in Fig. 6.4. It can be seen that the maximum
range of possible reactive power flow occurs at zero active power flow. The
reactive power range is reduced with the increase in the active power flow.
The reactive power at the maximum active power flow is negative of a value
–B.
The P2-V2 relation can be found by solving the quadratic equation (6.5);
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The function (6.6) is usually written for describing the relation between
V2 and P2. Therefore, its preferable alternative form is,
This equation shows that positive real solutions are only possible if
. The functions represented by (6.8) and
(6.8) represent the equation of a parabola and their general form is shown in
Fig. 6.5. Due to its shape, curve (b) is commonly called the nose curves.
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(a) (b)
Fig. 6.5: Static voltage stability and practical limits; (a) P-V curve; (b) V-P
curve.
As shown in Fig. 6.5(b), for a single of the power consumption (Po), there
are two values of the bus voltage; Va and Vb. This situation is physically
impossible and one solution is stable (Vb) while the other is unstable (Va).
The stability is explained using Fig. 6.6 where the active power Po is
increased by P. With an increase in the active power, the voltage drop over
the transmission line (V = I212Z12) increases. Therefore, the new operating
point should be characterized by a lower voltage magnitude. As shown in the
figure, the increase in the active power, results in a decrease in the voltage
magnitude from b to b’ over the upper part of the V-P characteristics while
the lower part shows an increase in the bus voltage magnitude from a to a’. In
other words, the higher values of the voltage magnitude solutions are the
stable conditions. Consequently, the positive sign of the inner root of (6.9)
represents the stable solution. Therefore, the upper part is stable. The stability
criteria can be then represented by,
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From voltage stability point of view, the critical voltage and the maximum
loadability limit are represented by (6.7) and (6.8); however, from load
requirements point of view, the load bus voltage should be kept within an
acceptable limits or bandwidth (see Fig. 6.5). Consequently, if bus 2 is
supplying a load, then the load voltage requirement should be respected. This
is required for proper operation of the load equipment and for preventing
their malfunction. Typically, depending on the load-voltage sensitivity (see
Appendix 3) the allowable voltage bandwidth is 3%, or 5% or 10%.
Generally, the normal state demanded voltage (VD) limits are represented by,
Usually, the critical voltage is much less than the allowable minimum load
voltage; however, in the cases where the critical voltage is less than the
minimum load voltage, the system operator restricts the bus voltage to the
critical voltage rather than the load minimum voltage. The main operational
objective is to simultaneously securing the voltage stability and the load
voltage requirements. Due to these limits, not only the allowable bus voltage
is modified but also the maximum loadability limit. For example, in Fig. 6.5
a significant reduction of the voltage stability based maximum loadability
limit due to the load voltage limits. The maximum loadability limit is reduced
from to .
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This relation shows that the V-P curve is universal and only dependent on
the short-circuit capacity of the system and the load point power factor angle.
The relation describes what is called the normalized V-P curve in which the
load voltage is represented in p.u of the grid voltage while the load active
power is represented in p.u of the grid short-circuit capacity. The V-P relation
is illustrated in Fig. 6.7 considering the effect of the power factor of the
receiving end.
Fig. 6.7: The normalized V-P relation as affected by the power factor at
the receiving end
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The figure shows that the critical voltage locus is highly dependent on the
power factor; from lagging to leading power factors, the critical voltage is
increased. As previously explained, the operation of the system should secure
satisfactory voltage level at the load bus while keeping the system stable.
Therefore, the minimum of the critical voltage and the load minimum voltage
limit is selected as the operation voltage i.e.
is because the X/R ratios at these high voltage levels are high. On the other
hand, the X/R ratios in medium and low voltage circuits are not usually high
enough for the resistance to be neglected. More sophisticated models are
available for modeling these issues considering the distributed parameter
models of transmission lines 63. For this purpose the line of Fig. 6.2 is
represented by its long-line model parameters i.e. the characteristic (or surge
impedance (Zo), the electrical line length (), and the surge impedance
loading (PSIL) as shown in Fig. 6.8.
The receiving end power (P2 + j Q2) is related to the receiving end current
(I2) by:
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where
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.9: Exact V-P relations; (a) OH-HVAC; (b) UG-HVAC cable
It can be easily depicted from the exact relations that the impact of the
Ferranti effect on OH-HVAC lines is minor and can be neglected in a
simplified analysis. On the other hand UG-HVAC cables are characterized by
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a strong Ferranti effect. This is can be explained using the -model shown in
Fig. 6.10.
This model is valid for both overhead (OH) and underground (UG)
transmission line; however; the major difference between the two
transmission types is the value of the shunt admittance or capacitance. In OH
lines, the shunt capacitance is very small in comparison with UG lines. This
is mainly due to the insulation type which is just air in OH installations while
it is a man-made insulating material in UG installations. The ratio of the UG
capacitance to the OH capacitance is nearly equal to the relative permittivity
of the cable’s insulating material. Based on the -model, it is clear that
the steady state normal reactive power production (i.e. the capacitive) from a
line is nearly constant as the bus voltages are nearly fixed close to 1.0 p.u. On
the other hand, the inductive power absorption is dependent on the line
loading. At no load conditions, the series impedance current is corresponding
to the current flow with the internal capacitances of the line and its value is
very small. With the increase of the load, the inductive reactive power
consumption increases. This is illustrated in Fig. 6.11 considering two
identical lines; one of them is OH while the other is UG cable. Both lines are
represented by the -model such that their terminal voltages are kept
constant. It is shown that the UG line is reactive power producers for the
entire load range. The OH line produces capacitive reactive power at light
loading conditions while they consumes reactive power during the high
loading conditions. The main cause of this effect is the shunt capacitances.
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Fig. 6.11: Reactive power vs. loading level; (a) OH lines; (b) UG cables
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It can be seen from the figure that with = 0.6, the increase in the load
power (Po) causes a reduction in the operating voltage. Up to a load power of
2.7, the load bus voltage magnitude do not violate the acceptable limits while
higher load consumptions causes a violation of the lower limit of the load bus
voltage magnitude. It can be also depicted from the figure that with = 0, the
maximum power transfer and the critical voltage are found to be 5.223 p.u
and 0.59 p.u respectively. Recalling that the critical voltage is defined as the
point at which the system and load characteristics are tangent to each other.
Therefore, it is shown that with = 0.6, the critical voltage is reduced to 0.41
p.u and the maximum power transfer is also reduced to 4.7 p.u. Therefore, the
nose point of the V-P curve is the critical voltage stability point only when a
constant power load is considered while other load models will result in
different critical conditions. With = 0.6, the reduction of the critical voltage
is beneficial as the system becomes more stable at low voltage values in
comparison with the constant power case; however, this benefit is
counteracted by the reduction in the maximum power transfer. Considering
the nose point as a critical operating point underestimates the system voltage
stability; however, there will be a significant stability margin from the critical
voltage point of view. On the other hand, the nose point overestimates the
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.13: A system for demonstration of a line outage contingency; (a)
The initial topology (I); (b) the post-contingency topology (II)
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as Affected by Composite Load Models. ASJEE. 2008;2:201 - 9
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.14: Static voltage stability – contingency analysis using V-P curves
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It is clear from Fig. 6.14 that the contingency causes a reduction of the
nose point from c to c’. From the critical voltage point of view, the nose point
can be considered – as explained earlier – as a conservative indicator of the
stability limit. As shown in the figure, the considered disturbance did not
alter the nose point voltage; however, the nose point power is significantly
reduced as a result of the increase of the transfer reactance X12. The
contingency also moves the operating point from a to b while if a constant
power load is considered, the load point will move from a to b’. It is clear
that the voltage associated with point b is high in comparison with point b’.
Therefore, the operating point is more secure with the constant impedance
model in comparison with the constant power model. As explained earlier,
the constant power model is a highly theoretical load while the constant
impedance load and the exponential load model prove their capability to
model actual load performance.
In this demonstration, if the load power is increased to 1.8 p.u and bus
voltage deviations should be less than or equal to 10%, then the simulation
of the system with a constant power load model result in a violation of the
minimum voltage limit and the system is considered insecure. On the other
hand, the constant impedance load model shows acceptable operation, but
very close to the lower limit (i.e. an alert condition). If the load is increased
to 8.0 p.u, the stability will be highly degraded as the operating point will be
at the post-fault nose point. Higher power consumptions will cause static
voltage instability.
The popular method for the analysis and the assessment of the static
voltage stability is usually through the V-P curves; however, the Q-V curves
can also be used for this purpose. In addition, they also can provide some
additional insight of the static voltage stability. A Q-V curve expresses the
relationship between the reactive support Qc at a given bus and the voltage
on that bus. As shown in Fig. 6.15, the Q-V curves can be determined by
connecting a fictitious generator with zero active power at the load bus, then
the reactive power of the compensator is recorded as the terminal voltage is
being varied. Since it does not produce the active power, the fictitious
generator can be treated as a synchronous condenser or a static VAR system
(SVS). SVSs include SVCs, and STATCOMs.
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Therefore,
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Equations (6.20) and (6.21) describe the Q-V curve considering a constant
Fig. 6.16: The Q-V curve of the demonstration system for 3.0 p.u active
load @ 0.9 lagging power factor
The figure shows the plots of the positive and negative roots of equation
(6.20). The values of the positive roots do not provide meaningful operating
conditions. The negative root allocates operating equilibrium for a single
value of the injected reactive power from the hypothetical compensator. Of
course, this situation is impossible and one operating point is stable while the
other one is unstable. For a given value of Qc, the possible operating
equilibrium is a and b. If the compensator capacitive power increased these
operating points move such that a a’ and b b’. From the physical point
of view, the increase in the capacitive power injection at the load bus should
increase the voltage magnitude. As seen, the voltage at a’ is less than the
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The value dQc/dV2 is also called the voltage sensitivity factor (VSF).
The VSF measures the change in voltage magnitude at a given node as a
consequence of a reactive power injection in that node. Since we are dealing
with a fictitious reactive power compensator, then the operating equilibrium
of the actual system is either at point c or c’. Based on (6.10), the stable
equilibrium point is c. It is then clear that the distance from point d (i.e. the
critical point) and the horizontal axis presents the margin to the loss of a
stable operating point. Therefore, this distance is called the reactive power
margin (KQ). With the load active power changed, a family of Q-V curves is
obtained as shown in Fig. 6.17.
Fig. 6.17: Impact of increase in the load consumption on the Q-V curve
and the static voltage stability; the compensator sizing is also shown
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It is clear from the figure that the increase of the load results in a reduction
in the load bus voltage magnitude (the operating point moves from a to b to c
as the load increase from 1.0 to 3.0 to 5.3 p.u). It is also shown that at a
power demand of 5.3 p.u, one operating point is available which is point c.
This point is called the critical point at which the reactive power margin is
zero. Increasing the consumption above the critical value, no possible
operating equilibrium can be achieved with zero compensation. This is
shown in the fourth loading level (8.0 p.u). In this case, a capacitive
compensation is essential for system operation. From voltage stability point
of view, the minimum reactive power distance that can bring the system at
least to a critical condition; see Fig. 6.17; however, this minimum value
result in an insecure system operation and a higher value should be selected
for achieving a reasonable reactive power margin and acceptable operating
voltage magnitude. From the load satisfaction point of view, points b and c
violate the lower voltage limit. Therefore, a capacitive compensator may be
used to increase the bus voltage magnitude to an acceptable value.
Considering the N-1 criteria or a contingency of a static outage of one
of the lines in the system of Fig. 6.13, the Q-V curves for active power
consumptions of 1.0 p.u and 3.0 p.u are illustrated in Fig. 6.18.
Fig. 6.18: Static voltage stability – contingency analysis using Q-V curves
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The results show that the lightly loaded operating conditions results in a
secure system operation in the pre-fault and post-fault conditions. On the
other hand, the heavily loaded system could not find an operating point in the
post fault conditions. In addition, the initial operating conditions lightly
violates the lower limit of the bus voltage magnitude.
Practically, the impact of various contingencies on the voltage stability
or voltage security can be performed considering the long-term (static) or
short-term (transient) voltage stability. The main purpose of these studies is
the determination of the voltage security level of power systems. The
standard contingency analysis methods (chapter 1) are used for this purpose.
In addition, the data required for the simulation of various contingencies can
be based on offline datasets or online measurements. The online
measurements are currently possible due to the availability of WAMs and
PMUs (chapter 1). Fig. 6.19 shows a schematic diagram of voltage security
assessment algorithms.
If the system could not provide an acceptable operation (see Fig. 6.17
and 6.18), then the voltage control is required for that purpose. Based on Fig.
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6.20, the relation between the voltages V1 and V2 as a function of the voltage
drop and voltage deviation takes the form,
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.20: Basics of voltage control; (a) Phasor diagram; (b) Control
methods
where
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The reactance itself can also be controlled by the use of either passive or
active series compensators (Fig. 6.22). Fixed capacitors and thyrsitor
controlled series compensators (TCSC) are commonly used for that purpose.
In this case, where Xc is the reactance of the series
compensator. Series compensators are usually capacitive for reducing the
voltage drop and increasing the power transfer limit. Therefore, Xc is usually
negative. Consequently, the use of series compensators is accompanied with
dangers from resonance and sun-synchronous resonance (SSR). A situation
that can be avoided by proper selection of the possible range of capacitive
series compensations.
These limits are defined according to the load sensitivity. The time delay
block serves mainly as a protection device for preventing the tap-changer
from responding to short-duration voltage variations.
The Q-V and V-P curves can serve as a vital tool in the analysis of the
impact of various voltage control alternatives as well as sizing them 65.
65
Van Cutsem, T., & Vournas, C. (1998). Voltage stability of electric power systems (Vol.
441). Springer Science & Business Media.
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preventing either the voltage collapse or the islanding of the system. This is
illustrated in Fig. 6.24. The shown voltage problems are attributed to the
insufficiency of the reactive power sources needed for restoring an acceptable
voltage level. It should be noted that system operators usually shed load as
the last resort. Under Voltage Load Shedding (UVLS) schemes, drops a load
when the voltage gets too low. The dropping of load will alleviate the system
by eliminating the current flowing to the dropped load. UVLS usually
triggers distribution feeders to open when voltage of the bulk electric system
is around 90%. Definite time relays usually act when all three phases show
low voltage for around 10 seconds at 90% voltage magnitude, this would be
after some of the ULTC transformers have been acted. Certain critical
customers cannot be dropped from load despite the help it may present to the
system. Critical customers include hospitals or customers that would loose
lots of revenue from being dropped.
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There are two main UVLS schemes; the decentralized (also called
distributed UVLS) and the centralized schemes. With a decentralized scheme,
protection relays are installed at the loads that are candidate to be shed upon
severe voltage problems. As voltage conditions at these locations begin to
collapse, load assigned to that relay is automatically shed. On the other hand,
a centralized scheme has undervoltage relays installed at key system buses
within system areas. The trip information is transmitted to shed loads at
various locations. Both schemes require high-speed and reliable
communication for proper operation. Fig. 6.25 illustrates a typical
distribution substation with integrated UVLS and UFLS special protections.
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.26 Contingency-based setting of the UVLS protection
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66
Hafiz, H. M., & Wong, W. K. (2004, November). Static and dynamic under-frequency
load shedding: a comparison. In Power System Technology, 2004. PowerCon 2004. 2004
International Conference on (Vol. 1, pp. 941-945). IEEE.
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There are three main methods for the implementation of UFLS strategies.
These methods are
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.28: UFLS criteria; (a) Static (semi-adaptive) UFLS; (b) Dynamic
(adaptive) UFLS
1. The traditional method; when the frequency is lower than the first
setting value, the first level of load shedding will be implemented. If
the frequency continues to decline, it is clear that the first load shed
amount is insufficient. When the frequency is lower than the second
setting value, the second stage of load shedding is then
implemented. If the frequency continues to decline, the further load
shed stages are activated until the normal frequency value is restored.
The traditional method follows the static shedding criteria and the
amount of load shedding per each shedding stage is determined based
on the analysis of the worst possible expected events. Therefore, for
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less severe events, the first stage of shedding may result in an over-
shedding and may also cause over-frequency problems
2. The semi-adaptive method; to some extent, this method is similar to
the traditional method; however, the specific amount of load to be shed
is determined in terms of the measuring value of the rate of change of
frequency.
3. The self-adaptive method follows the dynamic shedding criterion for
more accurate estimation of the proper amounts of the load to be shed
in each stage and the timing of each stage.
systems. It is assumed that the generators in area 2 are highly variable while
area 1 comprises less variable power sources. In both areas sudden drop in
the power generation may be attributed to forced outage of generators, or
faults, or unavailability of the primary energy resources. In area 2, the
variability of the power sources causes sudden changes in the output power
of the generators. These sudden changes may cause emergency or extreme
security and transient stability problems if the drop in the power sources is
intense and rapid. In such situations, load shedding is implemented to ensure
system stability by curtailing sufficient system loads for matching the
available generation with the remaining loads and keeping the system
stability.
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compensated by load shedding within that area unless more necessary actions
should be taken.
With the SMIB equivalence of the considered interconnected system (Fig.
5.8 and Table 5.6), the maximum sudden drop in the power generation Pg2
can be determined using the EAC. Consider that the system shown in Fig.
5.57 operates at initial conditions Pg1o, Pg2o, Pd1o, and Pd2o. As shown in Fig.
6.29, this is equivalent to operation at Peqo and o; refer to section 5.3 for
associated the mathematical modeling. The value of Peqo equals to 4.330 p.u.
This value is not dependent on the nature of the power sources. The value of
1 is 64.5o.
In the following the symbol 12 will be written as . Due to the variability
of generation in area 2, it is assumed that a sudden drop in the generation
(Pg2 < 0) occurs. Consequently, Peq is suddenly increased by –M1Pg2/(M1 +
M2). The corresponding acceleration area (Aacc) is the area (abca), the
deceleration area (Adec) is the area (cdec), and possible deceleration area
(Apossdec) is the area (cdfec) are shown in Fig. 6.29. On Fig. 6.29, o, 1, max,
cr indicate the initial steady state operating angle, the final steady state
operating angle, the maximum angle of oscillations, and the critical transient
angle respectively. It is clear from the figure that cr and 1 are dependent
variables such that cr = - 1. The stability of the system is governed by the
ratio of the possible deceleration area and the acceleration area (refer to
section 5.4). The system is stable if this ratio is higher than one while it is
unstable if the ratio is less than one. A unity ratio indicates critical stability
conditions. The maximum or the permissible sudden drop in Pg2 can be then
determined by determining the value of Peq1 at which the Aacc equals to
Apossdec. In this case max = cr. Therefore,
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It is known that the decrease in the mechanical driving power has the
same impact on the rotor angle swing as that of increasing the electrical
output power. In this analysis, eq. (6.30) depicts that the change electric
power demand shows that the same impact as the changes in the mechanical
power. The verification of the estimated maximum drop in power generation
and minimum load shedding requirements is performed through time domain
simulation of the two-machine equivalent system (shown in Fig. 5.6). The
perturbation cases shown in Table 6.2 are considered.
Case 1 represents a drop on the generation below the critical value (5.6
p.u). Case 2 represents the critical drop in the generation in area 2 while case
3 present situation where the drop of generation is higher than the critical
values. Case 4 presents mitigation by the minimum amount of load shedding.
The dynamic performances of the system are shown Fig. 6.31. These figures
show the rotor angle swing of area 2 relative to area 1. The time-domain
simulations are performed using the PSAT. The results ensure the accuracy
of the presented method in predicting the system transient response and
minimization of the load shedding requirements.
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.31: Dynamic performance associated with sudden changes in the
generation and load; (a) Cases 1, 2, and 4; (b) Case 3.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 6.32: Impact of load shedding delay; (a) Simultaneous load shedding
(shed = o); (b) Delayed load shedding (shed > o): energy balance; (c)
Delayed load shedding: shed < h; (d) Delayed load shedding: shed h
In Fig. 6.32, shed denotes the angle at which the load shedding takes place
while h is the angle defined by where Peq1 is the
equivalent power due to the reduction in Pg2. The load shedding delay time is
nonlinearly related to the difference between the load shedding angle (shed)
and the initial angle (o). Fig. 6.32(c) and 6.32(d) show two situations defined
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according to the relation between shed and h. These situations are shed < h
(Fig. 6.32(c)) and shed h (Fig. 6.32(d)). The acceleration and possible
deceleration areas are clearly illustrated in the figures. It can be easily shown
that the angle 1 can be determined for both situations by solving eq. (6.32)
for 1. Equation (6.32) is determined by equalizing the acceleration and
deceleration areas in each situation.
It is clear that eq. (6.32) will be reduced to eq. (6.27) if simultaneous load
shedding (i.e. shed = o) is applied. Based on the value of 1, (shown in
Fig. 6.32) can be determined using . Consequently the
minimum reduction in peak (denoted by ) is equal to .
As a result, the minimum load shedding ( ) can be determined using
. It is depicted from eq. (6.32) that the value of 1 is
dependent on the initial operating conditions of the system represented by o
and the shedding delay which is represented by (shed - o).
Fig. 6.33: Impact of load shedding delay on the minimum required load
shedding – EAC approach
Considering Pg2 of -6.0 p.u, Fig. 6.33 illustrates the impact of delayed
load shedding on the minimum load shedding requirements. The results show
that with the increase in the shedding delay, the minimum load shedding
requirements are increased.
The relation between the minimum load shedding and the shedding time
delay (rather than (shed - o)) can be determined by solving the nonlinear
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Fig. 6.34: Impact of shedding delay time on the minimum amount of load
shedding – TD analysis
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shown in Fig. 6.35. With the delayed shedding, the minimum load shedding
is increased from 0.4 p.u (no delay) to 0.48 p.u. The transient associated with
the load shedding action is clearly shown on the figure.
Fig. 6.35: Dynamic response of properly reduced loads with and without
time delay.
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Chapter 7
Damping Improvement and Stabilization through
FACTS-POD controllers
7.1 Introduction
The power system stability has been recognized as an important problem
for secure system operation since the early power systems. The importance of
this phenomenon has emerged due to the fact that many major blackouts in
recent years caused by power system instability. Therefore, there is a great
need to improve electric power utilization while still maintaining reliability
and security. As power systems have evolved through continuing growth in
the interconnections and the increased operation in highly stressed
conditions, different forms of power system instability have emerged (see
chapters 4 and 5).
Historically, the control of power systems is based on the generators’
controllers such as AVRs, PSSs, and ALFCs. Most power systems contain
elements that help regulate the network’s power flow, such as phase
changers, series compensation, and shunt compensation. Historically, these
devices were mechanically switched and may not be capable of reacting fast
enough to prevent cascading failures. With the demand of improving the
power quality, the reliability, and the security of modern power systems,
these controllers cannot fulfill the recent and future modernization
requirements. Consequently, the need for better high-speed control of power
flow led to an initiative by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) to
develop power-electronic based devices 68, employing high speed, high power
semi-conductor technology, to help better regulate power flow. All these
devices are collectively known as Flexible AC Transmission Systems
(FACTS) devices. The family of FACTS devices includes high speed
versions of traditional devices like phase changers, and series and shunt
compensators, as well as devices other electronically controlled controllers.
According to the Edris 69, the FACTS devices are defined as “power
electronic based controllers and other static equipment which can regulate
68
www.epri.com
69
Edris, A. A. (1997). Proposed terms and definitions for flexible AC transmission system
(FACTS). IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 12(4).
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the power flow and transmission voltage through rapid control action”.
Currently, the FACTS devices are considered a powerful tool for enhancing
both steady-state and dynamic performance of power systems 70. The advent
of the FACTS devices has required additional efforts in modeling and
analysis, requiring engineers to have a wider background for a deeper
understanding of power system's dynamic behavior.
From an economical point of view, the FACTS provides an excellent
alternative for increasing the transmission capacity by improving the efficient
use of the existing power grid. This can be accomplished through increased
control.
One of the most promising recent decentralized network controllers is the
family of (FACTS) devices. FACTS devices have been shown to be effective
in controlling power flow and damping power system oscillations. By
controlling power flow of an individual line, power can be redirected to/from
various parts of the power grid. Redirecting power flow allows for utilization
of power lines that physics of power flow alone would not allow. The
variable series compensation is highly effective in both controlling power
flow in the line and in improving stability. With series compensation, the
overall effective series transmission impedance from the sending end to the
receiving end can be arbitrarily decreased thereby influencing the power
flow. This capability to control power flow can effectively be used to
increase the transient stability limit and to provide power oscillation
damping. Therefore, this chapter will present the design of a supplementary
controller called Power Oscillation Dampers (PODs) for FACTS-based series
compensation with a main objective of enhancing the damping of power
systems71. A variety of design methods can be used for tuning the parameters
of various power system controllers. The most common conventional
techniques are based on frequency response 72 [5], pole placement73 [6],
eigenvalues sensitivity74 [6, 7] and residue method 75 [8].
70
EL-Shimy M. Multi-objective Placement of TCSC for Enhancement of Steady-State
Performance of Power System. Scientific Bulletin - Faculty of Engineering - Ain Shams
Uni. 2007;42(3):935 - 50.
71
M. Mandour, M. EL-Shimy, F. Bendary, and W. Ibrahim, “Damping of Power Systems
Oscillations using FACTS Power Oscillation Damper – Design and Performance
Analysis”, MEPCON 2014.
72
N. Martins and L. Lima, "Eigenvalue and Frequency Domain Analysis of Small-Signal
Electromechanical Stability Problems," IEEE Symposium on Application of Eigenanalysis
and Frequency Domain Method for System Dynamic Performance, 1989.
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73
B. C. Pal, "Robust pole placement versus root-locus approach in the context of damping
interarea oscillations in power systems," IEE Proceedings on Generation, Transmission
and Distribution, vol. 149, Nov 2002.
74
R. Rouco and F. L. Pagola, "An eigenvalue sensitivity approach to location and
controller design of controllable series capacitors for damping power system oscillations,"
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 12, Nov 1997.
75
R. Sadikovic, et al., "Application of FACTS devices for damping of power system
oscillations," presented at the IEEE Power Tech, St. Petersburg, Russia, June 2005.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
76
NGHingorani, L. G. (2000). Understanding facts concepts & tech nology of flexible AC
transmission system. NewYork, IEEEPowerEngineering Society.
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For example, the TCSC can be controlled to provide either a constant power
control or a constant admittance control (see section 7.3.2).
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 7.1: FACTS devices; (a) Classification; (b) Concepts of power flow
control using FACTS devices (active and also reactive); (c) Generalized
model of FACTS devices
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Table 7.1: Definition of the abbreviations in Fig. 7.1 as well some other
devices
SVC Static VAR compensator
TCR Thyristor controlled reactor
TSC Thyristor switched capacitor
TSR Thyristor switched reactor
1st
Thyristor controlled series capacitor or
Generation TCSC
compensation
TCSR Thyristor controlled series reactors
TCPST Thyristor controlled phase shifting transformer
TCPAR Thyristor controlled phase angle regulator
STATC Static synchronous compensator
OM
2nd SSSC Static synchronous series compensator
Generation BESS Battery Energy Storage System
UPFC Unified power flow controller
IPFC Interline power flow controller
3rd GUPFC Generalized unified power flow controller
Generation HPFC Hybrid power flow controller
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applicable to some devices such as STATCOMs while it is a main
parameter in SVCs. This value is also not available in pure series devices
such as TCSCs.
Minimum value of the shunt element susceptance. This parameter is not
applicable to some devices such as STATCOMs while it is a main
Bshmin
parameter in SVCs. This value is also not available in pure series devices
such as TCSCs.
Maximum bridge active power transfer between the series element and
Ptrmax the shunt element. This power transfer is possible in hybrid devices while
it is not available in either pure series or pure shunt devices.
VSEmax Maximum acceptable voltage magnitude at the terminal end bus.
VSEmin Minimum acceptable voltage magnitude at the terminal end bus.
Vsemax Maximum series voltage.
Isemax Maximum series current in MVA at unity voltage (default 0.0)
Reactance of the series element. This reactance is a dummy reactance in
Xse
some devices and used in certain solution states
Xsemax Maximum value of the reactance of the series element.
Xsemax Minimum value of the reactance of the series element.
maximum bridge active power transfer limit to zero. STATCONs and SVCs
are modeled by setting the terminal end bus to zero (i.e. the series element is
deactivated). IPFC are modeled by using two consecutively numbered series
FACTS devices. By setting the control mode, one device will be assigned, as
the IPFC master device while the other becomes the slave device. Both
devices have a series element without a shunt element. The conditions of the
master device define the active power exchange between the devices.
The mathematical modeling of some of these devices will be presented in
the next sections and chapters. According to the nature of the analysis and the
simplifying assumptions, some of the models will be applicable for dynamic
studies while the others will be applicable for static studies.
where: , , ,
, , is the order of the system, is the
number of inputs, and is the number of outputs.
The column vector x is called the state vector and its entries are the state
variables. The vector u is the vector of inputs to the system, which are
external signals that have an impact on the performance of the system. The
output variables are those that can be observed in the system. The column
vector y is the vector of system output variables, referred as output vector and
is the vector of nonlinear functions defining the output variables in terms of
state and input variables.
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If the state space matrix A has n distinct eigenvalues, then the diagonal
matrix of the eigenvalues (Λ), the right eigenvectors ( ), and the left
eigenvectors (Ψ) are related by the following equations.
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where: , ,
, and
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7.2 TCSC structure and control modes: (a) Basic structure, (b) A line
with TCSC
The constant admittance regulator for TCSC takes the form shown in Fig.
7.3(b). In this case, one state variable ( ) represents the TCSC and the
state space model takes the form,
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 7.3 Control modes of TCSC: (a) Constant power regulator; (b)
Constant admittance regulator
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respectively the right and the left eigenvector matrices (Eqs. (7.6) to
(7.8)), then the participation factor of the state variable to the
eigenvalue can be defined as,
3. Nyquist analysis. In this step, the value washout filter time constant is
randomly selected between 1 and 20 Sec then the Nuquist plot of the
uncompensated loop including the washout filter is constructed. The
required phase compensation is then determined from the constructed
Nyquist plot. The objective is to obtain a good phase margin based on
the critical frequency .
5. Damping ratio adjustment. In this step, the root locus plot of the
compensated system is used to determine the value of Kw that provide
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\
Fig. 7.6: Flowchart describing the frequency response method
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R. Sadikovic, et al., "Application of FACTS devices for damping of power system
oscillations," presented at the IEEE Power Tech, St. Petersburg, Russia, June 2005.
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It can be observed from (7.23) that the shift of the eigenvalue caused by a
feedback controller is proportional to the magnitude of the residue. For
improving the damping of the system, the change of eigenvalue must be
directed towards the left half side of the complex plane. This is can be
achieved by the use of the FACTS-POD controller. The compensation phase
angle required to move an eigenvalue to the left in parallel to the real
axis is illustrated in Fig. 7.8. This phase shift can be implemented using the
lead-lag function of the POD represented by Fig. 7.5 and equation (7.25). The
parameters of the lead-lag compensator are determined using,
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Fig. 7.10 The study system with the p.u network reactances are shown on
2220 MVA base
The TCSC will be placed on line 2 as shown in Fig.7.11 and will be used
to compensate the difference between the reactances of line 1 and line 2 of
the study system. In this case, series compensation ratio is 0.462. The input
variables to the PSAT block for modeling the TCSC are: sec,
p.u, p.u.
It is clear from these tables that both scenarios are stable; however, the
eigenvalues of the system are changed as an effect of adding the TCSC to the
system. The TCSC adds a non-oscillatory eigenvalue. The frequencies of the
oscillatory modes of the system with TCSC are increased by 6.216% in
comparison with the system without the TCSC while their damping ratios are
reduced by 5.888%; (the percentage changes are calculated according to: %
change = 100*(new value – old value)/old value). Therefore, the inclusion of
the TCSC degrades the system stability. The damping ratio is less than 10%.
Therefore, inclusion of POD is recommended to elevate the damping ratio to
a value higher than or equal to 10%. POD designs according to the frequency
response and residue methods are presented in the next sections; the objective
is to increase the damping ratio to an acceptable value i.e. ≥ 10%. Various
input signals to the POD will be considered. In addition, the observability and
controllability of them will be determined using equations (7.9) and (7.10).
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Fig. 7.13 Nyquist plots of SMIB system with and without POD
It is depicted from Fig. 7.13 and Table 7.3 that the OLTF for the
system is stable, but presents poorly damped poles. For a good POD design,
the resulting polar plot should be approximately symmetric with respect to
the real axis of the complex plane. Based on the Nyquist plots, the value of
the angle required to relocate the critical frequency is 100.23o. Therefore,
using equations (7.19) and (7.20), the parameters of the lead-lag
compensators are T1 = 0.3408 sec. and T2 = 0.0449 sec. The gain Kw is
determined based on the root locus of the system including the POD. The
Matlab control system toolbox is used to construct the root locus as shown in
Fig. 7.14. The gain Kw is determined by dragging the critical mode to an
acceptable damping ratio which is chosen to be higher than 10%. As shown
in Fig. 7.14, the value of the damping of the critical mode in the compensated
system is set to 15.63% and the corresponding gain is 0.0641. The transfer
function of the POD is then takes the form,
With the POD connected to the system shown in Fig. 7.11 as shown in
Fig. 7.15, the design will be evaluated by both the eigenvalue analysis and
the TDS of the compensated system. The results of the eigenvalue analysis of
the compensated system is shown in Table 7.5 which indicates that the
minimum damping of the system is improved to 15.63% as set by the POD
design. Tables 7.2 and 7.3 show respectively that the damping of the system
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without TCSC is 9.34% and 8.79% in the uncompensated system with TCSC.
This ensures the success of the POD design for improving the damping of the
system.
Fig. 7.13 Root locus of the compensated system and selection of the gain
Kw
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7.16 TDS for 10% increase in the mechanical power: (a) Rotor
angles; (b) Rotor angular speeds.
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Table 7.7 shows the eigenvalue analysis of the system after connecting
the POD to the system which indicates the improvement in the system
damping in comparison to the systems of scenarios 1 and 2. The TD
responses as various scenarios subjected to the considered disturbance are
shown in Fig. 7.16. The results validate the POD design using the residue
method which results in approximately the same TD response of the system.
C) Further Analysis
In this section a summary of some other related results will be
presented to show the effect of some critical issues in damping of oscillations
in power systems. These issues are the impact of POD input signal and the
value of the time constant of the washout filter (Tw) on damping of power
system oscillations. The impact of POD input signal is shown in Fig. 7.17
which indicates that better dynamic performance can be achieved with the
transformer reactive power as a feedback signal while the other feedback
signals (i.e. the transformer current and the transformer active power ) have
the same impact on the dynamic performance of the system. Therefore,
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(a)
(b)
Table 7.17 TDS for 10% increase in the mechanical power with various
feedback signals: (a) Rotor angles; (b) Rotor angular speeds.
The results shown in Table 7.7 are obtained with Tw = 7. Although the
literature recommended to select a random value for Tw between 1 to 20 sec,
detailed analysis shows that the acceptable range of Tw is dependent on the
system parameters and operating conditions. This is demonstrated in Table
7.8 for the same design conditions shown in Table 7.7. Three values of Tw are
shown. These values are 1 sec, 7 sec, and 14 sec.
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Table 7.8 shows that for all the considered values of Tw, the damping ratio
of the critical electromechanical modes can be successfully increased to
values higher than 15% which is practically acceptable damping level. The
interesting part here is that, as shown in Table 7.8, that increasing Tw results
in decreasing the damping ratios and increasing the frequencies of some of
the electromechanical modes that was originally not critical (i.e. their
damping ratio was higher than 10%). It is also shown that high value of T w
such as 14 could result in creating new critical modes in the compensated
system. Therefore, careful selection of Tw should be considered in the initial
stages of the design. It is also important to know that a suitable value of Tw
for a specific system may be not suitable for another system. In addition, the
impact of Tw on the dynamic performance is also sensitive to the operating
conditions of a power system.
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The new study system is shown in Fig. 7.18. The detailed system data are
listed Appendix 8.
In the original system, each area consists of two synchronous generator
units. The rating of each synchronous generator is 900 MVA and 20 kV.
Each of the units is connected through transformers to the 230 kV
transmission line. There is a power transfer of 400 MW from Area 1 to Area
2. The PSAT model of the two area system is shown in Fig. 7.19.
This system will be studied considering three scenarios. In the first two
scenarios, the synchronous generators will be controlled by AVRs only (i.e.
without PSS) and the PODs in these scenarios will be designed for the
purpose of improving the small signal stability by increasing the critical and
unacceptable damping ratios to acceptable levels (>=10%). In the first
scenario, one PODfor one SVC will be designed and the SVC will be
installed in the central bus between the two areas (bus 8). In the second
scenario, two PODs for two SVCs will be simultaneously designed. In this
case, the old capacitors located at bus 7 & bus 9 will be replaced by SVCs. In
the third scenario, the PSS will be included in the system and the POD will
be designed to improve the system stability in the presence of the PSS. The
description of study scenarios is shown in Fig. 7.20.
The basic structure of SVC is shown in Fig. 7.20(a). The SVC is
connected to a coupling transformer that is connected directly to the ac bus
whose voltage is to be regulated. The SVC is composed of a controllable
shunt reactor and a fixed shunt capacitor(s). When placed in shunt with the ac
bus as shown in Fig. 7.20, total susceptance of SVC can be controlled by
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controlling the firing angle of thyristors; however, the SVC acts like fixed
capacitor or fixed inductor at the maximum and minimum limits.
The SVC regulators can be controlled to provide either two models. The
first one assumes a time constant regulator, as depicted in Fig. 7.21(a). In this
model, a the dynamics of the SVC takes the form,
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7.20 SVC structure and control modes: (a) Basic structure, (b) A bus
with SVC
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Table 7.9: Dominant eigenvalues and participation factors of the test system
without FACTs
Most
f Status of
Eigenvalues associated
(Hz) (%) Eigenvalues
states
-0.54657j6.5963 9.5017 8.25% δ2 ,ω2 Unacceptable
-0.56151j6.7847 9.5110 8.25% δ4 ,ω4 Unacceptable
-0.06528+j3.3288 5.0111 1.96% δ3 ,ω3 Critical
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 7.21 Control modes of SVC: (a) SVC Type 1 Regulator; (b) SVC
Type 2 Regulator
It is clear that the system without FACTs is stable but presents three
poorly damped eigenvalues with damping ratios 8.25%, 8.25% and 1.96%.
Hence, the system has very poor damping of oscillations.
B. Scenario 1
In this scenario, an SVC will be added to the system at bus 8; Fig. 7.22.
The synchronous generators will be controlled by AVRs but without PSSs.
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The eigenvalues of the system with SVC which have the lowest damping
ratios will be shown in Table 7.10. In comparison with Table 7.9, it is clear
that the SVC degrades the system damping.
Table 7.10: Dominant eigenvalues and participation factors of the test system
in Scenario 1 with SVC
Most
f Status of
Eigenvalues associated
(Hz) (%) Eigenvalues
states
-0.53283j6.6197 9.504 8% δ2 ,ω2 Unacceptable
-0.5361j6.831 9.5150 7.77% δ4 ,ω4 Unacceptable
-0.05755+j3.5689 5.0.151 1.6% δ3 ,ω3 Critical
Table 7.10 Root locus of the compensated system and selection of the gain
Kw
With the SVC, the critical eigenvalue has a damping ratio 1.6% while the
two unacceptable eigenvalues have damping ratios 7.77% and 8%. Since the
damping ratio is less than 10%. Therefore, inclusion of POD is required to
elevate the damping ratio to a value higher than or equal to 10%. The
frequency response method will be used for that purpose. The POD washout
filter time constant will be chosen as Tw=1 sec. By testing all possible POD
stabilizing signals according to its own root-locus leads to that there is no any
signal that can achieve the design objective. As demonstration, the POD is
designed with the sending current between Bus 6 and Bus 7 are used as
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stabilizing signal to the POD. Based on the Nyquist plot, the value of the
angle required to relocate the critical frequency is found to be be 103.71 o.
Therefore, using equations (7.20) and (7.21), the parameters of the lead-lag
compensators are T1 = 0.0969 sec. and T2 = 0.8104 sec. The POD gain (Kw) is
selected based on the root-locus of the system as shown in Fig. 7.23. It is
shown that with a gain of 1.21 the 1.6% damping ratio becomes 11% while
the 7.77% and 8% damping ratios will not be increased to the acceptable
levels. The transfer function of the POD then takes the form,
With the POD connected as shown in Fig. 7.11, the eigenvalues are shown
in Table 7.11. The results indicates that it is not possible to increase all the
damping ratios to accepted level by designing one POD in the two area
system which does not contain PSS.
Fig. 7.11Modelling of the two area system in the 1st scenario with POD
Table 7.11 Dominant eigenvalues and participation factors of the test system
in Scenario 1 with SVC & POD
Most
f Status of
Eigenvalues associated
(Hz) (%) Eigenvalues
states
-0.54297j6.8326 9.5151 7.9% δ4 ,ω4 Unacceptable
-0.53477j6.6161 9.50.7 8% δ2 ,ω2 Unacceptable
-0.39502j3.4775 5.00459 99% δ1 ,ω1 Accepted
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C. Scenario 2
In this scenario, the two old capacitors installed at Bus 7 and Bus 9 are
replaced by two SVCs for the purpose of designing two PODs for the system.
The two area system with the installed SVCs is shown in Fig. 7.12. The
synchronous generators will also be controlled by only AVRs as the previous
scenario.
Fig. 7.12 Modelling of the two area system in the 2nd scenario
The eigenvalues of the system with SVCs which have the lowest damping
ratios will be shown in Table 7.12.
Table 7.12 Dominant eigenvalues and participation factors of the test system
in Scenario 2 with SVCs
Most
f Status of
Eigenvalues associated
(Hz) (%) Eigenvalues
states
-0.52663j6.6178 9.50.. 8% δ2 ,ω2 Unacceptable
-0.5382j6.8191 9.5114 7.92% δ4 ,ω4 Unacceptable
-0. 0.03599+j3.7071 5.01551 0.45% δ1 ,ω1 Critical
According to Table 7.12, the presence of the SVCs degrads the system in
comparsion with the original topology and scenario 1. There is a critical
eigenvalue with damping ratio 0.45% and two unacceptable eigenvalues with
damping ratios 7.92% and 8%.
The design of the PODs will be achieved in two stages. In the first stage,
one POD is designed and the system minimum damping ratio is determined.
If the minimum damping is acceptable, then there is no need for the inclusion
of the second POD. Otherwise, the second POD is designed for achieving
acceptable damping ratios.
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For the first POD, the sending current between Bus 10 and Bus 9 is
chosen as a stabilizing signal to the POD for the SVC located at bus 9. The
POD transfer function is then found to be,
With this POD connected to the system, the system eigenvalues are shown
in Table 7.13.
Table 7.13 Dominant eigenvalues and participation factors of the test system
in Scenario 2 with SVCs & POD1
Most
f Status of
Eigenvalues associated
(Hz) (%) Eigenvalues
states
-0.53872j6.818 9.5110 7.92% δ4 ,ω4 Unacceptable
-0.52629j6.6183 9.50.4 8% δ2 ,ω2 Unacceptable
-0.38416j3.7492 5.01111 10.1% δ3 ,ω3 Acceptable
It is depicted from Table 7.13 that the first POD has a positive impact on
the critical eigenvalues since it has the ability to increase the damping of the
critical eigenvalues to 10.2% and it has no significant impact on the other
eigenvalues. The design objective of the second POD is to increase the
unacceptable damping ratios to accepted level. The root-locus of all possible
stabilizing signals to the second POD are determined to select the best signal
which can improve the damping ratios of the rest of eigenvalues to accepted
levels. Unfortunately, through testing all possible POD stabilizing signals, no
signal can be found suitable for achieving the design target; however, the best
found POD has the following transfer function and the system than has the
eigenvalues shown in Table 7.14 which are unacceptable but slightly
improved.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Table 7.14 Dominant eigenvalues and participation factors of the test system
in Scenario 2 with SVCs & PODs
Most
f Status of
Eigenvalues associated
(Hz) (%) Eigenvalues
states
-0.55513j6.8251 9.5111 8.2% δ4 ,ω4 Unacceptable
-0.61789j6.6169 9.5044 9.3% δ2 ,ω2 Unacceptable
- 0.31606 j 2.7477 5.7751 99.4% δ3 ,ω3 Acceptable
D. Scenario 3:
In this scenario, another control will be added on the synchronous
generators of the two area system shown in the previous scenario. PSS will
be added to generator 4 as shown in Fig. 7.13. The PSS is added to generator
4 for the purpose of improving one of the unacceptable damping ratios and
the others will be increased by the POD.
Fig. 7.13 modelling of the two area system in the 3rd scenario
The eigenvalues of the system with SVCs which have the lowest damping
ratios are shown in Table 7.15.
Table 7.15 Dominant eigenvalues and participation factors of the test system
in Scenario 3 with SVCs
Most
f Eigenvalue
Eigenvalues associated
(Hz) (%) Status
states
-1.6434j7.5784 9.1171 21.17% δ4 ,ω4 acceptable
-0.52845j6.6191 9.50.1 7.95% δ2 ,ω2 Unacceptable
- 0.13075j 3.8027 5..5004 3.4% δ3 ,ω3 Critical
that the PSS has a positive impact on the damping; however, the damping
ratios are still unacceptable. Therefore, inclusion of POD is performed to
elevate the damping ratio to a value higher than or equal to 10%. It is found
that the sending current between Bus 5 and Bus 6 as a stabilizing signal to the
POD can be used for achieving this target. Based on the Nyquist plot, the
value of the angle required to relocate the critical frequency will be -21.77o.
The parameters of the lead-lag compensators are T1 = 0.3184 sec. and T2 =
0.2172 sec. The POD gain (Kw) is selected based on the root-locus of the
system. With a gain of 0.0767 the 3.4% damping ratio becomes 18.1% while
the 7.95% damping ratio becomes 10%; see Fig. 7.14.
Fig. 7.14 Root locus of the compensated system and selection of the gain
Kw
The transfer function of the second POD then takes the form,
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
well as operating points in the close proximity of the design point; however,
power systems are subjected to large normal changes of the operating
conditions during its normal operating conditions. Therefore, the capability of
the designed controllers to serve their objectives and functions are doubtful
when there are large deviations of the operating conditions in comparison with
the design-based operating conditions. Therefore, the use of intelligent and
adaptive systems that combine knowledge, techniques and methodologies from
various sources are essential for the real-time control of power systems79.
These methods are out of the scope of the current volume of the book;
however, a brief survey is given here for interested readers and researchers.
In practice different conventional control strategies are being used for
POD design as described in this chapter; however, handling of system
nonlinearities is the main advantage of the AI design techniques over the
conventional design techniques. Artificial Intelligence techniques such as
Fuzzy Logic, Artificial Neural networks and Genetic Algorithm can be
applied for POD design, which can overcome the limitations of
conventional controls. The POD based FACTs devices such as UPFC and
STATCOM has been designed by neural network80,81 in a multi-machine
power system to suppress the power system oscillations and to enhance the
transient stability. The POD has also been designed by fuzzy logic 82,83 to
improve the damping the power system oscillations. The genetic algorithm 84,85
79
Patel, R. N., S. K. Sinha, and R. Prasad. "Design of a Robust Controller for AGC with
Combined Intelligence Techniques." Proceedings of World Academy of Science:
Engineering & Technology, Vol. 47, No.1, pp. 95-101 , 2008.
80
D. Ravi Kumar, N. Ravi Kiran " Hybrid Controller Based UPFC for Damping of
Oscillations in Multi Machine Power Systems," International Journal of Engineering
Research & Technology (IJERT) , ISSN: 2278-0181, Vol. 2, Issue 10, October - 2013.
81
Mozhgan Balavar,” Using Neural Network to Control STATCOM for Improving
Transient Stability” Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Electrical Engineering, Islamic Azad
University, Ahar, Iran, Vol. 1, No. 1, June 2012.
82
Dakka Obulesu, S. F. Kodad, B V. Sankar Ram, " Damping of oscillations in multi-
machine integrated power systems using hybrid fuzzy strategies," International Journal of
Research and Reviews in Applied Sciences, Vol. 1, Issue 2, November 2009.
83
Prasanna Kumar Inumpudi and Shiva Mallikarjuna Rao N,” Development of a Fuzzy
Control Scheme with UPFC’s For Damping of oscillations in multi machine integrated
power systems” International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA),
Vol. 1, Issue 2, pp.230-234.
84
Aghazade, A.; Kazemi, A.”Simultaneous coordination of power system stabilizers and
STATCOM in a multi-machine power system for enhancing dynamic performance”4th
285
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
method can be also used to design the POD and the POD gain was obtained
through the minimization of an objective function based on the damping ratio.
Moreover, the GA-based methodology can be used to solve power system
problems86 such as the inter-area congestions and oscillations issues in a HV
Transmission system.
Recently, many researches focus on the robust control design of the POD to
enhance the system dynamic performance. H∞ technique has been applied87 to
design the POD in large wind power plants (WPPs) to improve small signal
stability by increasing the damping of electromechanical modes of oscillation.
While in , the optimization of POD parameters is formulated based on a
mixed H2 H∞ control88, and carried out under all system outage events such as
line tripping, and load/generation shedding.
The OPF with FACTS constraints is used to show the validity of the
placement technique to relief network congestions. The preliminary
mathematical modeling of a system with TCSC, and a general form of static-
sensitivity analysis are first considered then the placement criterion will be
presented. A case study is then presented.
The power system AC power flow model can be found in any power
system analysis text book for example. The fundamental model is based on
the system section shown in Fig. 7.15. the symbols in that figure are defined
as,
89
EL-Shimy M. Multi-objective Placement of TCSC for Enhancement of Steady-State
Performance of Power System. Scientific Bulletin - Faculty of Engineering - Ain Shams
Uni. 2007;42(3):935 - 50
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
FACTS devices
Main Subjects
Problems
Corrective
STATCOM
TCPAR
action(s)
TCSC
UPFC
SSSC
TCR
SVC
TSC
Supply Q
at heavy
loading
voltage
Low
Reduce line
Xl
voltage at
loading
High
Absorb Q
low
Voltage limits
contingenc
following
voltage
High
Absorb Q
a
y
contingenc
following
voltage
Low
Supply Q
a
y
overloadin
Transmiss
ion circuit
Increase the
Thermal
limits
transfer
g
limit
distribution over
Adjust
parallel line
reactances
Power
Load flow
Adjust
phase angles
Load flow
reversal
Adjust
phase angles
transmissi
on power
Limited
Stability
Reduce line
Xl
Limit the
High short circuit
short circuit
Short circuit
currents
current
power
AND
increase line
Xl
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Fig. 7.15: Power flow model; (a) Single-line diagram; (b) Detailed
representation in terms of network elements.
The active and reactive power injected to bus i are given by,
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
where K(i) is the set of all buses connected to bus i; ij = i - j;
g ii g
jK ( i )
sij g ij ; bii ( b
jK ( i )
sij bij ) bsi
The active and reactive power flow on line m from bus i to bus j are given by,
Qlm Qij V i 2 (bsij bij ) bijV iV j cos ij g ijV iV j sin ij (7.46)
The active and reactive power losses on line m are given by,
The network active and reactive power losses are given by:
nl nl
S L PL jQ L PLm j Q Lm (7.49)
m 1 m 1
Now, consider a line with a TCSC as shown in Fig. 7.16. The TCSC can be
defined as capacitive reactance compensator which consists of a series fixed
capacitor (FC) bank shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR). This
structure is required for providing a smoothly variable series capacitive
reactance. See Fig. 7.17. The line power flow, line losses are obtained by
modifying equations (7.45) to (7.48) by replacing bij by (bij+bclm) where bclm
is the susceptance of the TCSC on line m, and equals to the inverse of the
TCSC reactance xclm. This is the static-reactance model of a line with TCSC.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
F (X ,U , D ) 0 (7.50)
X T 2 N V m 1 V N (7.51)
D T PD 1 PDN QD 1 Q DN (7.53)
It should be noted that the control vector U may contain other variables
such as switch status of switched- capacitor or inductor banks, phase-angle of
ULTC or TCPAR. The solution of (7.50) is the state vector X from which the
output variables can be calculated. These output variables include active and
reactive line power flow, active and reactive line power loss, system active
and reactive power loss, and output power of slack bus generator. All the
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
desired output variables form the output vector W. For a given operating
point (Xo, Uo, Do), the output vector Wo can be determined as a function of
that operating point. This function takes the general form,
W o
(X o ,U o , D o ) (7.54)
W X X U U D D (7.55)
K XU FX1FU (7.57)
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
W T | Pl 1 | ... | Plnl | | Ql 1 | ... | Qlnl | PLl 1 ... PL lnl QLl 1 ... Q L lnl PL Q L (7.60)
The modulus of line active and reactive power flow is taken for
avoiding the error and the misunderstanding of the sensitivity results. For
example, if the modulus is not taken and the sensitivity of power flow on line
m’ due to placement of a TCSC on line m is negative, this will give one of the
following meanings:
As the modulus of line active and reactive power flow is taken, a negative
sensitivity will only mean that the flow on line m’ is reduced due to
placement of TCSC on line m, and this flow is increased with positive
sensitivity.
The output-to-input static-sensitivity is obtained using the general form
(7.56) where the matrices required in the calculation of the output-to-input
static-sensitivity matrix KUW are explained in the following. The Jacobian
matrix FX is the Newton-Raphson power flow standard Jacobian matrix and
takes the form,
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
P
Q F
X (7.61)
V
P
Q FU X l
P X cl
X cl (7.62)
Q X cl
Pi
lm V i 2 V iV j cos ij lmV iV j sin ij
for i slack, and m K (i ) (7.63)
X clm
0 Otherwise
Q i
lm V i 2 V iV j cos ij lmV iV j sin ij
for i K (PQ ), and m K (i ) (7.64)
X clm
0 Otherwise
Where K(PQ) is the set of all PQ-buses.
g lm 2r (x x clm )
lm 2 lm lm (7.65)
x clm (rlm (x lm x clm )2 ) 2
z lm rlm jx lm (7.67)
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
2n
Plmo
nl
PPI lm max (7.68)
m 1 2n Plm
The value of PPI is small when all network lines normally loaded (i.e.
significantly below their thermal limits), and its value increases as the
network lines loading increases. The PPI becomes high when there is a single
major congestion or a number of small line loading violations. The inability
to discriminate between a single major congestion and a number of small line
90
S.N. Singh, A.K. David, “Optimal Location of FACTS Devices for Congestion
Management”, Electric Power System Research, Vol. 58, 2001, pp. 71-79.
91
G.C. Ejebe, and B.F. Wollenberg, “Automatic Contingency selection”, IEEE, PAS, Vol.
98, No. 1, 1979, pp. 92-104.
295
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
4
PPI nl
1 Plm
lcm '
P
3
| Plmo | max (7.69)
x cl ' x cl ' 0 m 1 Plm x clm '
92
G Shaoyun, and T S Chung, “Optimal Power Flow Incorporating FACTS Devices with
Power Flow Control Constraints”, Electrical Power & Energy Systems, Vol. 20, No. 5,
1998, pp. 321-326
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
2n
lm Plmo Q lmo
2n
S
nl nl 2 2
SPI lm lmo max
(7.70)
m 1 2n S lm m 1 2n
max
S lm
4
SPI nl
1 Plm Q lm
lcm '
S
2
S lmo max | Plmo | | Q lmo | (7.71)
x cl ' x cl ' 0 m 1 S lm x clm ' x clm '
The value of is treated in the same manner of treating the value of
S
P. In this analysis both S and P are used and compared. In doing so, in the
calculation P the line active power limit is taken equals to its apparent power
limits as widely used based on the assumption that the line power flow is
mostly active power. But this justification is not general.The objectives of
the TCSC placement in this analysis are,
Maximum relief of network loading (or congestion),
Power flow control,
Maximum reduction in active and reactive losses in a particular line,
and
Maximum reduction in active and reactive power loss of a power
network.
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Table 7.22: Priority sets of placemat of TCSC for line active power flow
control based on line active power flow sensitivity matrix of Table 7.21
Location of TCSC Placement for
Line, m
Increase active power flow Decrease active power flow
1 1, 5, 2 6, 7, 3
2 1, 5, 2 6, 7, 3
3 1, 5, 2 6, 7, 3
4 7, 5, 6, 1, 2 3, 4
5 5, 6, 1, 2 3, 4
6 6, 5, 3 7, 1, 4
7 7, 3 5, 6, 1, 2
-0.00179
-0.00272
-0.31602
0.18693
0.13766
-0.0053
P
The optimal placement of TCSC for network loading relief based on the
most-negative P-criteria is a TCSC placed on line 7. The effectiveness of
placement of TCSC on other lines for network loading relief is arranged as a
priority list as shown in the table. Hence, one of these location (i.e. placement
on lines 1, 2, 3, 4, 7) will be the selected location if it satisfy all the desired
objectives. The correctness of the rejections will be verified by calculation
the performance index PPI for separate placement of TCSC on line 7 and line
5 and simulating the changes in PPI through multiple loadflow as the TCSC
reactance changes all over its range. Fig. 7.19 shows these changes in the
PPI, it is clear from that figure that placement of a TCSC on line 7 decreases
the PPI all over the range of variation of the TCSC and the opposite occurs
with placement of TCSC on line 5.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
The line reactive power flow sensitivity matrix is shown in Table 7.23
and can be used as a guide for TCSC placement for line reactive power flow
control this shown in Table 9 arranged in priority sets for TCSC placement
i.e. from the most effective locations to the least effective locations for
placement of TCSC for line active power flow.
Table 7.24: Priority Sets of Placemat of TCSC for line reactive power flow
control
Based on Line reactive Power Flow Sensitivity Matrix of Table 7.23
Location of TCSC Placement for
Line, m
Increase reactive power flow Decrease reactive power flow
1 1, 5, 2 6, 7, 3, 4
2 6, 7, 2, 3 1, 5, 4
3 3, 1, 5, 2 6, 7
4 7, 2, 3 5, 6, 1, 4
5 5, 3 6, 7, 1, 2
6 6, 5, 2, 4, 3 7, 1
7 6, 1, 2 5, 7, 3
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
-0.00825
-0.00024
-0.00213
-0.34721
0.00180
0.19112
0.15468
S
Placement
2 4 Rejected 3 Rejected Rejected 1 (Opt.)
priority
Based on the values of the line active- and line reactive- power flow
sensitivity matrices, the sensitivity of line apparent power flow performance
index SPI to line power flow as affected by placement of TCSC on line m’ is
calculated and these values and TCSC placement priority are shown in Table
7.24 and 7.25. Based on the most-negative S criteria an additional line is
rejected from TCSC placement list which is line 3. It is logical that the results
obtained from S criteria are more accurate than those obtained from P
criteria. Therefore, the final TCSC placement list consists of 4 locations on
lines {7, 1, 4, 2} arranged according to their effectiveness in relieving
network overloads (congestions). Based on that, the rejected locations are
identified in Table 7.22 and Table 7.24 by non-bold numbers. In addition,
from this point the rejected locations will not be mentioned in the following
placement lists.
The line- active power loss and reactive power loss sensitivity matrices
are shown in Table 7.26 and Table 7.27 respectively. Those matrices can be
used as a guide for TCSC placement for line active and reactive power loss
reduction as shown in Table 7.28. Hence, the overlapping placement
decisions of active and reactive power loss reduction represent the candidate
locations of TCSC for line apparent power reduction.
Table 7.26: Line active Power loss Sensitivity Matrix (PLlm/xclm’)
Line Loc. 1 Loc. 2 Loc. 3 Loc. 4 Loc. 5 Loc. 6 Loc. 7
1 0.04 0.0125 -0.005 0 0.02 -0.0375 -0.03125
2 0.003125 0.001875 0 0 0.00125 -0.00188 -0.00188
3 0.005 0.00125 0.01875 0 0.0025 -0.005 -0.005
4 0 0 0 0 0.00125 0 0.000625
5 0.005 0.001875 -0.01937 0 0.04 0.0125 -0.06063
6 -0.01444 -0.004444 0.001667 0 0.017778 0.031667 -0.02833
7 -0.0125 -0.004375 0.00125 -0.28125 -0.07937 -0.02875 0.106875
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Table 7.28: Priority Sets of Placemat of TCSC for line active, reactive, and
apparent power loss reduction
Location of TCSC Placement for
Line, m Decrease line Decrease line Decrease line
active power loss reactive power loss apparent power loss
1 7 7, 4 7
2 7 1, 4 NO
3 7 7 7
4 NA* 1, 4 NO
5 7 7, 1, 2 7
6 7, 1, 2 7, 1 7, 1
7 4, 1, 2, 7 NO
* NA: Not Applicable
** NO: No Overlapping (in this case one line power loss can be reduced
via a sigle TCSC)
Table 7.29: Network power loss sensitivity matrices and placement priority
sets
Loc. 1 Loc. 2 Loc. 3 Loc. 4 Loc. 5 Loc. 6 Loc. 7
PL
0.0005 0.00125 0.0175 -0.00063 -0.00625 -0.00278 -0.00437
Sensitivity
PL
Priority Rejec Rejec Rejec 2 Rejec Rejec 1 (Opt.)
sets
QL
-0.2875 -0.00625 0.0125 0 -0.175 -0.08889 -0.51875
Sensitivity
QL Rejec Rejec Rejec Rejec
2 3 1 (Opt.)
Priority sets
SL Rejec Rejec Rejec Rejec
NO NO 1 (Opt.)
Priority sets
The network active, and reactive power loss sensitivity matrices are
shown in Table 7.29. Those matrices can be used as a guide for TCSC
placement for network power loss reduction. Hence, the overlapping
placement decisions of active and reactive power loss reduction represent the
candidate locations of TCSC for line apparent power reduction.
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Chapter 8
Overview, Modeling, and Performance Analysis of Grid-
connected Wind energy Sources
8.1 Introduction
Generally, the electric power is produced through an energy conversion
process in which a primary energy source is converted into electric power. As
illustrated in Fig. 8.1, the primary energy resources can be classified
according their capability of replenishment (or renewal) into two broad
categories; non-renewable and renewable energy resources93. The
conventional or non-renewable energy resources are available on the earth in
limited quantity and will be vanished in the future. On the opposite side,
renewable resources are natural sources of energy that are continually
renewed, or replenished by nature, and hence will never run out.
Energy plays an important role in the national security of any given
country as a fuel to power the economic engine 94. Therefore, the energy
security or in other words the access to cheap energy and availability of
energy resources for the future is one of the major challenges in the energy
sector. Non-renewable energy resources are distributed in an uneven way
throughout the world while many types of renewable energy resources such
as wind and solar energies are available for all locations on the earth.
Therefore, renewable energy resources can contribute in enhancing the
worldwide energy security, reducing the energy threat, and crisis. In addition,
renewable energy sources are sustainable due to their low pollution levels in
comparison with conventional sources of energy as well as their natural
availability. It should be noted that the phrase renewable and the phrase
sustainable are different. “Renewable energy includes all those natural
sources which can be replaced by natural ecological cycles. On the other
hand sustainable energies are those energies that help this world in meeting
its present needs without depleting ability of serving next generation’s needs.
93
Maczulak, A. (2010). Renewable Energy: Sources and Methods. New York: Infobase
Publishing, 2010
94
Sovacool, B. K.; Brown, M. A. (2010). Competing dimensions of energy security: An
international perspective. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 35, 77-108.
307
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
95
Difference between renewable and sustainable energy,
http://www.solarpowernotes.com/difference-between-renewable-and-sustainable-
energy.html#.UnAsrlPnURQ
96
Hand, M.M.; Baldwin, S.; DeMeo, E.; Reilly, J.M.; Mai, T.; Arent, D.; Porro, G.;
Meshek, M.; Sandor, D. (Eds. 4 Vols). (2012). Renewable Electricity Futures Study
NREL/TP-6A20-52409. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory
308
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
97
Tsili, M.; Papathanassiou, S. (2009). A review of grid code technical requirements for
wind farms. IET Renewable Power Generation, 3(3), 308-332.
98
El‐Shimy, M. (2012). Modeling and analysis of reactive power in grid‐connected
onshore and offshore DFIG‐based wind farms. Wind Energy.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/we.1575, Dec. 6, 2012
99
Holttinen, H.; Bettina Lemström, V. T. T.; Meibom, F. P.; Bindner, H. (2007). Design
and operation of power systems with large amounts of wind power. State-of-the-art report.
VTT (Espoo))(= VTT Working Papers, 82). URL: http://www. ieawind.
org/AnnexXXV/Publications W, 82
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Probably the hydrogen storage and hydrogen technologies will play a key
role in the future of variable renewable energy sources100.
In chapter 1, an overview of various energy sources and their operational
characteristic is given. Both renewable and non-renewable energy sources are
considered. In this chapter, detailed overview of the technological aspects of
wind and solar-PV energy production technologies will be presented. In
addition, the grid-interconnection requirements (i.e. the grid codes) for
connecting these energy sources to the grid will be explained considering
various international codes.
100
Parfomak, P. W. (2012). Energy storage for power grids and electric transportation: A
technology assessment. Congressional Research Service, Tech. Rep. R, 42455
101
EL-Shimy, M. (2013). Probable power production in optimally matched wind turbine
generators. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 2, 55-66
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
relative to the turbine rotor (Fig. 8.4), turbine capacity (Fig. 8.5), drivetrain
condition (Fig. 8.6), power supply mode (Fig. 8.7), location of the wind
turbine (Fig. 8.8), type of generator (Fig. 8.9), and operating concept (Fig.
8.9).
Fig. 8.3 shows the classification of wind turbines based on the direction of
the axis of rotation i.e. the horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) and the
vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT). Due to the low aerodynamic efficiency
of the VAWT, the HAWT dominate the wind turbine industry and the
market.
According to the airflow path relative to the turbine rotor, the HAWT can
be classified into upwind and downwind wind turbines as shown in Fig. 8.4;
the majority of HAWT is upwind.
The classification according to the turbine capacity is shown in Fig. 5.
Turbine capacities are designed according to the intended applications;
however, most recent designs are multi-
megawatt wind turbines for large-scale
wind farm applications.
Table 8.1 provides a brief comparison
between various WECTS. Although Fig.
8.9 and Table 8.1 shows a large variety of
generator/concept mix, a recent
technological status 103 shows the DFIG-
based VSWT present about 78% of the
wind power installed capacity, 12% for
Fig. 8.5: Classification of wind
full-scale converter based VSWT, 5% for turbines according to turbine
the limited variable speed concept, and 5% capacity
for the SCIG-based FSWT.
103
EL-Shimy, M. (2013). Probable power production in optimally matched wind turbine
generators. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 2, 55-66
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104
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BDFRIG
314
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
105
EL-Shimy, M. (2010). Alternative configurations for induction-generator based geared
wind turbine systems for reliability and availability improvement. Proc. of IEEE 14th
international middle-east power conference MEPCON2010. Cairo, Egypt.(pp. 617-623).
IEEE
106
Ciang, C. C.; Lee, J. R.; Bang, H. J. (2008). Structural health monitoring for a wind
turbine system: a review of damage detection methods. Measurement Science and
Technology, 19(12), 122001
107
Milano, F. (2010). Power system modelling and scripting. Springer.
108
Milano, F. (2008). Documentation for PSAT version 2.0.0, 2008.
109
EL-Shimy, M. (2010) Steady State Modeling and Analysis of DFIG for Variable-Speed
Variable- Pitch Wind Turbines. Ain Shams Journal of Electrical Engineering, 1, 179 - 89
110
Slootweg, J. G.; Kling, W. L. (2002). Modelling and analysing impacts of wind power
on transient stability of power systems. Wind Engineering, 26(1), 3-20
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111
El-Shimy, M.; Badr, M. A. L.; Rassem, O. M. (2008, March). Impact of large scale
wind power on power system stability. In 12th International Middle-East Power System
Conference MEPCON 2008. Aswan, Egypt. (pp. 630-636). IEEE
112
EL-Shimy, M. (2013). Probable power production in optimally matched wind turbine
generators. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 2, 55-66
113
Ghaly, N.; EL-Shimy, M.; Abdelhamed, M. Parametric study for stability analysis of
grid-connected wind energy conversion technologies. In 15th International Middle-East
Power System Conference MEPCON 2012. Alexandria, Egypt. (pp. 1-7). IEEE
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In the stall controlled turbines, the turbine blades are firmly bolted to the
turbine hub and the rotor speed is adjusted using a gearbox attached between
the turbine and generator shaft while the pitch angle is fixed at a value that
results in limiting the power output at high wind speed by blades stalling.
In pitch control, the stall angle of the blades is controlled via pitch angle
variations to limit the power output to a set value. Stall controlled turbines
are mainly implemented in the FSWT concept; however, the current
technological standard utilizes pitch-control for both FSWT and VSWT
concepts. The stall controlled turbines are not currently common due its
problems such as gearbox wear and blade design complications.
The considered model here is for pitch-controlled wind turbines which are
currently dominating the wind turbine industry. This is because this model is
adequate for the speed control of recent wind turbines. In this model, turbine
blades can rotate in order to reduce the rotor speed and output power in case
of high wind speeds. The angular position of the blades is called pitch
angle. The mechanical power extracted from the wind is a function of the
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wind speed , the rotor speed and the pitch angle . The mechanical
power model can be approximated by
The tip speed ratio is the ratio between the blade tip speed and the
wind upstream the rotor . The tip speed ratio is defined by
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8.12: Wind turbine; (a) Power curve and operational regions of a
pitch controlled wind turbine; (b) Pitch angle control scheme
where
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The power curve and the operational regions for a typical pitch-controlled
wind turbine are shown in Fig. 8.12(a). As shown, there are four operational
regions each of which has its own characteristics and limitations. In region 1,
the wind speeds are insufficient to run the turbine. Therefore, the output
power is zero. Region 2 starts when the wind speed exceeds the cut-in value
and extends up to the rated wind speed at which the rated output power is
produced. In this region, maximization of the power extraction is the main
concern. Therefore, the pitch angle is kept zero. This is achieved by an anti-
windup limiter in the pitch angle controller. In the third region, the rotor
speed and consequently the power extraction is limited to the rated power to
avoid overloading the turbine. This is achieved on the turbine level by using
the pitch angle control which adjusts the pitch angle to an appropriate
controlled value. In region 4 where the wind speeds reach dangerous limits,
the turbine is taken out of service for protection against mechanical damage.
A schematic diagram of a pitch-angle controller is shown in Fig. 8.12(b) and
it can be described mathematically by
where is a function which allows varying the pitch angle set point only
when the difference exceeds a predefined value
depending on the operating concept of the WTG.
In the Fixed-Speed Wind Turbine (FSWT) concept the turbine drive a
Squirrel-Cage Induction Generator (SCIG) that is directly connected to the
grid expect during start-up where a soft-starter is used to minimize the startup
stresses on the system and the grid. In this operating concept, should not
exceed 1% or 2% above the synchronous speed and the speed is kept constant
within this range. In the Variable-Speed Wind-Turbine (VSWT) concept, the
allowable speed range is high. For example it is 30 around the synchronous
speed in DFIG-based systems.
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In the VSWT concept, the Voltage Source Converter (VSC) controls can
effectively damp shadow effect modes and shaft oscillations. If the control is
efficient enough, the shaft can be considered rigid, i.e., = and can be
modeled using,
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8.14: SCIG; (a) Equivalent circuit of a SCIG; (b) dq-coordinates
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The link between the voltages, currents, and state variables is modeled as
follows,
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.15: Impact of pitch-angle control on the output power of a FSWT: (a)
Power-speed characteristics at zero pitch-angle; (b) Power-angle
characteristics at a pitch-angle of five degrees
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The speed control is aimed to maximize the power production of the wind
turbine. Fig. 8.17 shows the dependence of the mechanical power
produced by the wind turbine on the wind speed and the turbine rotor
speed . In addition, the maximum mechanical power locus for each wind
and rotor speeds is illustrated on the figure. This curve is used for defining,
for each value of the rotor speed, the optimal mechanical power that the
turbine has to produce. For super-synchronous speeds, the reference power is
fixed to 1.0 p.u to avoid overloading the generator. For < 0.5 pu, the
reference mechanical power is set to zero. For , the detailed (
, ) characteristic is,
The links between stator fluxes and generator currents are modeled using
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resistance and assuming that the d-axis coincides with the maximum of the
stator flux. Therefore, the powers injected in the grid can be simply
represented by,
C. Steady-state performance
It is clear from Fig. 8.14 and 8.14, that the model of the DFIG includes
the model of the SCIG. If the rotor circuit of a WRIG is shorted, the machine
becomes conceptually similar to a SCIG. Therefore, the following analysis is
given for the DFIG as it is the general case. The 3rd order fundamental
frequency model for the DFIG with flux oriented control scheme is
considered here for extraction of the steady state performance
characteristics 114.
Based on equations (8.41) and (8.42), it is noticed that stator active and
reactive power equations are decoupled due to the stator flux oriented-control
scheme.
It is assumed that the GSC operates at unity power factor for all
operating conditions i.e. Qr = 0. In addition, it is assumed that both
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mechanical losses and converter losses are neglected. The rotor active power
is also neglected under steady-state conditions. Therefore,
The stator active and reactive power represented by equations (8.41) and
(8.42) can be obtained in terms of the rotor voltage d- and q-components by
solving, under steady-state conditions, equations (8.39) and (8.40) for the
rotor current d- and q-components. These are results in the following
equations,
induction machine the dPs /ds criteria can be used. Since generator power
convention is used in the machine modeling, a steady-state stable operating
point requires that dPs /ds < 0. Based on (8.49), dPs /ds take the form,
where
Since we are dealing with DFIG characteristics control via rotor injection,
it is valuable to determine the values of the slip at zero output power (sR) as
well as the generator-mode critical slip scr_gen. The former is obtained by
setting Ps = 0 in (8.49), and the later is obtained by setting dPs /ds = 0 in
(8.51). Two solutions for scr are obtained, where the value of scr
corresponding to positive Ps is the generating-mode critical slip scr_gen and the
other (corresponding to negative stator power) is the motoring-mode critical
slip scr_mot. The value of sR and scr_gen can be computed using,
where , ,
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for
for
for
for
for
for
Based on Fig. 8.20, the function of the pitch-angle control is to limit the
turbine output energy at higher than rated wind speeds through variable-pitch
operation. For lower than rated wind speeds the wind energy capture is
maximized through fixed-pitch operation with pitch-angle set to zero degrees.
Two methods are used, for DFIG converters, to control output real-
power production of the DFIG according to the optimal tracking
characteristics 115. These are (i) current-mode control, and (ii) speed-mode
control. In current-mode control, that can be considered as a standard
tracking mode, the electrical real-power output from the DFIG is controlled
115
R. Pena, J.C.Clare, and G. M. As her, Doubly fed induction generator using back-to-
back PWM converters and its application to variable-speed wind-energy generation, IEE
Proc.-Electr. Power Appl, Vo1 143, No. 3, May 1996, pp. 231-24
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where
Consider DFIG of 2MW, 690V, 50Hz. The DFIG p.u parameters are listed
in Table 8.3, which also include definitions of DFIG parameters and symbols.
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As depicted from equations (8.41) and (8.42) and Fig. 8.22 and Fig.
8.23(b), the resulting rotor current components that are decoupled from each
other are linearly related with the demanded active and reactive power for all
rotor speeds. Based on Fig. 8.23(a), for rotor speed below 0.7 p.u where both
active and reactive power demands are zero, the Vqr is of a fixed negative
value independent on the rotor speed while Vdr is linearly related and
decreasing with the rotor speed. The described changes of Vdr are also
applicable for the rotor speed range with positive values of slip at sub
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(a) (b)
Fig. 8.23 Operation over full tracking characteristics with Qs = 0; (a) Rotor
voltage components; (b) Rotor currents and powers
Fig. 8.24 Operation over full tracking characteristics with different Qs;
Steady-state stability
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 8.27 Solo effects of Vdr on DFIM performance and stability; Vqr = 0
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 8.28 Solo effects of Vqr on DFIM performance and stability; with Vdr
=0
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116
M. EL-Shimy, “ Modeling and Control of Wind Turbines Including Aerodynamics”,
Scientific Bulletin - Faculty of Engineering - Ain Shams Uni. Vol. 41, No. 2, June 30,
2006
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The equations describing each of the shown components are already stated
in the previous sections. For stalled controller, the pitch angle is fixed to
zero regardless of the available wind speed. This concept is used for
implementing the model in the SimPowerSystems toolbox. In the
SimPowerSystems library, the induction generator is represented by 5 th order
dynamic model. Therefore, stator dynamics as well as network dynamics are
included in the results. In addition, a pitch angle controller of a PI
configuration is also included in this library. The system model initialization
is conducted by simulating the undisturbed system and then appropriate
initial conditions are recorded in the initial conditions slot of each block. This
method shows better model initialization to steady-state conditions in
comparison with the model initialization method described in the toolbox
manual.
The data of the wind turbine and the pitch-angle controller are shown in
Table 8.22. The turbine power characteristics at zero and at five degrees
pitch-angles are plotted and they are shown in Fig. 8.31 and Fig. 8.32
respectively.
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output. The considered wind speed disturbance is shown in Fig. 8.33. This
disturbance is applied to the considered situations i.e. the stalled controller
(SC) and the active stall control (ASC). The corresponding response of the
mechanical torque (Tm) and the electrical torque (Te) for both situations are
shown in Fig. 8.34.
Based on Fig. 8.34, the mechanical torque and electrical torque of the SC
turbine nearly follow the wind speed pattern. Therefore, upon
turbine/generator protection failure, this may be representing a hazard to the
system security during high wind speeds. However, with ASC, a significant
and continuous drop in the torque is obtained resulting in lower system stress
during disturbance. This results from the pitch angle control that limits the
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generator output power to its nominal value for high wind speeds. The pitch-
angle variation is shown in Fig. 8.35. The maximum rate of the required
change in the pitch angle is about 9.0 deg/s.
Fig. 8.36: Generator active/reactive power response for the wind speed
disturbance
Fig. 8.37: Generator terminal voltage response for the wind speed
disturbance
Fig. 8.38: Generator slip response for the wind speed disturbance
The generator slip during wind speed disturbance is shown in Fig. 8.38. It
is shown that in either wind turbine control conditions, the generator is stable
and did not temporarily operate as motor during the considered wind speed
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Fig. 8.40: Generator terminal voltage response for the 3-phase fault
from Fig. 8.4; however, this significant reduction in the mechanical torque
due to the fault will not be reflected significantly on other system variables
especially the active/reactive power generated as will be illustrated below.
Therefore, it is clear that the generator and the network mainly govern the
electromechanical transient process and, to high extent, independent on the
turbine control. This is depicted from the generator torque-slip trajectory
shown in Fig. 8.43; however, the benefit of the input mechanical torque
reduction due to pitch-angle control is a consequent significant reduction of
the torsional stress applied to the shaft during the transient process.
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Based on Fig. 8.43 to Fig. 8.47, insignificant gain in the overall system
response is obtained with the ASC for the considered 3-phase fault at the
generator terminals; however, both types of control results in stable FSWT
system without the complications associated with RSC and the voltage
recovery following a close fault associated with DFIG based systems 117.
117
Mustafa Kayikçi and J. V. Milanovic´, “Assessing Transient Response of DFIG-Based
Wind Plants—The Influence of Model Simplifications and Parameters”, IEEE
Transactions On Power Systems, Vol. 23, No. 2, May 2008, pp. 545-554
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118
EL-Shimy M. Modeling and Control of Wind Turbines Including Aerodynamics.
Scientific Bulletin - Faculty of Engineering - Ain Shams Uni. 2006;41(2):527 - 42.
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utility grid at the distribution level or to the HV grid. The choice depends on
the sacle of the wind farm and the intended application.
1 1
U mu 2 ( Ax)u 2 (8.57)
2 2
where A is the cross-sectional (swept) area of the wind turbine, is the air
density and x is the thickness of the wind packet. The wind power, Pw in the
wind, which represents the total power available for extraction, is given by,
dU
Pw (8.58)
dt
Therefore,
1 dx 1
Pw Au 2 Au 3 (8.59)
2 dt 2
The mechanical power, Pm extracted from the available power in the wind Pw
is expressed by the turbine power coefficient of performance CP which is a
nonlinear function of tip speed ratio and pitch angle . Therefore,
Pm C p , Pw (8.60)
In ideal conditions, the turbine cannot extract more than 59% of the
total power of undisturbed tube of air with cross sectional area equals to wind
turbine swept area. This called Betz limit. The tip speed ratio is a variable
that combines effect of rotational speed of the turbine and wind speed. It is
defined as the ratio between the rectilinear speed of the turbine tip (R) and
the wind speed (u).
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R
(8.61)
u
where R is the maximum radius of the wind turbine swept area. The
following equation can be used to approximate the CP curve,
Variation of CP with tip speed ratio at constant pitch angle and variation of
CP with pitch angle at constant tip speed ratio are shown in Fig. 8.48 and Fig.
8.49 respectively. As shown in Fig. 8.48, the maximum value of Cp reduced
with the increase in the pitch angle. In addition, the tip-speed ratio at
maximum Cp increases with the decrease in the pitch angle. This clarifies the
impact of the variations of the pitch angle on the power coefficient which
consequently affects the power production.
The wind-turbine rotor performance can also be evaluated as function
of the coefficient of torque Cq. As the wind power Pw equals to the product of
the aerodynamic torque TA and the rotor rotational speed , the torque
coefficient can be related to the power coefficient by,
C p ( , ) Cq ( , ) (8.64)
Based on (8.59), (8.60), (8.61), and (8.64), the aerodynamic torque that turns
the rotor shaft takes the form,
1
TA AR Cq ( , )u 2 (8.65)
2
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Fig. 8.48: Variations of the power coefficient with the tip-speed ratio at
constant pitch-angle
Fig. 8.49: Variations of the power coefficient with the pitch angle at
constant tip-speed ratio
might lead to the turbine exceeding its rotational speed limit and
subsequently the turbine may be damaged. On the other hand, the wind speed
can be too low for any power production and therefore alternative energy
sources should be used. This forms a hybrid-electric power source.
The wind-turbine-generator (WTG) linearized model will now be derived
for the use in the pitch-angle control design. The model is divided into two
main parts. The first part is the wind turbine, which included a turbine rotor
on a low-speed shaft, a gearbox and high-speed shaft. The inputs for this part
of the plant are the wind speed and the blade pitch angle while the outputs are
the high-speed shaft angular rotation and the mechanical power, Pm. The
second part is the electric generator whose input is constant angular rotation
from the turbine plant and whose output is electrical power. Fig. 8.50 shows a
block diagram of the wind turbine system.
d
JT T A T L (8.66)
dt
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d T
u L (8.67)
dt JT
The parameters , and are calculated at the initial operating conditions
(uo, o) and they are given by:
1 dC
ARuo 2Cqo o q (8.68)
2JT d
o
1 dC
AR 2uo q (8.69)
2JT d o
1 dC
ARuo2 q (8.70)
2JT d o
The magnitude of and respectively show the relative weight of the effect
of wind speed and pitch angle on the wind turbine dynamics. In s-space,
(8.67) takes the form:
1 T
( s ) u( s ) ( s ) L (8.71)
s JT
Equation (8.71) represents the linearized form of the wind turbine transfer
function. The turbine power output is given by,
Pm TA (8.72)
The linearized form of output power equation (8.72) takes the form:
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Based on (8.67) and (8.74), the block diagram of wind turbine plant is
given in Fig. 8.51.
Fig. 8.52: General block diagram of the pitch-control system for WTS
The transfer function of a hydraulic actuator that changes the blade pitch
angle can be represented by first-order transfer function,
( s ) kA
GA (s) (8.74)
c ( s ) s k A
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In this case study two controllers are considered; a PID and a neural
network NARMA-L2 controllers (that are available in the MATLAB). PID
controllers regulate the error, or difference between the measured input and
the desired input (). This error value along with its derivative and integral
with respect to time provides a signal to the actuator(s), which affects the
controlled plant. The PID controller is a linear, single-input single- output
controller limited to three gains. The transfer function of the PID controller is
given by,
c ( s ) k
GC ( s ) k p I k D s (8.75)
( s ) s
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(a) (b)
Fig. 8.53: Uncontrolled response to a unit step in the wind speed
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.54: Uncontrolled response to a unit step in the pitch angle
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(a) (b)
Fig. 8.55: Uncontrolled response to a unit step in the load troque
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(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 8.56: PID controlled response to a unit step in the wind speed
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 8.57: PID controlled response to a unit step in the load troque
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(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 8.59: PID controlled response to variations in the wind speed
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(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 8.60: ANN controlled response to unit step in the wind speed
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 8.61: ANN controlled response to 10% increase in the load torque
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(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 8.62: ANN controlled response to variable wind speed
Although a small amount of control errors are obtained when using PID
controllers, high accuracy of plant response to follow the objective of a
nearly zero speed deviation is obtained with neural network NARMA-L2
controller. The main critical issue associated with the presented use of the
NARMA-L2 controller is the required high rate of the pitch angle changes.
These high rates require fast acting actuators and mechanical withstand
capability of the affected components.
119
EL-Shimy M, Badr MA. Modal Based Analysis of Induction Generator Infinite-Bus
System. ASJEE. 2008; 2:249 - 61.
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initial operating conditions. The considered network parameters are the series
impedance of the interconnecting network and the shunt capacitive
susceptance at the generator terminals.
A. System Modeling
The system under study consists of an induction generator connected to an
infinite bus (IGIB) through a linear passive transmission network as shown in
Fig. 8.63. This system is practically acceptable for modeling the integration
of wind-energy conversion systems utilizing induction generators with large-
scale power systems.
E d' rs x ' I d V d
' ' (8.77)
E q x rs I q V q
(x ss x ' )
where , and p is a deferential operator (i.e. d/dt).
T o'
2Hps Te Tm (8.80)
Where
Te Ed' I d E q' I q (8.81)
The parameters h11 and h12 are related to the reduced admittance matrix
of the network by the following equations; keeping in mind that induction
generator and IB buses are only the retained buses in that matrix:
1 Y21
h11 and h12 (8.83)
Y11 Y11
h11 z R jz I
(8.84)
h12 h1 jh2
Vd z R z I I d h1
V Eb (8.85)
q zI z R I q h2
The output active and reactive power supplied to the grid are presented by
120
K R Padyiar. Power System Dynamics: Stability and Control. Interline Publishing Pvt
Ltd; 1996
121
B. M. Nomikos, C. D. Vournas. Evaluation of Motor Effects on the Electromechanical
Oscillations of Multimachine Systems. IEEE Bologna PowerTech Conference, Bologna,
Italy 2003; (June 23-26)
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Ptogrid Vd I d Vq I q (8.86)
Qtogrid Vq I d Vd I q (8.87)
p s k 1
2H
k2 0 s 1
2H 2H
This takes the general state-space input equation px Ax Bu , where,
1
c5 c3 c 6 soo c 4
T o'
1
c 7 soo c1 c8 c 2
T o'
k1 I do Edo
'
c1 E qo
'
c3 k 2 I qo Edo
'
c2 E qo
'
c4
1
c1 c 2 rs z R x ' z R
c c '
3 4 x z I rs z r
Vto2 rr rr Vto4
so1,2 1 (8.90)
2Tmo xt2 xt 2 2
4Tmo xt
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V
t Vt tan 1 q (8.92)
V q
I a I d2 I q2 (8.93)
re jx e
ke
r
s jx s' (8.96)
The problem stated by (8.95) can be used in either the design stage or
for the analysis of an existing system. A general solution algorithm for (8.95)
is illustrated in the flowchart of Fig. 8.68, which is implemented on
MATLAB, with the terminal voltage limits of the induction generator are
assumed to be Vtmin = 0.9, Vtmax = 1.1
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D. System Parameters
The induction generator parameters data on 6.45 MVA, 25 kV, 50 Hz base
are listed in Table 8.25.
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Fig. 8.70: Maximum of the real-part of the eigenvalues for infinite network
strength
Based on Table 8.27 and Fig. 8.72, it is clear that the reduction in the
network strength (i.e. increase of ke) provokes both system stability and
generator terminal voltage in an approximate linear manner. With ke greater
than 0.3 p.u the generator terminal voltage drops below the minimum
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allowable value which is 0.9 p.u. In addition, very high values of ke (i.e. very
weak external network) results on system instability.
Now, the combined effects of bc and ke on the system stability and the
generator terminal voltage are investigated for ke = 0.4 p.u (corresponding to
voltage level violation problem) and 4.0 p.u (corresponding to both voltage
level violation and stability problems). By varying bc with ke = 0.4 p.u, the
eigenvalues of the system and the generator terminal voltage are shown in
Table 8.28. Fig. 8.73 shows the variations of both the maximum of the real-
part of the eigenvalues and generator terminal voltage for different values of
bc at ke = 0.4 p.u.
Fig. 8.73: Effect of bc on maximum of the real-part of the eigenvalues and the
generator terminal voltage for Eb = 1, ke = 0.4, and Tmo = 0.9
Based on Table 8.28 and Fig. 8.73 it is clear that the increase of bc
enhances both the generator terminal voltage level and the system stability.
Moreover, the maximum limit of bc is determined by the maximum allowable
voltage level at generator terminals. Therefore, it is clear that the role of
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shunt capacitor bank at the induction generator terminals is not only enhances
the generator terminal voltage but also improves system dynamic stability;
however, this role is hindered by lowering external network strength as
shown in the following.
By varying bc at ke = 4.0 p.u, the eigenvalues of the system and the
generator terminal voltage are shown in Table 8.29. Fig. 8.74 shows the
variations of both the maximum of the real-part of the eigenvalues and
generator terminal voltage for different values of bc at ke = 4.0 p.u.
Fig. 8.74: Effect of bc on maximum of the real-part of the eigenvalues and the
generator terminal voltage for Eb = 1, ke = 4.0, and Tmo = 0.9
Based on Table 8.29 and Fig. 8.74, it is clear that the increase of bc to 1.2
p.u increases the generator terminal voltage and brings the system to stable
operation. However, this stable operating point is not valid due severe
violation in the generator terminal voltage. Further increase of bc brings the
system back to unstable operating points with reduction the generator
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terminal voltage which results from the voltage instability. Therefore, based
on Fig. 8.73 and Fig. 8.74, the role of shunt capacitor bank at the induction
generator terminals in enhancing both generator terminal voltage and system
stability is hindered by lowering the external network strength. As the
external network strength increases, properly selected shunt capacitor bank at
the induction generator terminals can provide good voltage regulation and
better stabilization. However, in case of very weak external network strength,
neither adequate voltage regulation nor stabilization effects of the capacitor
bank can be provided. In this case, acceptable operation of the system can be
achieved by distributed capacitive compensation over the transmission line.
For reasonable external network strength, it is recommended to use at the
terminals of the generator thyristor switched capacitor banks (TSC) with
optimized control algorithm instead of fixed shunt capacitor banks (FC). This
is can provide optimal stabilization in addition to providing adequate voltage
control for different operating points of the system.
The variations of Te and s are shown in Fig. 8.75, the Te-s
trajectories are shown in Fig. 8.76, the variations of Ptogrid are shown in Fig.
8.77, and the variations in Qtogrid are shown in Fig. 8.78.
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The time domain simulation as shown in Fig. 8.75 to Fig. 8.78 validate the
modal analysis results as the base-case and case#1 are stable and case#2 is
unstable. The following point presents a summary of the results and
conclusions,
The next chapter will present more analysis of the impact of wind power
on power systems. In addition, the combined impact of FACTS devices and
wind power on the dynamic stability of power systems will also be
demonstrated. The design of POD for enhancing the stability of power
systems that contain wind power sources will also be given.
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Chapter 9
Dynamical Impacts of Wind Power and Damping
Enhancement
9.1 Introduction
In this chapter a series of case studies will be presented for
demonstrating some critical aspects about the dynamical characteristics of
power systems as affected by wind power. In the previous chapter, it is
shown that the FS-SCIG WT needs a controllable capacitive compensation at
its terminals for voltage control and stability enhancements. In addition,
FACTS devices may be used in power systems for many additional reasons
such as power flow control. Therefore, the impact of FACTS devices such as
SVCs and TCSCs on the dynamics of power systems in the presence of wind
power will also be presented. The chapter also includes the stabilization and
stability enhancement in power systems that contain wind power generators.
122
El-Shimy, M. (2015). Stability-based minimization of load shedding in weakly
interconnected systems for real-time applications. International Journal of Electrical
Power & Energy Systems, 70, 99-107.
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123
El-Shimy M, Badr M, Rassem O. Impact of large scale wind power on power system stability.
In: Power system conference, 12th international middle-east power conference (MEPCON).
Aswan, Egypt: IEEE; 2008. p. 630–6.
124
El-Shimy M, Ghaly N, Abdelhamed M. Parametric study for stability analysis of grid-
connected wind energy conversion technologies. In: 15th International middle-east power
conference (MEPCON). Alex., Egypt: IEEE; 2010. p. 1–8.
125
EL-shimy M, Ghaly B. Grid-connected wind energy conversion systems: transient response. In:
Encyclopedia of energy engineering and Technology. 2nd ed., vol. IV. CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis Group; 2014. p. 2162–83
126
Multi-mass models are not considered for DFIG because of its controls which
significantly cancel the effect of shaft stiffness by decoupling the mechanical and
electrical power
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For the same disturbance stated in section 5.5 (i.e. A temporary 3-cycle
three-phase fault started at t = 1 sec applied on bus 8), and the PSAT is used
as a simulation environment, the system equivalent inertia at the interface
buses and the equivalent inertia of the SMIB equivalence of the system are
determined based on the method of section 5.2. The results are shown in
Table 9.2. The impact of the wind power on the equivalent inertia constants
and the transient reactances is illustrated in Fig. 9.2.
Table 9.2: Equivalent inertia (M) in sec, p.u transient reactances, and p.u
transient emf (E’); all values are on 100 MVA base
Area 1 equivalence Area 2 equivalence SMIB equivalence
’ ’
Inertia Reactance E Inertia Reactance E Inertia Reactance
29.15 0.0237 1.034 47.61 0.0243 1.050 18.08 0.0120
It can be seen from these results that the wind power generators alters the
frequency, transient, and steady state responses of the system. This is
illustrated by the changes in the equivalent inertia constant and the equivalent
transient reactance. The impact of wind power is significantly appearing on
area 2 where the wind power is available.
Since the equivalent inertia constant and the equivalent transient reactance
of this area are reduced, then the stability of the system is degraded by the
presence of wind power. This is can be demonstrated by determining the
maximum drop in the power generated by the same way presented section
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6.4. Without wind power, the maximum drop in the generation is found to be
5.6 p.u while it becomes 4.9 p.u with the presence of the wind power.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9.2: Impact of wind power on the equivalency; (a) equivalent inertia
constant; (b) equivalent transient reactance
feasible method for bulk energy storage, integrated large amounts of variable
generation (such as wind and solar-PV) in power systems may results in
significant provoking of the stability, the security (static and dynamic), the
reliability (or the power supply continuity), and the energy security. The
hydrogen as an energy storage medium and an energy carrier (see chapter 1)
may be considered as a perfect solution for the future system with very large
amounts of variable generation.
127
J.G. Slootweg, W.L. Kling, “Modelling and analysing impacts of wind power on
transient stability of power systems”, Wind Engineering, v.26, n.1, 2002, pp.3-20.
128
J.G. Slootweg, W.L. Kling, “The impact of large scale wind power generation on power
system oscillations”, Electric Power Systems Research, v.67, n.1, 2003, pp. -20
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This section presents a detailed analysis of the impact of large scale FS-
SCIG based wind farms on both the transient voltage stability (TVS) and the
transient stability (TS) of electric power systems. With the PSAT as a
simulation environment, the following problems have been analyzed:
Different penetration of wind power impact on TS and TVS following
a major fault in the transmission system,
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Fig. 9.5: The 9-bus system with a wind farm connected at bus 7 and an
SVC connected to bus 8
An SVC at bus 8 has been also added to the original as the reactive
power a controllable source. The SVC is modeled in the simulation program
as a limited linear controlled susceptance. The regulator has an anti-windup
limiter, thus within the operating limits the SVC performs automatic voltage
control at the connected node and outside the operating limits the SVC
susceptance is locked. The block diagram of the SVC regulator is shown in
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Fig. 9.7. The SVC regulator parameters on a 100 MVA base are: the
regulator time constant, Tr = 10 sec.; the regulator gain, Kr = 100; the
reference voltage, Vref = 1.00 p.u.; the maximum susceptance, bmax = +1 p.u.,
the minimum susceptance, bmin = -1 p.u.
This study system can be considered as a simple model for studying
impact of large scale wind power on power system stability. After the load
flow analysis, the focus is to perform dynamic analyses to verify that the
system remains transiently stable under different contingencies and different
levels of wind power production. The system loads are kept fixed at the
values of the original system.
For setting a base for comparison between the system transient response
with and without wind generation, a 3 cycle (i.e. 0.05 sec, for 60 Hz) duration
fault is simulated on line 5-7 very close to bus 7 (the fault is started at t = 0.5
sec) in the original IEEE 9-bus system (i.e. 0.0 % penetration level, and no
SVC). The power angles and bus voltage magnitude (shown for buses 7 and 8
only to avoid crowding of plots) variations are shown in Fig. 9.8 and Fig. 9.8.
Based on these figures, following the applied fault the system is dynamically
stable and the system is able to restore the voltage.
Fig. 9.8: Original System (0.0 % penet. level, and no SVC) Power Angle
Variations
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Fig. 9.9: Original System (0.0 % penet. level, and no SVC) Bus Voltage
Magnitude Variations
Fig. 9.10: Power Angle Variations (0.0 % penet. level, and with SVC)
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Fig. 9.11: Bus Voltage Magnitude Variations (0.0 % penet. level, and with
SVC)
Fig. 9.12: Variations of b, V8, Q8 (0.0 % penet. level, and with SVC)
Now, the impact of wind power generation on the system transient and
voltage stability is considered. Different penetration levels of wind power
generation are considered such that a part of the power produced by the
synchronous generator at bus 2 is replaced by an equal amount of wind
power generation at bus 12 and the system is simulated for the previously
described fault location and fault duration. The question to be answered is:
what is the limit of wind power penetration level to keep the system transient
and voltage stability for the considered contingency? The following cases are
considered:
The power angles, and bus voltage magnitude variations for each of these
cases are shown in Fig. 9.13 to Fig. 9.18.
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Based on the responses of cases 1 and 2, it is clear that both the transient
voltage stability of the system is enhanced with the SVC installed; however,
the transient response of the power angles shows reduction in the system
damping. In both cases the system is stable. With penetration level of
77.94% (case 3), the system becomes unstable both in transient stability and
voltage stability. The instability phenomena can be viewed as an
insufficiency of reactive power compensation; this can be detected form the
variations of the SVC susceptance (shown in Fig. 9.19 and Fig. 9.20 for cases
2, and 3 respectively). Based on Fig. 9.20, it is clear that the SVC
susceptance hits its upper limit and locked at that value which means that the
reactive power limits of the SVC are reached. Therefore, the system
instability in this situation is a voltage instability phenomenon in nature
which is clear from Fig. 9.18. Based on the presented study, the maximum
penetration level is less than 43.8%.
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Recalling that the wind power integrated to the original system is not an
added power generation but it is a replacement of the conventional power by
the same amount of the added wind power. In addition, with the absence of
the wind power, the original system is stable for the same disturbance
regardless of the impact of the SVC on the system damping. Therefore, the
instability of the system at the maximum wind power penetration level is
attributed to the characteristics of the FS-SCIG. The squirrel-cage induction
machines consumes reactive power reactive power either during motoring or
generating modes. Therefore, the steady-state reactive power loading on the
system increases with the increase in the penetration level. In addition,
further increase of reactive power loading occurs during the fault conditions
due to the reduction of the SCIG terminal voltage. Consequently, the system
fails to survive due to the transient voltage instability that is mainly caused
by the insufficiency of the reactive power. Providing more reactive power
during the fault by an SVC with higher rating is a possible way for enhancing
the transient stability of the system while the associated reduction in the
damping can be overcome by the use of PODs. This is will be illustrated later
in this chapter.
It should be noted that the maximum penetration level is highly
dependent on the point of connection of the wind farm to the system, the
considered contingency, and the WTG technology. For example, if the point
of connection of the considered wind farm becomes bus 9 instead of bus 7,
then 100% of the power generation at bus 3 can be replaced by wind power
generation without causing system instability.
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1. Enhancing the reliability of the grid as a main power source. The local
power source can either operates in a backup source (i.e. supplying
power only when the grid power is unavailable) or continuously
working in parallel with the grid. In this study, continuous parallel
operation is considered.
2. Reducing the energy consumption from the grid and consequently
reducing the electricity tariff. In this case, the power sources operate
continuously in parallel with the grid such that it provides a large
portion of the local load.
3. Supplying the local load with the possibility of exporting power to
either nearby loads or to the grid. In this case, the local generation
should be carefully sized for fulfilling the local load requirements as
well as energy export contracts with the nearby loads or the grid. The
local generation can be considered as a sort of an independent power
producer (IPP) and the power export to the grid is subjected to the
national feed-in-tariff structure. The grid in this case, purchases the
surplus local energy while the possible local power shortage is
purchased from the grid.
4. Apart of the active power production, the local generator may be
mainly used for modifying the power factor (PF) of the local load for
meeting juristic contracts with the grid as a part of the interconnection
requirements. This is common in large industrial loads where their low
power factor may affect the voltage regulation and stability of the grid.
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load models are considered for evaluating the system performance, studying
the impact of load model variations, and comparing the generating
technologies. The parameters of the considered loads are shown in Table 9.5.
It is clear from Table 9.6 and Fig. 9.25 that maximum power associated
with SGs and DFIGs is sensitive to the load models while the SCIG is not
sensitive. The presence of the induction motor load causes a decline in the
maximum power level of the SG and increase for DFIG. For SG, the
reduction in the maximum power level increases with the increase in the
amount of induction motor loads while the DFIG is not significantly sensitive
to that issue. The impact of the amount of induction motor loads on the
maximum power of the FS-SCIGs is negligible. It is also depicted that the
synchronous generator provides the highest maximum power followed by the
DFIG then the SCIG. The results also show that the maximum power setting
for all generators and all load models are 0.6 p.u which is limited by the
SCIG. Fixing this power setting to allow proper comparison between various
generation technologies in the following studies. This is because the only
difference between the systems is the technological structure of the
generators.
Table 9.6: Maximum power settings
Max. Power level
Case
SG DFIG SCIG
Case 1 3 1 0.6
Case 2 3 1 0.6
Case 3 2.7 1.3 0.6
Case 4 2.6 1.3 0.6
130
The static load is represented by the exponential model given by and
β
where P, and Q are respectively the load active and reactive power at a
load bus voltage V while Po, and Qo are respectively the load active and reactive power at
an initial voltage Vo (which is usually 1.0 p.u). For more details, see Appendix 3.
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load model. This is because the power consumption of various load models is
sensitive to the bus voltage by different relations. As can be seen, the
dynamic load models have higher impact on the bus voltage magnitudes in
comparison with the static load models. Consequently, the drop in the load
bus voltage is higher with the dynamic loads in comparison with the
considered static loads. Due to the presence induction motors, the reactive
power consumption is very high in comparison with the considered static
loads. Since the generator bus is represented as a PV-bus, the impact of the
technologies of the generators and their actual capability limits on the power
flow are absent.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9.26: Some power flow results
B. Transient analysis
In this section, the impact of the fault Clearing Time (CT) on the TS and
the TVS of the system are considered. In addition, the fault Critical Clearing
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(a) (d)
(b) (e)
(c) (f)
Fig. 9.27: Transient voltage response as affected by load models for the same generation
technology; a, b, and c: generator terminal voltage; d, e, and f: load terminal voltage
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(d) (e)
(e) (f)
(f) (g)
(g)
(h)
Fig. 9.28: Transient voltage response as affected by generating technologies for the same load
model; a, b, c, and d: generator terminal voltage; e, f, g, and h: load terminal voltage
It can be seen from these results that the transient voltage responses
associated with the considered static loads models is nearly identical. The
transient voltage responses associated with the dynamic load models are
highly different than that of the static load models. In addition, the dynamic
load models cause significant degradation in the transient voltage responses
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in terms of the transient deviations, and the settling time of the transient. It is
also shown that the negative impacts of the dynamic load models on the
transient voltage response increases with the increase in the percentage of the
induction motor load in the composite load structure.
For the considered disturbances, stable equilibrium points are reached in
the post-fault conditions. Therefore, the stated CT is less than the CCT of any
of the load and generation technological conditions. It is also clear that the
transient voltage response of the DFIG is better in comparison with the
conventional SG and the FS-SCIG. The worst transient voltage responses are
associated with the SCIG. This is can be attributed to the voltage control
capability of the DFIGs and the SGs. On the other side, the SCIGs cannot
provide either a controllable reactive power neither they have a reactive
power capability131,132,133. As these generators are equipped with fixed
capacitors at their terminals, their voltage support during steady state
conditions is limited while they did not provide contributions in enhancing
the transient voltage support. The fixed capacitors of the SCIGs are usually
sized based on the initial conditions for providing an acceptable terminal
voltage magnitude by reducing the reactive power loading on the system. As
stated in the previous chapter, controllable reactive power support (for
example, SVCs or STATCOMs) is recommended to be provided to the FS-
SCIG for enhancing the voltage control as well as the system stability.
The transient responses of the active and reactive power of various
generators as affected by load models are shown in Fig. 9.29 while Fig. 9.30
shows comparative transient power responses between various generating
technologies for the same load models.
The comments on the transient voltage responses are also applicable to the
transient responses of the active and reactive power; however, the impact of
the FS-SCIG is clearly illustrated. The results show that the SCIG presents an
initial high reactive power loading during the fault period and its remains
131
M. Ahmed, M. EL-Shimy, and M. Badr, “Advanced modeling and analysis of the
loading capability limits of doubly-fed induction generators,” Sustainable Energy
Technologies and Assessments, vol. 7, pp. 79-90, 2014.
132
EL-Shimy M. Reactive Power Management and Control of Distant Large-Scale Grid-
Connected Offshore Wind Power Farms. International Journal of Sustainable Energy
(IJSE), 2012. Available online: Mar 20, 2012. Volume 32, Issue 5, pp. 449 - 465, 2013.
133
M. EL-Shimy, “Modeling and analysis of reactive power in grid-connected onshore and
offshore DFIG-based wind farms”, Wind Energy, 17:27 – 295, 2014
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
performing as a reactive power loading during the post fault transients. This
is attributed, as previously stated, to the reactive power characteristics of the
induction machines. This also explains the degraded transient voltage
responses associated with the SCIGs.
(a) (e)
(f)
(b)
(c) (g)
(d) (h)
Fig. 9.29: Transient active power responses of the generators as affected by load models for
the same generation technology; a, b, c, and d: active power; e, f, g, and h: reactive power
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On the other hand, both SGs, and DFIGs presents a momentary reactive
power loading on the system during the fault period. Afterward, the voltage
(or reactive power) control actions of these generators provide a reactive
power support to the grid. Consequently, the transient voltage responses
associated with these generators are better in comparison with the SCIG. In
addition, the voltage collapse with these generators is less likely in
comparison with the FS-SCIGs.
(a)
(d)
(b) (e)
(c) (f)
Fig. 9.30: Transient active power responses of the generators as affected by generation
technologies for the same load model; a, b, and c: active power; d, e, and f: reactive power
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1.60
1.40
SG
1.20
1.00 DFIG
CCT (s)
0.80 SCIG
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
case 1 case 2 case 3 case 4
Case ID
Fig. 9.31: Critical clearing time for 3 based system with the different load
models
The results show that the CCT is highly dependent on the generation
technologies and the load models. In addition, as shown in the previous
chapters, the CCT is also highly dependent on the initial conditions, the
system inertia, and the strength of the grid-coupling link. With the static load
models, the DFIG remains stable till the CT is set to 20 sec while the other
technologies show a specified CCT. The CCT of the SCIG is higher than the
CCT of the synchronous generator. This s can be attributed to the impact of
the AVR which for some parameters should be equipped with PSS for
stability enhancement of the SGs. The changes in the parameters of the static
load model did not show a significant impact on the CCT. With the dynamic
load models considered, the CCT is generally reduced with the increase of
the amount of induction motors in the load composition.
134
Till CT = 20 sec, the system stable
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
be utilized for the POD design. The presence of wind power, as previously
explained, alters the dynamics of the systems and causes changes in the
eigenvalues. Therefore, no additional POD design techniques are required for
the design of POD considering the impact of wind power; however, the
impact of wind power on the system dynamics will demonstrated via the
modal analysis for more clarification of their impacts.
In this section, the impact of wind power on the dynamic stability of
weakly interconnected power systems and the design of the required PODs
are considered135,136,137. Two situations are covered. The first one is the
replacement of conventional power by wind power while the second one
includes the addition of wind power to an existing conventional power
generation system.
The considered system is composed of the two weakly interconnected
areas of chapter 7. In this system, the area 1 is exporting power to the area 2.
This situation defines the main objective of integrating the wind power. As
shown in Fig. 9.32, the wind power is integrated to area 1 for reducing the
fuel consumption and consequently reducing the GHG emissions. This
objective is based on the fact that area 1 has surplus power. On the other
hand, area 2 is importing power from area 1 over a weak link. This is due to
the shortage in the power generation in area 2 in comparison with its loads.
Therefore, the main objective of the wind power integration in this case is the
reduction of the dependency of area 2 on area 1. This is achieved also via
clean energy sources; however, the main problem associated with wind
power is the availability of the wind resource. In the following analysis, the
wind power integration to area 1 will be considered as first option of wind
power integration while the wind power integration to area 2 is considered as
the second option. One option will be considered at a time i.e. the analysis
135
M. Mandour, M. EL-Shimy, F. Bendary, and W.M. Mansour. Design of power
oscillation damping (POD) controllers in weakly interconnected power systems including
wind power technologies. Accepted for publications in the JEE, 2015
136
M. Mandour, M. EL-Shimy, F. Bendary, and W.M. Mansour. The Design of POD
Considering Conventional and Renewable Power Generation. International Electrical
Engineering Journal (IEEJ), Vol. 6 (2015) No.7, pp. 1962-1972
137
M. Mandour, M. EL-Shimy, F. Bendary, W.M. Mansour. Impact of Wind Power on
Power System Stability and Oscillation Damping Controller Design. Industry Academia
Collaboration (IAC) Conference, 2015, Energy and sustainable development Track, Apr. 6
– 8, 2015, Cairo, Egypt.
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and the POD design will consider a situation where only one option will be
implemented.
For the same reasons stated in chapters 7 and 8 as well as in this chapter,
the traditional fixed capacitors of the original system (Fig. 7.18) are replaced
by SVCs as shown in Fig. 7.13 and 9.32. This is also important for handling
the reactive power support needed with the presence of wind power
generators. Both FS-SCIG and DFIG technologies are considered. The
modeling of various technologies is presented in chapter 8 while the data of
various WTGs as well as the system are shown in Appendix 8.
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600
MWP level (MW)
500
400
300
200
100
0
FS-SCIG DFIG FS-SCIG DFIG
“Power replacement” “Power addition”
MWP level for area 1 MWP level for area 2
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B. Modal analysis
The system without any wind power integration is considered for
inspecting the impact of the wind power on the eigenvalues of the system.
The dominant eigenvalues as well as the frequency and the damping of the
dominant modes of the system without wind power integration are shown in
Table 7.12 and also shown here in Table 9.8 for the convenience of the
reader.
For the MWP level shown in Fig. 9.33 and for values slightly higher than
them, the dominant eigenvalues as well as the frequency and the damping of
the dominant modes are shown in Tables 9.9 and 9.10 for the power
replacement and power addition options of the FS-SCIG respectively. Tables
9.11 and 9.12 shows the same quantities for the power replacement and
power addition options of the DFIG.
7
Damping of the critical mode (%)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Replacement
Replacement
Addition
Addition
Two SVCs
FCs; No SVCs
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The impact of various options of the wind power integration as well as the
technological impact of the WTGs on the damping of the critical mode of the
system are shown in Fig. 9.34. The figure also shows the damping of the
critical modes without wind power integration; in this case, the impact of the
SVCs (see chapter 7) is also demonstrated.
It can be seen from these tables and Fig. 9.34 that:
1. The SVCs causes a decline in the system damping in comparison with
the fixed capacitors (FCs). It should be noted that the flexibility in the
reactive power support and voltage control provided by SVCs is of
high importance in the secure operation of power systems. The
problem associated with the reduction of damping can be solved by the
POD as a supplementary SVC controller for enhancing the system
stability.
2. The wind power technologies enhance the system damping if their
penetration level is less than the MWP level. Increasing the wind
power penetration level to values higher than the MWP level causes
instability of the system. This is can be attributed to the reduction of
the system inertia caused by the wind power technologies (see section
9.2). Therefore, the integration of wind power causes two opposing
effects. The positive effect is the enhancement in the system damping
while the negative effect is the reduction in the system inertia.
Therefore, even if the total power generation is unchanged due to
replacing conventional power by wind power, the replacement level is
limited due to the opposing impacts of wind power on the system
stability. This is also demonstrated in section 9.2.
3. The impact of DFIGs on the system damping is better in comparison
with the FS-SCIGs. In addition, the power addition option has a better
impact on the system damping in comparison with the power
replacement option.
For the given study system, none of the wind power options could
enhance the minimum system damping to an acceptable level (i.e. 10% or
more). Therefore, PODs are designed for various options and system
417
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138
M. Mandour, M. EL-Shimy, F. Bendary, and W.M. Mansour. The Design of POD
Considering Conventional and Renewable Power Generation. International Electrical
Engineering Journal (IEEJ), Vol. 6 (2015) No.7, pp. 1962-1972
139
. Mandour, M. EL-Shimy, F. Bendary, W.M. Mansour. Impact of Wind Power on
Power System Stability and Oscillation Damping Controller Design. Industry Academia
Collaboration (IAC) Conference, 2015, Energy and sustainable development Track, Apr. 6
– 8, 2015, Cairo, Egypt
418
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Chapter 10
Overview, Characterization, and Modeling of Solar-PV
Systems
10.1 Introduction
The solar energy is classified as one of the promising renewable-energy
worldwide. In the power and energy discipline, the sunlight energy can be
involved in energy conversion processes through three main evolving
technological categories. As shown in Fig. 10.1, these categories are
Photovoltaics (SOLAR-PV), Concentrated Solar Power (CSP), and Solar
Heating and Cooling (SHC). This classification is based on the energy
conversions processes involved in the solar energy conversion stream.
419
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
chapter (or part of this book). Therefore, sometimes the phrase ‘this chapter’
will be used for referring to a specific one of these chapters or all the three
chapters. Chapter 10 provides an overview of various solar-PV technologies.
In addition, detailed quantitative characterization of various technologies is
presented. Various models related to the solar-PV projects from the electrical
energy prospective are given. In addition, dynamic modeling and analysis of
grid-connected solar-PV power plants are provided in details in chapter 11.
An enhanced Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) technique is also
presented in chapter 11. Analysis of the grid codes for interconnecting solar-
PV and wind power generators will be presented in chapter 12.
150
Chapin, D. M., Fuller, C. S., & Pearson, G. L. (1954). A new silicon p‐n junction
photocell for converting solar radiation into electrical power. Journal of Applied Physics,
(25), 676-677.
151
Bradford, T. (2006). Solar revolution: the economic transformation of the global
energy industry. MIT Press Books, 1.
152
REN21. Global Status Report 2005–2011; Renewable Energy Policy Network for the
21st century (REN 21)
2005–2011: Paris, France.
422
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153
IRENA (2012). Renewable energy technologies: Cost analysis series- solar
Photovoltaics. pp. 45, International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi.
154
Poullikkas, A. (2010). Technology and market future prospects of photovoltaic systems.
International Journal of Energy and Environment, 1(4), 617-634.
423
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155
Manna, T. K., & Mahajan, S. M. (2007, May). Nanotechnology in the development of
photovoltaic cells. In Clean Electrical Power, 2007. ICCEP'07. International Conference
on (pp. 379-386). IEEE.
156
Mah, O. (1998). Fundamentals of photovoltaic materials. National Solar Power
Research Institute, 1-10.
424
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157
Sheikh, N. M. (2008, March). Efficient utilization of solar energy for domestic
applications. In Electrical Engineering, 2008. ICEE 2008. Second International
Conference on (pp. 1-3). IEEE.
425
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158
T. Abdo, M. EL-Shimy, “Quantitative Characterization and Selection of Photovoltaic
Technologies”, MEPCON 2014.
159
M. EL-Shimy, T. Abdo, “PV Technologies: History, Technological Advances, and
Characterization’, In Sohail Anwar (ed.) Encyclopedia of Energy Engineering and
Technology, Taylor & Francis - CRC Press, 2014.
426
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In the second stage, the best PV module for each of the considered
technologies is determined. The PV module selections goals are the
peak wattage per unit area (Watt-peak/area), and the efficiency. For
each PV technology, the best module is determined according to the
fulfillment of the objectives i.e. maximization of the Watt-peak/area
and efficiency. The global best PV module is then determined.
160
Salameh, Z. M., Borowy, B. S., & Amin, A. R. (1995). Photovoltaic module-site
matching based on the capacity factors. Energy Conversion, IEEE Transactions on, 10(2),
326-332.
161
"Renewable energy project analysis software", in RETScreen International Clean
Energy Decision Support Centre, Minister of Natural Resources Canada.
427
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162
Sherwani, A. F., & Usmani, J. A. (2010). Life cycle assessment of solar PV based
electricity generation systems: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
14(1), 540-544.
163
Jordan, D. C., & Kurtz, S. R. (2013). Photovoltaic degradation rates—an analytical
review. Progress in photovoltaics: Research and Applications, 21(1), 12-29.
164
PVXChange, http://www.pvxchange.com/
165
DasGupta, A. (2010). Fundamentals of probability: a first course. Springer Science &
Business Media.
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Table 10.1: PV modules with the lowest and highest efficiencies and their
manufacturers
PV Lowest efficiency Highest efficiency
tech. (%) Model Manuf. (%) Model Manuf.
STP005S- SPR-320E-
Mono 7.58 Suntech 19.62 Sunpower
12 WHT
ND-070 Canadian
Poly 6.07 Sharp 17.59 CS 6A 190W
ERU Solar
Uni-Pac
a-Si 1.81 Uni-Solar 8.16 SN2-145.0W Q-Cells
10W(24V)
CdTe 4.86 CX-35W Q-Cells 10.07 AB1-72 Abound
Centennial
CIS 6.60 CIGS 50W 11.33 SL 1-85W Q-Cells
Solar
The ideal value of the temperature coefficient is zero. With this value, the
efficiency is insensitive to temperature variations. It can be seen from
equation (10.1) that for a specific operating and reference temperature, the
efficiency decrease as the temperature coefficient increase. Therefore, the
sensitivity of the PV efficiency increases with the increase in the temperature
coefficient. The value of the temperature coefficient depends primarily on the
cell type and it is difficult to find this value on manufacturer data sheets.
Therefore, in the absence of this information the default values shown in Fig.
10.3 may be used as recommended by the RETSCreen. It is depicted from
Fig. 10.3 that the efficiency values of the thin film technologies expect the
CIS are less sensitive to temperature variations in comparison with the
crystalline silicon. The efficiency of the CIS technology has the highest
sensitivity to temperature which is significantly higher than the crystalline
silicon sensitivity.
166
El-Shimy, M. (2009). Viability analysis of PV power plants in Egypt. Renewable
Energy, 34(10), 2187-2196.
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Table 10.3: The highest and lowest WP/A for PV technologies and their
manufacturers
PV Low Wp/A High Wp/A
tech Wp/A Model Manuf. Wp/A Model Manuf.
Mono 71.43 STP005S-12 Suntech 200.00 Q6LM-1680 Q-Cells
Poly 15.00 YL15(17)P Yingli Solar 200.00 Q6LTT-1640 Q-Cells
Uni-Pac
a-Si 18.10 Uni-Solar 81.46 SN2-145.0W Q-Cells
10W(24V)
CdTe 48.61 -CX-35W Q-Cells 100.00 AB1-72 Abound
Centennial
CIS 66.67 CIGS 50W 113.33 SL 1-85W Q-Cells
Solar
The ability to predict output power over the course of time is important in
the prediction of the long-term performance of various PV technologies.
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Among the key drivers in the PV industry growth are the efficiency (with
which sunlight is converted into power) and how this relationship changes
over time (i.e. the degradation rate). The quantification of power production
decline or diminishing over a time course is known as a degradation
rate167,168,169. The degradation occurs due to chemical and material processes
associated with weathering, oxidation, corrosion, and thermal stresses.
Financially, the degradation of a PV module or system is equally important,
because a higher degradation rate translates directly into less power produced
and therefore, reduces future cash flows.
Solar-PV systems are often financed based on an assumed (0.5 – 1.0) %
per year degradation rate 170; however, 1% per year is used based on modules
warranties171. This rate is faster than some historical data given for silicon
PV. In a study172, more than 70% of 19–23 year-old c-Si modules had an
annual degradation rate of 0.75% which is still less than the 1% year
assumed. Technically, the degradation mechanisms are important to be
understood because they may for the long run lead to failure. The
classification of degradation mechanisms through experiments and modeling
can lead directly to lifetime improvements. Typically, a drop in the output
power production by 20% at standard conditions is considered as a failure
that requires partial of full replacement of the PV modules; however, this is
not an agreement with the definition of a failure from the reliability point of
view. This is because the modules are still able to produce electricity. In
167
M. EL-Shimy, “Analysis of Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) and grid parity for
utility-scale photovoltaic generation systems”, 15th International Middle East Power
Systems Conference (MEPCON’12), Dec. 23-25, 2012, Alexandria, Egypt, pp. 1- 7.
168
M. Saed, M. EL-Shimy, and M. Abdelraheem, “Photovoltaics Energy: Improved
modeling and analysis of the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) and Grid Parity”,
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, vol. 9, pp. 37-48, 2015.
169
Jordan, D. C., & Kurtz, S. R. (2013). Photovoltaic degradation rates—an analytical
review. Progress in photovoltaics: Research and Applications, 21(1), 12-29.
170
Campbell, M., Aschenbrenner, P., Blunden, J., Smeloff, E., & Wright, S. (2008). The
drivers of the levelized cost of electricity for utility-scale photovoltaics. White Paper:
SunPower Corporation.
171
Zweibel, K., Mason, J., & Fthenakis, V. (2008). A solar grand plan. Scientific
American, 298(1), 64-73.
172
Skoczek, A., Sample, T., & Dunlop, E. D. (2009). The results of performance
measurements of field‐aged crystalline silicon photovoltaic modules. Progress in
Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, 17(4), 227-240.
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addition, a high efficiency module degraded by 50% may still have a higher
efficiency than a non-degraded module from a less efficient technology.
Fig 10.7, shows the degradation rates of various solar-PV technologies.
These summarized rates are the long-term degradation rates and they do not
include short-term, light-induced degradation rates. The light-induced
degradation rate effect is generally ascribed to boron-oxygen (B-O) defects
in the cell itself which is a defect complex that is formed by prolonged
exposure of solar cells to light and is accompanied by a reduction in the
minority-carrier lifetime in the bulk of the cell. This degradation in the
lifetime of the wafer is thought to be fully recoverable upon annealing,
which causes the dissociation of the B-O complex173.
In Fig 10.7, the denotations “pre” and “post” refer to a date of installation
prior to and after the year 2000, respectively. The selection of year 2000 was
chosen such that the number of data points in each category is approximately
equal. It is depicted from this figure that the crystalline Si technologies show
low degradation rates in comparison with other technologies for pre-2000 and
post-2000 categories; however, the figure shows that there are a significant
reduction in degradation rates of the thin-film technologies in the analysis the
post-2000 in comparison with the pre-2000 installations.
173
Sopori, B., Basnyat, P., Devayajanam, S., Shet, S., Mehta, V., Binns, J., & Appel, J.
(2012, June). Understanding light-induced degradation of c-Si solar cells. In Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference (PVSC), 2012 38th IEEE (pp. 001115-001120). IEEE.
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Generally, the working life of an asset is the life for which it continues to
perform its tasks effectively. It is often true that the operation and
maintenance (O&M) costs rise with the age of the asset. Since annual capital
costs tend to decline and annual O&M costs rise, there is a minimum average
cost per year at which point it is considered the economic life of the asset.
This is called the economic lifetime. By the end of the economic life, the
asset is then replaced or refurbished, since thereafter it becomes more
expensive to run the asset174.
The financial life of a solar PV system is usually considered to be the
guarantee period offered by the manufacturer which is often 20–25 years;
however, researches show that the life of solar PV panels is well beyond 25
years even for the older technologies. The current technologies are likely to
improve lifetime further175. The O&M costs are due to replacing inverters
(usually every 5 or 10 years), occasional cleaning, and electrical system
repairs. It is expected that some of these costs, such the inverter, will
decrease with time.
It should also be noted that the life of many conventional power plants is
much longer than the rated lifetime since they tend to be theoretically
refurbished or re-commissioned indefinitely, then the same could be true of
solar-PV plants. Therefore, the economic life of the system depends on the
acceptable energy output which is mainly dependant on the degradation rate.
On the other hand, the predicted or expected lifetime of a photovoltaic
module is one of the main factors which define the levelized cost (LCOE) of
PV solar electricity176. Extensive effort has been made for more than 20 years
to define, predict and assure the lifetime of PV solar modules from the
manufacturers, the research laboratories and international standards bodies.
The effort to assure the functionality, quality and lifetime of PV modules is
introduced by the International Electro-technical Commission (IEC) through
accelerated test procedures called type approval tests. These test procedures
174
Leblanc, S., & Roman, P. (2005). Project Management: An Engineering Economics
Perspective. Pearson Custom Publishing.
175
Skoczek, A., Sample, T., & Dunlop, E. D. (2009). The results of performance
measurements of field‐aged crystalline silicon photovoltaic modules. Progress in
Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, 17(4), 227-240.
176
M. Saed, M. EL-Shimy, and M. Abdelraheem, “Photovoltaics Energy: Improved
modeling and analysis of the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) and Grid Parity”,
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, vol. 9, pp. 37-48, 2015.
434
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
177
Dunlop, E. D., Halton, D., & Ossenbrink, H. (2005, January). 20 years of life and more:
where is the end of life of a PV module?. In Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 2005.
Conference Record of the Thirty-first IEEE (pp. 1593-1596). IEEE.
178
Vázquez López, M., & Rey-Stolle Prado, I. (2008). Photovoltaic module reliability
model based on field degradation studies. Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and
Applications, 16(5), 419-433.
179
Cereghetti, N., Bura, E., Chianese, D., Friesen, G., Realini, A., & Rezzonico, S. (2003,
May). Power and energy production of PV modules statistical considerations of 10 years
activity. In Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, 2003. Proceedings of 3rd World Conference
on (Vol. 2, pp. 1919-1922). IEEE.
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120
L.Teff (years)
100
Min.
Effective lifetime (years)
60
40
20
0
Mono-Si Poly-Si a-Si CdTe CIS
L.Teff (years) Min. 30 23 15 21 12
L.Teff (years) Av. 41 30 19 37 18
L.Teff (years) Max. 51 41 26 101 34
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
180
Swanson, R. M. (2009). Photovoltaics power up. Science, 324(5929), 891-892.
181
Devabhaktuni, V., Alam, M., Depuru, S. S. S. R., Green, R. C., Nims, D., & Near, C.
(2013). Solar energy: Trends and enabling technologies. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, 19, 555-564.
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significantly higher than the prices of the crystalline modules made in China.
The prices of the a-Si modules are the lowest followed by the Cds/CdTe
modules then the a-Si/-Si modules and the China crystalline modules, then
Germany and Japan crystalline modules. Although the prices of the a-Si
modules are the lowest as shown in Fig. 10.10, they are also having a low
average effective lifetime as shown in Table 10.4. Fig. 10.10 also shows that
China crystalline modules offer a very low price in compassion to other
crystalline modules and at the same time they offer a high average lifetime as
shown in Table 10.4 (for the crystalline technologies). That is a probable
reason for the high potential of the China PV market and production.
In the mono-Si technological category, it is clear from Tables 10.5 that the
Sunpower mono-Si-SPR-320E-WHT offers the highest efficiency (19.62%)
with a Watt-peak/area of 197.53 Watt/m2 while the Q-cells mono-Si-Q6LM-
1680 module offers the highest Watt-peak/area (200 watt/m2) with an
efficiency of 16.8%. Since the Watt-peak/area gained from the Q-cells
module is insignificant in comparison with the Sunpower module and the
efficiency of the Sunpower module is significantly higher than the Q-cells
module, then the best found mono-Si module is the Sunpower mono-Si-SPR-
320E-WHT. In the poly-Si technological category, it is clear from Tables
10.5 that the Canadian Solar poly-Si-CS 6A 190W offers the highest
efficiency (17.59%) with a Watt-peak/area of 146.15 Watt/m2 while the Q-
cells poly-Si-Q6LTT-1640 module offers the highest Watt-peak/area (200
watt/m2) with an efficiency of 16.4%. Since the Watt-peak/area gained from
440
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http://pveducation.org/
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with respect to the ideal cell; FF = (Vmp Imp)/( Voc Isc). The efficiency () of
the cell is determined as Pmp/(Ht A) where the solar irradiance incident on the
plan of the cell (Ht) in unit power/m2 and A is the cell surface area exposed to
the solar radiation in m2. The value of Pmp equals to Vmp Imp.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10.12: Solar-PV systems; (a) Generators and their possible load
types; (b) Energy storage options
The characterizing operating points (Voc, Isc, Vmp, Imp, Pmp) are usually
determined and provided by the manufacturer at specific conditions called
Standard Test Conditions (STC) which are mainly 1000 W/m2 solar
443
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
radiations incident on the plan of the solar-PV cell at 25oC (77oF) of average
air temperature and 1.5 air mass (or atmospheric density) 183,184.These
characterizing operating points (Voc, Isc, Vmp, Imp, Pmp) are sensitive to both the
incident solar radiation at the cell surface and the surface temperature of the
cell. The effects of the solar irradiance and the temperature of the cell
characteristics are illustrated in Fig. 10.14(b) to (d) respectively.
As shown in Fig. 10.14(b), the changes in the irradiance have a significant
impact on the short-circuit current and a minor impact on the open-circuit
voltage. Increasing the irradiance increases the short-circuit current and the
open-circuit voltage as well as the maximum power. The MPP voltage is
increased with the increase in the irradiance. It is clear from Fig. 10.14(c) that
the open-circuit voltage rapidly increases with the increase of the irradiance
from zero. Shortly after that rapid increase, the open circuit voltage becomes
less sensitive to the changes in the irradiance. The short-circuit current shows
a linear direct relation with the changes in the solar irradiance. On the other
hand, the changes in the cell temperature (Fig. 10.14(d)) have an insignificant
impact on the short-circuit current and a significant impact on the open-
circuit voltage. Increasing the temperature slightly increases the short-circuit
current and significantly reduces the open-circuit voltage. Consequently, the
maximum power is reduced with the increase in the temperature and the MPP
voltage is also reduced.
The characteristics of either modules or arrays can be easily derived from
the characteristics of a cell. For example, a module having Ncells cells
183
IEC 61215, IEC 61646 and UL 1703
184
The solar-PV manufacturers usually use the STC to determine the characteristics of
solar-PV modules. One the other hand, the PVUSA Test Conditions (PTC) which is
sometimes also called performance test conditions is developed to test and compare solar-
PV systems as part of the PVUSA (Photovoltaics for Utility Scale Applications) project,
which was undertaken by a partnership between the US Department of Energy and several
major utilities. PTC and STC are different test basis; however, the PTC is considered to be
a better reflection of real operational conditions in comparison with the STC. This is
because PTC ratings are based on conditions that are closer to typical outdoor operating
environments. Therefore, PTC ratings are more realistic than nameplate (i.e. STC) ratings.
Unlike the STC ratings which are measured values, the PTC ratings are calculated values.
The Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT) ratings are adopted by power utilities
for more accurate estimation of the performance of solar-PV modules in the real world
conditions; 800 W/m2 of sunlight irradiance at the plan of the module, 20°C (68°F)
average air temperature, and 1.0 m/s (2.24 miles/hour) of wind speed with the back side of
the solar panel open to that wind breeze. A method of estimating the PTC from NOTC is
stated at http://goo.gl/ro1gX2
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10.13: Solar-PV. (a) Cell, module, and array; (b) Connection of cells
in a module; 36 cells are connected in series for producing a rated voltage of
12 V.
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(b)
(a)
(c) (d)
(e)
Fig. 10.14: Characteristics of solar-PV arrays; (a) Characteristics of a cell; (b)
Impacts of change in the solar irradiance; (c) Changes in Isc and Voc with the
changes in the irradiance; (d) Impacts of changes in the temperature; (e)
Characteristics of the Sanyo HIT 215W module at 25 oC.
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(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 10.15: Equivalent circuit of PV cells; (a) Circuit diagram; (b) Impact of
the series resistance; (c) Impact of the shunt resistance
The impacts of the series and the shunt resistances on the I-V
characteristics are also shown in the figure. It is clear that increasing the
series resistance decreases the MPP voltage and MMP current. Consequently,
the maximum power and the efficiency are reduced with the increase in the
series resistance. On the other hand, increasing the shunt resistance has an
opposite impact in comparison with the impact of the series resistance. The
figure also shows a way of determining these resistances from measured I-V
curves. The series resistance is determined as the negative of the slop of the I-
447
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186
Dolara, A., Faranda, R., & Leva, S. (2009). Energy comparison of seven MPPT
techniques for PV systems. Journal of Electromagnetic Analysis and Applications, 2009.
187
Faranda, R., & Leva, S. (2008). Energy comparison of MPPT techniques for PV
Systems. WSEAS transactions on power systems, 3(6), 446-455.
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example, an MPPT technique with a rank of 85% indicates that the extracted
maximum power is 85% of the actual available maximum power at various
input conditions to the solar-PV array. Fig. 10.17(b) also illustrates a
comparison between the approximate rankings of various MPPT techniques
considering the variations of the irradiance values around the STC irradiance
at a constant STC standard temperature. It should be notes that the dynamic
performance and the hardware requirements of an MPPT technique are not of
low importance in comparison with its rank. This issue will be considered
later in this chapter.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10.17: MPPT; (a) Methods; (b) Approximate ranking at irradiance
levels close to the STC value and a constant STC temperature
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In the constant voltage (C.V) method, the average MPP voltage is used for
the MPPT. As shown in Fig. 10.14 and 10.18, the changes in Vmp due to the
changes in the irradiance are not very large; however, the impact of the
temperature various on the MPP is significant. Consequently, in this method,
the average value of Vmp is determined and the solar-PV array terminal
voltage is fixed at this average value which is also called the reference
voltage Vref.
(a) (b)
10.18: Changes in the MPP; (a) Impact of irradiance; (b) impact of
temperature
The reference voltage may also be chosen to be equal to the Vmp at the
STC conditions. Fig. 10.19 shows the constant voltage MPPT algorithm
where k is the sampling rate of the measurements and D is the duty cycle of
the DC-DC boost converter188 (Fig. 10.16); the output voltage is proportional
to the duty cycle. The C.V method is the simplest MPPT technique; however,
it has low rank in comparison with the other techniques when the irradiance
is close to the STC value; however, the rank of the C.V method surpasses the
P&O as well as the IC methods at low irradiance levels. This is due to
variable sensitivity of the change of the MPP point with the irradiance.
188
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boost_converter
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189
Dolara, A., Faranda, R., & Leva, S. (2009). Energy comparison of seven MPPT
techniques for PV systems. Journal of Electromagnetic Analysis and Applications, 2009
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The P&O method also suffers from operational failure in the cases of
sudden changes in the irradiance or the temperature. This problem is
illustrated in Fig. 10.23. Suppose that the solar-PV array operates at the MPP
(a) at specific meteorological conditions. The P&O algorithm then perturbs
this operating point by a small change in the terminal voltage (V). With the
meteorological conditions unchanged, the operating point goes to point (b).
Therefore, the power is reduced and the MPP (a) is restored in the second
MPPT cycle. Now consider a situation where the meteorological conditions
are rapidly changed during the sampling period when the system operates at
point (a). The power curve moves from curve (1) to curve (2). The
perturbation of the operating point then causes point (a) to move to point (c).
Since, the power at (c) is higher than the power at (a), the MPPT then
considers (c) as the MPP while it is not the actual MPP at the new
meteorological conditions. This divergence action will be sustained if the
meteorological conditions remain changed rapidly.
Fig. 10.23: Failure of the P&O MPPT during rapid changes in the
meteorological conditions
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incremental conductance. In addition, to the left of the MPP, dP/dV >0 which
resulting in I/V + (dI/dV) > 0 while I/V + (dI/dV) < 0 holds if the operating
point is to the right of the MPP. Therefore, information about the
conductance and the incremental conductance leads to the identification of
the location of the operating point on the P-V curve as well as the correct
direction of change in the voltage for reaching the MPP. If I/V + (dI/dV) > 0,
then the voltage should be increased while with I/V + (dI/dV) < 0, the voltage
should be decreased. The ranking of this method is comparable with the P&O
method while each of them has different dynamic performance as will be
illustrated later. Fig. 10.23 illustrates the basic concepts of the IC based
MPPT.
Later in this chapter the dynamics associated with the P&O and IC MPPT
methods (as the most popular MPPT techniques) will be presented. In
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addition, the control algorithms of these methods will be enhanced for better
dynamic performance.
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The earth continuously rotates about its axis of daily rotation as shown in
Fig. 10.25. The line connecting the north and south poles is called the earth’s
axis. This axis is perpendicular to the plane of the equator; however, it is not
perpendicular to the plane of the earth’s orbit plan. The tilt or obliquity of the
earth’s axis to a line perpendicular to the plane of its orbit is currently about
23.5°.
The plane of the sun is then defined as the plane at which the center of the
sun is located and at the same time parallel to the equator plane. The elliptic
cycle is then the annual cycle at which the earth passes alternately above and
below the plane of the sun. Fig. 10.26 illustrates the plane of the sun and the
elliptic cycle as well as the earth’s motion through the space.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10.26: Motion of the earth; (a) Plane of the sun; (b) Motion through
space
The sun declination angle (δ) is defined to be that angle between the
equator plane and the line connecting the center of the earth and the center of
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the sun. This is illustrated in Fig. 10.27. as shown in the figure, the
declination angle various between 23.5o (at the summer solstice) and -23.5o
(at the winter solstice).
(a)
(b)
(d)
(c)
Fig. 10.27: Sun declination; (a) angle definition; (b) angle variations; (c) at
summer solstice; (d) at winter solstice
Consider Fig. 10.28, where a random location (P) on the earth’s surface is
shown. The geocentric latitude angle () of the random location P is the
angle between the lines joining that location to the center of the earth and the
equatorial plane. Therefore, all locations at the same latitude experience the
same geometric relationship with the sun. The semicircles along the surface
of the earth joining the north to the south poles are called lines of longitude.
The longitude line crossing the Greenwich city at England is called the prime
meridian. For the shown point (P) the latitude is +o north relative to the
equatorial plane while the longitude of the point is +o east relative to prime
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meridian. Fig. 10.29 illustrates various latitude and longitude lines on the
earth’s surface.
The solar noon is defined to be that time of day at which the Sun’s rays
are directed perpendicular to a given line of longitude. Therefore, the solar
noon occurs at the same instant for all locations along any common line of
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
sky. At sunrise and sunset this angle is 0º while at the solar noon this angle is
zero.
The solar altitude angle (αs) is the angle between the line that points to the
sun and the horizontal (i.e. the tangent of the earth’s surface). It is the
complement of the zenith angle. At sunrise and sunset this angle is 0º while at
the solar noon this angle is 90.
The solar azimuth angle (γs) is the angle between the line that points to the
sun and south. Angles to the east are negative. Angles to the west are
positive. This angle is 0º at solar noon. It is probably close to -90º at sunrise
and 90º at sunset, depending on the season. This angle is only measured in
the horizontal plane; in other words, the height of the sun is neglected
The angle of incidence (θ) is the angle between the line that points to the
sun and the line that points straight out of a solar-PV module (it is also called
the line that is normal to the surface of the module). This is the most
important angle. If the module orientation is controlled for minimization of
the incident angle, then the solar energy incident on the module will be
maximized. Consequently, the energy production will be maximized. This
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control action is the basis of all sun tracking control systems. In some cases,
the modules are kept fixed at a specific angle. For this purpose, the tilt angle
() should optimized for the maximization of the energy production and the
seasonal load variations 190.
The surface azimuth angle (γ) is the angle between the line that points
straight out of the module’s surface and south. It is only measured in the
horizontal plane. Again, east is negative and west is positive. If a module
pointed directly south, this angle would be 0º.
The collector slope or tilt angle (β) is the angle between the plane of the
solar collector and the horizontal. If a module is placed horizontally, then it is
0º.
190
El-Shimy, M. (2013). Sizing optimisation of stand-alone photovoltaic generators for
irrigation water pumping systems. International Journal of Sustainable Energy, 32(5),
333-350.
191
Ulgen, K. (2006). Optimum tilt angle for solar collectors. Energy Sources, Part A:
Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 28(13), 1171-1180.
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The single-axis tracker pivots on it an axis to track the sun, where the
solar-PV modules rotate from east to west to track the daily sun movement192.
The modules face the east in the morning and the west in the afternoon (Fig.
10.33). The tilt angle of this axis can be optimized in the same way of
optimizing the tilt angle of the fixed modules or can be set to be equal the
latitude angle of the location. In consequence for this type of sun tracking, a
seasonal adjustment of the tilt angle is recommended for achieving the
maximum energy production. The single-axis tracking can be implemented
by several methods. These include horizontal single-axis trackers (HSAT),
vertical single-axis trackers (VSAT), tilted single-axis trackers (TSAT) and
polar aligned single-axis trackers (PSAT)193.
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.32: Basic types of sun tracking systems; (a) Single-axis; (b) Dual-
axis
The two-axis trackers follow the sun in both azimuth and altitude (i.e.
elevation) by having two-axes of rotation. Consequently, the PV module
rotates from east to west to track daily sun movement and north or south to
track seasonal sun movement throughout the year. Therefore, the sun's rays
are kept normal to the module surface. Considering their ability to combine
two rotational motions described around perpendicular axis, they are able to
follow very precisely the sun path along an annual period. Therefore, the
192
System Advisor Model (SAM). SAM's Help system, National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL), September 2013
193
http://www.pvresources.com/PVSystems/Trackers.aspx
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dual-axis trackers are more efficient than the single one; however, the
selection of the sun tracking option is based on many factors. These factors
include the economic feasibility and the benefits of the tracking system in
terms on the energy production. As will be shown later, the impact of various
tracking options on the energy production and the LCOE is highly depended
on the location of the solar-PV project194. The dual-axis tracking has two
common implementations; tip-tilt dual-axis trackers (TTDAT) and azimuth-
altitude dual-axis trackers (AADAT). Recently, a combination between solar
trackers and mirrors is used to maximize the energy production. The most
common combination uses V-trough mirrors with trackers.
194
Said, M., EL-Shimy, M., & Abdelraheem, M. A. (2015). Photovoltaics energy:
Improved modeling and analysis of the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) and grid parity–
Egypt case study. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 9, 37-48.
195
Kumar, A., Thakur, N., Makade, R., & Shivhare, M. K. (2011). Optimization of tilt
angle for photovoltaic array. International Journal of Engineering Science and
Technology, 3(4), 3153-3161.
196
Ong, S., Campbell, C., Denholm, P., Margolis, R., & Heath, G. (2013). Land-use
requirements for solar power plants in the United States. Golden, CO: National Renewable
Energy Laboratory.
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trackers increases the land use by about 13%, while two-axis trackers
increases the land use by about 40%. Based the average market price is the
year 2014, the minimum, maximum, and the average costs in US$/W p of
single-axis trackers are 0.36, 0.4, and 0.38 while their values for dual-axis
trackers are 0.4, 3, and 0.96 US/Wp. The annual operating and maintenance
costs of the tracking systems are in the range of 12 US$/kWp-year to 25
US$/kWp-year197.
197
http://solarprofessional.com/articles/products-equipment/racking/pv-
trackers
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grids, the energy storage may be needed while with large grids (e.g. utility)
grid, the energy storage is not essentially required.
Fig. 10.12(b) shows various options of energy storage. The figure shows
two main classification of energy storage devices or systems. The
electrochemical energy storage is provided by various types of batteries while
the non-electrical energy storage can be provided by many options. These
include the pumped storage, compressed air energy storage (CAES), and the
hydrogen. Details about various classes are outside the scope of this book;
however, due to its importance, the hydrogen as energy storage and an energy
carrier will be explained in this section.
Among the main critical challenges of renewable energy systems are the
variability and intermittency of common renewable energy sources such as
wind and solar (see chapter 1). Conceptually, appropriate sizing of variable
resources accompanied sufficient energy storage can solve these operational
problems; however, it is neither economical nor technically possible to
construct bulk power energy storage by the use of traditional electrochemical
options. Therefore, very large scale integration of variable renewable energy
sources to power systems is not impossible from operation and security
points of view.
Fig. 10.34: Use of hydrogen as an energy storage and energy carrier for
enhancing the reliability of variable power sources
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The use of variable and intermittent electrical energy sources can be used
for hydrogen production (as shown in Fig. 10.34). The produced hydrogen
can be then stored in tanks at a specific compression level 198. The availability
of this stored hydrogen facilitates the controllable use of the overall energy
produced from an originally non-controllable resource (such as wind speed or
solar irradiance). In addition, the hydrogen can be moved over long
geographical distance in the same way of moving the oil and natural gas.
Unlike the conventional electrical power transmission, the hydrogen energy
transmission is not associated with energy losses or geographical barriers.
The amazing issue here is the use of the hydrogen. It can be used directly for
thermal energy production (like the natural gas in home and industrial
applications as well as supplying vehicle). In addition, indirect use of
hydrogen for electrical energy production is possible either through fuel cells
or hydrogen gas turbines. Advances in the research and industry of hydrogen
related technology for energy storage, energy transmission, and electrical
energy production are needed for enhancing the security, safety, economy,
and feasibility of such systems.
Variable renewable energy sources can also be used for many other
objectives. For example, reduction of the utility grid energy tariffs is possible
by reducing the dependency on the utility grid through installing on-site, for
example, solar-PV generators (Fig. 10.35). In this case, a utility customer will
not only be capable of reducing the electricity tariff but also can export power
to the grid. Usually feed-in-tariff structures are available in world-wide
countries for this purpose. The structures allow independent power producers
to sell power to the utility grid. Usually, the prices of the renewable energy
exported by the customers are higher than the retail prices of the utility
energy. This attracts the load-side integration of renewable resources even in
the residential class.
With the use of energy storage, these renewable sources can also be used
for enhancing the load supply reliability as well as reducing the possible
energy interruptions cause by the utility grid. The size of the required energy
storage should be minimized. Therefore, the load should be classified
198
Afgan, N. H., & Carvalho, M. G. (2004). Sustainability assessment of hydrogen energy
systems. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 29(13), 1327-1342.
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according to its importance and the sizing of the storage should be based on
the critical and essential load classes.
Fig. 10.35: Use of solar-PV supply for reducing the electricity tariff and
possibly for enhancing the main supply reliability
(10.4)
(10.5)
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Said, M., EL-Shimy, M., & Abdelraheem, M. A. (2015). Photovoltaics energy:
Improved modeling and analysis of the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) and grid parity–
Egypt case study. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 9, 37-48.
201
https://sam.nrel.gov/
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(10.6)
(10.7)
(10.8)
The total daily radiation in the plane of the PV-generator equals to the
summation of the hourly irradiance in the plane of the PV-generator i.e.
. The estimation of involves the determination of the hourly
beam (or direct) and diffuse irradiance on a horizontal surface for all
hours of an average day having the same daily global radiation as the
monthly average. The definitions of the global solar radiation of the
horizontal surface (GSR)202 and its components i.e. the direct and diffuse
radiations are illustrated in Fig. 10.36.
The monthly mean hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface H can
be correlated to monthly mean daily global radiation on a horizontal surface
using a proper mathematical correlation model rt i.e. .
Inappropriate solar correlation model selection for a specific design site is a
major cause for inaccurate system sizing of solar-PV generators. Therefore, it
is recommended to use the most appropriate correlation model for the design
site in sizing PV-generators203. Two accepted correlation models are
considered in this book. The best model is to be selected for the considered
study site. These correlation models are the Liu and Jordan (LJ) given by
equation (10.9) and Collares-Pereira and Rabl (CR) given by equation
(10.10). The coefficients of the CR model are defined in equations (10.11)
202
Abdo, T., & EL-Shimy, M. (2013). Estimating the global solar radiation for solar
energy projects–Egypt case study. International Journal of Sustainable Energy, 32(6),
682-712.
203
Yesilata, B., & Firatoglu, Z. A. (2008). Effect of solar radiation correlations on system
sizing: PV pumping case. Renewable Energy, 33(1), 155-161.
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and (10.12). The solar hour angle and the sunset hour angle are given
by equations (10.13) and (10.14) respectively.
(10.11)
(10.12)
(10.13)
(10.14)
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(10.15)
(10.16)
(10.17)
where the tilt factors for beam Rb and diffuse Rd radiations are defined by
204
King, D. L., Boyson, W. E., & Kratochvil, J. A. (2004). Photovoltaic Array
Performance Model, Sandia National Labs.
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The values of these coefficients are stored in the Sandia Modules library 205.
These coefficients have been empirically determined based on a set of
manufacturer specifications and measurements taken from modules installed
outdoors in real, operating systems. The five points include the three classical
points on the IV curve, i.e. short-circuit current (Isc), open-circuit voltage
(Voc), and the maximum-power point voltage and current (Vmp and Imp
respectively). The remaining two points are the current (Ix) at the half of the
open-circuit voltage and the current (Ixx) at a voltage midway between Vmp
and Voc.. Sandia Model is described by the following equations.
Fig. 10.37: PV module characteristics (IV curve: red; power curve: blue)
showing the five points required by the Sandia performance model
205
System Advisor Model (SAM). SAM's Help system. Available: http://sam.nrel.gov
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Fig. 10.38: Equivalent circuit representing the PV cell used in the ECE
model. Note: the light current (IL) is also called the photocurrent (Iph)
recommended to use this model for the modules that do not exist in the CEC
module database. The model calculates the module's hourly DC output,
assuming that the module efficiency varies with radiation incident on the
module as defined by the radiation level and efficiency table.
206
El-Shimy, M. (2013). Sizing optimisation of stand-alone photovoltaic generators for
irrigation water pumping systems. International Journal of Sustainable Energy, 32(5),
333-350.
207
Said, M., EL-Shimy, M., & Abdelraheem, M. A. (2015). Photovoltaics energy:
Improved modeling and analysis of the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) and grid parity–
Egypt case study. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 9, 37-48.
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Chapter 11
Modeling, Dynamic Analysis, and Control of Grid-
Connected Solar-PV generators
11.1 Introduction
The integration of large amounts of solar PV power in to the electricity
grid presents new challenges 208. These challenges are mainly related to the
modeling, control, performance, technical impacts, operational impacts, and
techno-economic feasibility. One of the main operational and control targets
of solar PV generators is the extraction of the maximum available active
power. This available power is not only depends on the solar-PV generator
but also highly related to various meteorological conditions. The solar
irradiance and temperature are the main environmental input variables that
affect the power production. The sun tracking and the MPPT are also among
the main factors that affects the energy extraction. In the previous chapter,
various MPPT techniques are presented while in this chapter the dynamic
performance of grid-connected solar-PV generator equipped with some
selected MPPT methods will be presented. In addition, enhanced control of
the generator MPPT for better dynamic performance will also be presented.
The modeling of solar PV cells and generators is considered in many
previous researches 209,210,211,212,213. These researches provide methods for
estimating the parameters of solar PV cells, modules, and arrays. In addition,
mathematical models for the simulation of the behavior and performance are
presented considering variations in the temperature and solar irradiance.
208
European Photovoltaic Industry Association. (2014). Global market outlook for
photovoltaics 2014–2018.[Online] Available: http://www. epia. org/filead
min/user_upload. Publications/44_epia_gmo_report_ver_ 17_mr. pdf.
209
De Soto, W., Klein, S. A., & Beckman, W. A. (2006). Improvement and validation of a
model for photovoltaic array performance. Solar energy, 80(1), 78-88.
210
Chenni, R., Makhlouf, M., Kerbache, T., & Bouzid, A. (2007). A detailed modeling
method for photovoltaic cells. Energy, 32(9), 1724-1730.
211
Tian, H., Mancilla-David, F., Ellis, K., Muljadi, E., & Jenkins, P. (2012). A cell-to-
module-to-array detailed model for photovoltaic panels. Solar Energy, 86(9), 2695-2706.
212
Chouder, A., Silvestre, S., Sadaoui, N., & Rahmani, L. (2012). Modeling and
simulation of a grid connected PV system based on the evaluation of main PV module
parameters. Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory, 20(1), 46-58.
213
Yang, Y., Chen, W., & Blaabjerg, F. (2014). Advanced Control of Photovoltaic and
Wind Turbines Power Systems. In Advanced and Intelligent Control in Power Electronics
and Drives (pp. 41-89). Springer International Publishing.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
214
Salam, Z., Ahmed, J., & Merugu, B. S. (2013). The application of soft computing
methods for MPPT of PV system: A technological and status review. Applied Energy, 107,
135-148.
215
Onat, N. (2010). Recent developments in maximum power point tracking technologies
for photovoltaic systems. International Journal of Photoenergy, 2010.
216
Ahmed, J., & Salam, Z. (2014). A Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) for PV
system using Cuckoo Search with partial shading capability. Applied Energy, 119, 118-
130.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 11.1: Grid-connected solar-PV generator block diagram; (a) With DC-
DC converter for MPPT control; (b) Without DC-DC converter
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than the silicon energy band gap value 217 which is 1.1 eV or reflect off the
surface or absorbed by the silicon if the photon energy is higher than the
silicon band gap value 218. The absorbed photons generate an electron-hole
pair and sometimes heat depending on the band structure. For solar-PV cells,
the absorbed photons generate electron-hole pairs. As a result, an open-circuit
voltage appears at the terminals of the junction. If the junction is connected to
an external circuit, a current will flow on the external circuit causing
recombination of the electrons and holes. If the load resistance is zero, then
the current is called the short-circuit current. This process is called the light-
generated or the photo-generated current which is directly proportional to the
solar irradiance and it is demonstrated in Fig. 11.3 which is based on the
http://pveducation.com.
(b)
(a)
Fig. 11.2: Solar-PV cell; (a) Ideal equivalent circuit; (b) Circuit symbol
As shown in Fig. 11.2(a), the cell output current (I) takes the form,
217
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_gap
218
In solid-state physics, a band gap, also called an energy gap or bandgap, is
an energy range in a solid where no electron states can exist. In graphs of the
electronic band structure of solids, the band gap generally refers to the energy
difference (in electron volts) between the top of the valence band and the
bottom of the conduction band in insulators and semiconductors. In solar-PV
cells, the optical band gap determines the portion of the solar spectrum a cell
can absorb. A semiconductor will not absorb photons of energy less than its
band gap. In addition, the energy of the electron-hole pair produced by a
photon is equal to the band gap energy. The band gap of silicon is 1.1 eV and
its 0.67 eV for Germanium.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
where Iph is the light-generated current (A) which equals to the short-
circuit current and ID is the diode current (A). The diode current takes the
form,
The value is called the thermal voltage because of its units and
because it is only dependent on the temperature. Defining VT as,
where Io is the saturated reverse current or the leakage current of the diode
(A); q is the electron charge (= 1.602 10-19 C); k is the Boltzmann constant
(= 1.38 10-23 J/oK); V is the cell output voltage (V); Tc is the cell operating
temperature (oK); a is the diode ideality factor. The ideality factor (also called
the emissivity factor) is a fitting parameter that describes how closely the
diode's behavior matches that behavior predicted by theory.
In theory, the p-n junction of the diode is assumed to be an infinite plane
and consequently no recombination occurs within the space-charge region. A
perfect match to theory is indicated when a = 1. When recombination in the
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
219
Bellia, H., Youcef, R., & Fatima, M. (2014). A detailed modeling of photovoltaic
module using MATLAB. NRIAG Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics, 3(1), 53-61.
220
Tsai, H. L., Tu, C. S., & Su, Y. J. (2008, October). Development of generalized
photovoltaic model using MATLAB/SIMULINK. In Proceedings of the world congress
on engineering and computer science (Vol. 2008, pp. 1-6). Citeseer.
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or
Later, the impact of changes in the irradiance and the temperature on the
cell characteristics as well as the impact of the cell losses will be presented.
In the equivalent circuit of Fig. 11.2(a) which describes an ideal cell,
losses are neglected. In reality, the losses reduce the output power and affect
the overall I-V characteristics of the cell. The resistivity of the semiconductor
material and the contacts can be represented by a series resistance (Rs)
connected at the terminals of an ideal cell as shown in Fig. 11.5. In this case
equation (11.6) can be written as,
The voltage at the terminals of the diode (VD) is related to the cell’s
terminal voltage by . Therefore, (11.9) becomes,
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
The I-V relation and the open-circuit voltage can be then defined by,
Around the STC, the value of the photocurrent is nearly equals to the
short-circuit currents i.e.
In the following, the impact of the variations in the solar irradiance and
temperature will be presented. Therefore, the values of various variables and
parameters at STC (1000 W/m2 and 25oC) will be illustrated by the suffix ref.
The reference values are usually given in the datasheets of Photovoltaics. The
short-circuit current at a temperature Tc is then,
487
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i.e.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
As shown in Fig. 10.15, the STC values of the series and shunt resistances
can be approximated by,
Fig. 11.7: Solar-PV module with Ns series cells and Np parallel cells.
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The solar-PV array model can be derived based on the same concepts.
Therefore, an array with Ms series modules and Mp parallel modules can be
represented also as shown in Table 11.1. For the five-parameter model,
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Note: , ,
(b) Four-parameter model
Note:
(c) Five-parameter model
Note:
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array’s MPP and also capable of providing load matching for the maximum
power transfer by controlling the input resistance of the array to match the
load resistance. Various MPPT algorithms are described in Chapter 10. In
this chapter two popular MPPT algorithms will be considered. These
algorithms are the P&O and the IC. In addition, these algorithms will be
enhanced for better dynamic performance of the SPVG.
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.9: I-V characteristics of the Sanyo-HIP-225HDE1 module; (a)
Simulated by the five-parameter model; (b) Manufacturer measured data
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221
George, K. (2006). DC Power Production, Delivery and Utilization: An EPRI White
Paper. Available at: h ttp://www. epri. org [Accessed: 2.4. 12].
222
Hua, C., & Shen, C. (1998, May). Study of maximum power tracking techniques and
control of DC/DC converters for photovoltaic power system. In Power Electronics
Specialists Conference, 1998. PESC 98 Record. 29th Annual IEEE (Vol. 1, pp. 86-93).
IEEE.
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characteristics of the array; however, this method maximizes the power to the
load rather than the power from the array.
The basics and various types of DC-DC converters will be presented in
the following. Three types of DC-DC converters will be considered; buck
(step down converter), boost (step up converter), and buck-boost converters.
The fundamental DC-DC converter for stepping down the DC input voltage
is shown in Fig. 11.10 where R is the equivalent load resistance. As shown
in Fig. 11.10(a), switching on and off of the switch in a periodic manner
causes as shown in Fig. 11.10(b) reduction in the output voltage in
comparison with the input voltage. The switch control is usually achieved by
pulse width modulation (PWM) in which the switch is closed for an on
duration (ton) and open for an off duration (toff) in a periodic way. The PWM
control signal is shown in Fig. 11.10(c).
With a switching periodic time Ts, the duty cycle (D) of the switch is
defined as,
The output voltage (vo(t)) and its average value (Vo) are then represented
by,
It is clear from Fig. 11.10(b) and (11.41) that the output DC voltage
contains harmonics due to the switching action (called switching harmonics)
as shown in Fig. 11.11. The switching frequency is related to the switching
periodic time by,
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(a) (b)
(c)
IEEE 519223 standard for more details). This problem can be solved by the
use of lowpass filters as shown in Fig. 11.10(c). This filter passes the DC
component while attenuates the switching harmonics. The filter action is
governed by its L and C components. The series inductor (L) presents zero
impedance to the DC component of the output voltage while it presents
increasing impedance with the increase in the switching frequency.
Therefore, the series inductor attenuates significant amounts of the
harmonics. On the other hand, the shunt capacitor presents an infinite
impedance to the DC component while it traps the harmonics to the ground
due to the reduction of its impedance. The corner frequency (fc) of the filter
(see Fig. 11.12) is defined as,
Fig. 11.10(c) illustrate a feedback PWM control for adjusting the output
voltage of the converter to a desired reference level by controlling the duty
cycle of the switch. Although the PWM control is described for stepping
down the DC voltage (i.e. buck control action), all the other considered
converters are also based on the PWM control. In a realistic buck converter
as shown in Fig. 11.13, the diode is used for defining the current pass during
223
Duffey, C. K., & Stratford, R. P. (1989). Update of harmonic standard IEEE-519: IEEE
recommended practices and requirements for harmonic control in electric power systems.
Industry Applications, IEEE Transactions on, 25(6), 1025-1034.
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the off periods of the switch. The switch may be a transistor such as BJT or
MOSFET.
(a)
(b) (c)
(d)
Fig. 11.13: Buck converter; (a) Circuit representation; (b) switch on; (c)
Switch off; (d) Inductor ripple current variations due to charging and
discharging of the capacitor
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(a)
(b) (c)
The k is the integration constant that presents the initial current. Fig.
11.14(b) shows the current as a function of time for k = 0. Now suppose that
the impressed voltage is a DC voltage of a value VL, then the solution of
(11.46) becomes,
Equation (11.47) and Fig. 11.14 (b) show that the inductor current will be
increases to infinity as the voltage is forced across its terminals and no steady
state value will be reached. If the inductor is not pure and having a parasite
small resistance (r), then a steady state very high current that is limited by the
value of this resistance will be reached. This current value may be high
enough to destroy the inductor. Therefore, whenever voltage is applied across
a pure, the reactor current will be a time dependent linearly increasing
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function even if the voltage is DC. For the switching circuit shown in Fig.
11.13, the output voltage waveform takes the form shown in Fig. 11.15.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 11.15: Output voltage of a buck converter; (a) Circuit; (b) Output
voltage waveform; (c) Inductor voltage and current waveform
Based on (11.46) and over one complete switching period, the following
relation holds,
Equation (11.50) shows that the average voltage across the inductor is
zero. Equation (11.50) is known as the volt-second balance of inductors. For
the buck converter and neglecting the output voltage ripple, the volt-second
balance can be written as,
Therefore,
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During a steady state periodic operation, the net changes in the capacitor
voltage is zero i.e.
Equation (11.55) shows also that the average capacitor current is zero.
This is called the capacitor charge balance.
It should be noted that Fig. 11.13(d) shows the inductor current in the
continuous mode of operation where the inductor current do not drop to zero
during switching off periods. This is the normal mode during high loading
conditions; however, during light loading conditions, the inductor current
may be decrease to zero before the end of the next switching on. Therefore,
the load current becomes discontinuous. A situation which may lead to
problems in the operation of the supplied load.
Boost converters (Fig. 11.16) are performing the opposite function of
buck converters as they increase the output voltage in comparison with the
input voltage. During the on operation of the switch, the input voltage is
forced across the inductor. As a result, the inductor current increases. In this
case, the load current is supplied by the capacitor. When the switch is off, the
inductor voltage is added to the input voltage and supplies the capacitor by
appositive voltage. Therefore, the diode becomes forward biased and the
capacitor charges to a voltage that is higher than the input voltage. During the
switch off of the switch, the inductor current supplies both the load and the
capacitor. The inductor current waveform is similar to that shown in Fig.
11.13(d). With the switch on the inductor voltage is Vdc while its value is
approximately Vdc – Vo when the switch is closed. Therefore, the inductor
volt-second balance presented by (11.50) takes the form,
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(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 11.16: Boost converter; (a) Circuit representation; (b) Switch on; (c)
Switch off
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 11.17: Buck-Boost converter; (a) Circuit representation; (b) Switch on;
(c) Switch off
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Unlike the buck and the boost converters, the buck-boost converter (Fig.
11.17) is capable of stepping down or stepping up the output voltage i.e. it is
capable of performing the boost and buck functions by controlling the duty
cycle of the switch. The Buck-Boost is supplied by a DC input voltage and
produces a DC output voltage that is in opposite polarity with respect to the
input voltage. The negative output voltage is controllable and it can be either
larger or smaller than the input voltage.
The inductor volt-second balance can be then stated as,
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Type
General
Buck
Boost
Buck-boost Configuration Characteristics
On the I-V characteristics of the array, the locus of various constant power
values is shown. It is clear that the load consumption will increase to the
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MPP value if the load voltage is increased to . At this value of the voltage
across the load terminals, the load consumes the MPP power value; however,
this point (i.e. point b) is not available on the characteristics of the array. This
problem can be solved by inserting the DC-DC boost converter shown in Fig.
11.18(b) and operating it at the duty cycle D* at which the output voltage at
the load terminals is the desired voltage for MPPT i.e. . This operation and
control action is equivalent to controlling the load resistance by decreasing
the load resistance to R* which consumes the MPP power at the MPP voltage
(Vmp). Later in this section, some additional details about the MPPT will be
presented. The presented function of the DC-DC converter is stepping up the
voltage. Therefore, buck-boost converters are also suitable while buck
converters are not suitable as they only step down the voltage.
(a)
(b) (C)
Fig. 11.18: Operation and control concepts of DC-DC converters for MPPT
Recalling that the considered DC-DC converters are ideal lossless and
acts as ideal DC step-up and/or step-down DC electronic transformers. In
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reality there are power losses associated with the inductor parasite resistance,
the switches, and other losses. The losses are highly dependent on the types
of used switches and the quality of components 224,225. The efficiency and
impact of these losses on the input – output voltage relation can be
represented by,
The efficiency curve of the converter can be obtained from either tests or
manufacturer datasheets. Fig. 11.19 illustrates the representation of the
converter losses in the equivalent circuit by an equivalent loss resistance req.
Therefore, in this representation, an ideal voltage transformation is
considered.
224
Espinosa, C. A. L. (2014). State Variable Model for Considering the Parasitic Inductor
Resistance on the Open Loop Performance of DC to DC Converters. Journal of Computer
and Communications, 2(13), 41.
225
Hua, C., & Shen, C. (1998, May). Study of maximum power tracking techniques and
control of DC/DC converters for photovoltaic power system. In Power Electronics
Specialists Conference, 1998. PESC 98 Record. 29th Annual IEEE (Vol. 1, pp. 86-93).
IEEE.
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The inverter also converts the input DC power to desired values of active
power and reactive power. In addition, the inverters are capable of controlling
the power factor of the AC side. Automatic voltage control of the AC side is
also possible. These functions are determined by the inverter control that
eventually controls the on/off actions of various electronic switches that
comprise the inverter.
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(a)
(b) (c)
(d)
Fig. 11.21: Fundamental single-phase inverter; (a) Operation; (b) Output
frequency control by periodic time adjustment; (c) Control of the output
voltage magnitude by PWM; (d) Reduction of harmonics using PMW control
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It is clear from (11.63) and (11.64), that the active power transfer is highly
sensitive to the load angle while the impact of the voltage magnitude on the
active power is minor. On the other hand the reactive power transfer is highly
sensitive to the voltage magnitude in comparison with the load angle.
Therefore, from the control point of view, the reactive power flow can be
effectively controlled by controlling the output voltage of the inverter while
the active power control can be effectively achieved by controlling the load
angle of the inverter. As will be shown later, these control actions can be
realized by controlling the direct and quadrature current components of the
voltage source inverter (VSI) output current.
The power control system of the VSI using the current control is briefly
illustrated in Fig. 11.24. The output interface contains an LC filter and
possibly as protection and control devices.
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Fig. 11.25: Active and reactive power control based on the synchronized
d-q control scheme
The d-q based current control scheme can be used instead of the presented
current control scheme especially for decoupling the active and reactive
power control. The d-q based control scheme is shown in Fig. 11.25. Detailed
modeling of this scheme is available in many publications; however, the L.
Wang (ed.) textbook226 is recommended as it uses the same reference
synchronized frame of this book. The implementation of the overall grid-
connected solar-PV generator on the MATLAB Simulink will be presented in
the following.
226
Wang, L. (2012). Modeling and Control of Sustainable Power Systems. Springer.
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angular velocity are not independent quantities. The PLL also is used for
setting the direct axis component of the grid voltage (vd) to zero. This is
required for decoupling the active and reactive power control functions.
These issues will be illustrated in the next section.
227
http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/34752-grid-connected-pv-
array/content/PVarray/PVarray_Grid_PandO_avg.mdl
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duty cycle for operation at the MPP is not found. Reducing the duty cycle to
very small values will not cause sustained oscillations around the MPP;
however, the MPPT will not be effective in reasonably tracking the MPP.
Therefore, the idea of enhancing the traditional P&O algorithm is to the
design of variable duty cycle control. In the following, multiple steps of the
duty cycle will be considered. The choice of the duty cycle step depends on
the distance from the MPP. If the operating point is far from the MPP, large
duty cycle step will be used for accelerating the MPPT. On the other hand,
small duty cycle step will be commanded when the operating point is close to
the MPP. Consequently, the MPPT control will be shown to have a better
dynamic performance. The enhanced P&O algorithm is called the Improved
P&Q algorithm (IP&O). The same idea will be used for enhancing the IC
algorithm which will be called the Integral Regulator & Incremental
Conductance (I&IC) algorithm.
The enhancement approach is used depends on dividing the rate of change
of the duty cycle by two each time it crosses the MPP. A block called delta-D
calculator was added to the output of the P&O block to divide the duty cycle
by two each time it crosses the MPP, this block contains the following items:
a detect increase sub-block whose output will be 1 if the duty cycle is
increasing and zero otherwise, a detect decrease sub-block which output will
be 1 if the duty cycle is decreasing and zero otherwise, unite delay, logical
operator, and finally a block that divide the rate of change in duty cycle by 2
when the enable signal equals 1. The block simulation is shown in Fig. 11.26.
Fig.11.27 shows the duty cycle variations with P&O and IP&O
techniques. It can be seen that with P&O technique the duty cycle is always
oscillating around the MPP, but with IP&O the duty cycle is fixed at the
MPP.
The drawback of this technique is when it tracks the MPP at certain input
level (i.e. irradiance, temperature, voltage at the PCC ... etc) the rate of
change of duty cycle will be too small. Therefore, when one of the inputs
significantly change (e.g. the temperature), this technique will not be able to
track the new MPP. This problem can be solved by setting the rate of change
of duty cycle to a larger value when sensing changes in inputs. This will
explained in details later.
As an enhancement to the incremental conductance technique, an integral
regulator was added to it to minimize the error and optimize the duty cycle
correction factor. In incremental conductance technique the error equals to,
The duty cycle correction factor can be found by integrating the error; this
can be done as shown in Fig. 11.28.
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(11.69)
(11.70)
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The phase locked loop (PLL) has two functions the first one is to
determine the voltage frequency at PCC and determining the ramp (t) of
phase (a) voltage varying from (0) to (2) where is the angular speed in
radian. The second function included in that block is the Park’s
transformation of the measured voltage and current (i.e. transform it from abc
to dq0 synchronously rotating reference frame) and then the PLL sets the
quadrature axis component of the measured voltage (Vq) to zero. This is
performed by setting the angle and the rotation speed of the dq0 reference
frame equals to the angle and rotation speed of phase (a). The PLL &
measurement block model is shown in Fig. 11.30.
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The inputs to this block are the three phase measured voltage and current
at PCC. The outputs are the ramp (t) of phase (a) voltage varying from 0 to
2 and the per-unit voltages and currents in the dq0 reference frame.
The purpose of the DC regulator block is to adjust the DC-link voltage at
a pre-determined value to achieve the needed output voltage level according
to equation (11.69). The DC-link voltage can be determined according to the
following equation,
(11.71)
where Vdc is the DC-link voltage, Cdc is the DC-link capacitance, IBC is the
boost converter output current, and IVSC is the input current to the VSC, those
currents are shown in Fig. 11.31.
In the VDC regulator, the measured DC link voltage is compared with the
reference signal, the error is sent to PID controller and the output will be the
reference direct axis current (Id,ref) signal which determine the output active
power as shown in Fig. 11.32.
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The error between the measured and reference voltage is divided by the
nominal DC-link voltage to make the output current signal in per-unit. The
inputs to VDC regulator block are the measured and reference DC-link
voltage.
In the dq0 reference frame, the active and reactive power values are given
by the following equations,
(11.72)
(11.73)
(11.74)
(11.75)
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The active and reactive power can be then controlled by controlling Id and
Iq respectively. The reference direct-axis current (Id_ref) has been calculated as
explained in Fig. 11.31. The quadrature axis current reference (Iq_ref) is
determined according to the inverter mode of operation. As shown in Fig.
11.33, three control modes are considered; unity power factor (Iq_ref = 0),
constant power factor (Iq_ref/Id_ref = constant), and constant non-zero reactive
power (Iq_ref 0).
The function of current regulator block is to make the inverter output
current rapidly tracks the reference current. This is performed by a PID
controller. The inverter output current in the dq0 reference frame can be
calculated according to the following equations,
where Vd,mes and Vq,mes are the measured voltage at PCC in the dq0
reference frame; Id and Iq are the inverter output current in the dq0 reference
frame; R is the total resistance of the filter and transformer; L is the total
reactance of the filter and transformer. All these quantities are in per-unit.
These equations will be the planet to be controlled by a PID controller where
the inputs are Vd and Vq and the outputs are Vd,conv and Vq,conv where the
controlled inputs Vd and Vq.
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The model of the current regulator block is shown in Fig. 11.34. The
function of the inverter reference voltage generator block (Fig. 11.35) is to
generate the magnitude modulation ratio. Consequently, the required current
and voltage that achieve the demanded active and reactive power are
generated. The magnitude modulation ratio can be calculated from following
equation,
where md,q is the magnitude modulation ratio in the dq0 reference frame;
Vdc is the DC-link voltage; and Vd,q_conv is the converter voltage in the dq0
reference frame. The magnitude modulation ratio is then converted from the
dq0 to the abc reference frame and sent to the inverter.
In the rest of this section, the system inputs (i.e. irradiance, temperature,
grid voltage … etc.) will be subjected to disturbance considering various
operation modes. The effect of those disturbances on the PV generator
performance will be investigated, studied and analyzed with the presented
MPPT technique.
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Fig. 11.36: The array I-V and P-V curves for variable temperature
Fig. 11.37: Delivered active and reactive power for variable temperature
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To solve this problem, the rate of change of duty cycle (delta-D) needs to
be set at a larger value when the system senses a change in temperature; this
can be done as shown in Fig. 11.38. The output of the derivative of the
temperature is compared to zero. If there is a change in temperature the
output of the compare-to-constant block will be 1 which will be used as an
enable signal to the delta-D reset block, otherwise the output will be 0. The
delta-D reset block will set the delta-D to a larger value when the enable
signal equal to 1. The same modification will be applied for irradiance and
voltage at the PCC.
After adding the previous modification to delta-D calculator block and the
dynamic simulation of the IP&O algorithm is shown in Fig. 11.39 for the
same disturbance in the temperature. It is clear that, with the I&IC; however,
this requires the monitoring of the changes.
Fig. 11.39: Delivered active and reactive power for variable temperature
with delta-D reset to 5e-3
For the considered disturbance in the temperature, the changes in the d-q
currents and d-q reference currents as well as the duty cycle are shown in Fig.
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11.40 and 11.41.These results show that as the temperature increased the PV
array power decreased and the PV array output current and voltage at the
MPP decreased (Fig. 11.36). This leads to changes in the reference direct axis
current with a final steady reduction in its value in comparison with its initial
value (Fig. 11.40). The maximum power point (MPP) is changed because of
the change in temperature. Consequently, the MPPT started to track the new
MPP by changing the duty cycle (Fig. 11.41). As the new MPP is achieved
by a lower voltage so the function f(D) increased.
Fig. 11.40: Measured and reference direct and quadrature axis currents for
variable temperature
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Chapter 12
Consistence of Wind Power Technologies with the Fault
Ride-through Capability Requirements
12.1 Introduction
In addition to their environmental benefits, the recent progress in wind
energy technologies leads to cost reduction to levels comparable, in many
cases, with conventional generation technologies. As a result the penetration
of wind power in power systems is increasing. This major change in the
energy mix of power systems raises a number of challenges regarding grid
stability, power quality and behavior during fault situations. Consequently,
elaboration of specific technical requirements or grid codes for the
connection of large wind farms has been constructed. The new grid codes
stipulate that wind farms should contribute to power system operation and
control in a similar way the conventional generating systems do 228,229,230.
Essential grid code requirements are related to frequency, voltage and
wind turbine behavior in case of grid faults. The most common requirements
include231 active power control, frequency control, frequency and voltage
acceptable ranges, voltage control, voltage quality, fault ride-through (FRT)
capability, wind farm modeling, and communication and external control.
The main aim of the requirements is to ensure that wind farms do not
adversely affect the power system operation and control with respect to
security of supply, reliability, and power quality.
The occurrence of a fault (short-circuit) at some point of a power network
inevitably results in voltage dips in one or more phases and possibly also a
voltage rise in the healthy phase. This depends on the type and location of the
fault. These voltage disturbances may be propagated to fairly remote
228
Tsili, M., & Papathanassiou, S. (2009). A review of grid code technical requirements
for wind farms. IET Renewable Power Generation, 3(3), 308-332.
229
El‐Shimy, M. (2014). Modeling and analysis of reactive power in grid‐connected
onshore and offshore DFIG‐based wind farms. Wind Energy, 17(2), 279-295.
230
M. EL-Shimy, and N. Ghaly, “Grid-Connected Wind Energy Conversion Systems:
Transient Response”, In Sohail Anwar (ed.) Encyclopedia of Energy Engineering and
Technology, Taylor & Francis - CRC Press, 2014.
231
Holttinen, H., Meibom, P., Ensslin, C., Hofmann, L., Mccann, J., & Pierik, J. (2009).
Design and operation of power systems with large amounts of wind power. In VTT
Research Notes 2493.
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locations on the network, especially in the case of weak grids. The duration
of the voltage dips is dependent on the protection system response time. It
may vary between 0.1s to several seconds; the most usual duration being in
the range of a few tenths of a second. In the event of such dips, generating
stations may encounter stability problems, depending on the type, magnitude
and duration of the dip, as well as on the type and technology of the power
station.
The large increase in the installed wind power in the transmission systems
necessitates that wind generation remains in operation in the event of network
disturbances. Consequently, current grid codes invariably demand that large
wind farms (especially those connected to the HV grids) must withstand
voltage dips down to a certain percentage of the nominal voltage (0% in some
cases) and for a specified duration. Such requirements are known as FRT or
low voltage ride through (LVRT) requirements and they are described by a
voltage against time characteristic, denoting the minimum required immunity
of the wind power station to dips of the system voltage. Based on popular
international grid codes, various FRT capability requirements will be
presented in the next section.
This chapter provides an overview of the requirements imposed by
international grid-codes for connecting large amounts of wind power to
various electric power systems. The main concern here is the fault ride-
through (FRT) capability requirements. The consistency of popular wind
power technologies with the FRT requirements is evaluated considering the
German E.ON Netz code. This is achieved through appropriate modeling and
simulation of grid-connected fixed-speed and variable-speed wind power
technologies. Two methods of evaluation are presented in the paper.
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requirements. As shown in Fig. 12.1, these parameters are the fault duration,
the minimum voltage during the fault (Vmin), the voltage restoration time, and
the acceptable minimum steady state voltage (Vss); however, the minimum
value of the acceptable steady state voltage is usually 90% of the nominal
voltage while the maximum value is usually 110%. Fig. 12.2 shows the
values of these parameters according to various international grid codes. It is
clear from that figure that the parameters of various are widely from country
to country. The differences are attributed to the characteristics of each power
system, and the employed protection.
It is depicted from Fig. 12.2 that the requirements of the German, UK,
Nordic, Danish, Belgian, Hydro-Quebec, Swedish and New Zealand grid
codes demand that wind farms must remain connected during voltage dips
down to zero; however, it must be noted that these requirements apply to the
point of common coupling (PCC) with the network, which is generally at the
HV level. Taking into account the typical impedance values of the step-up
transformers and interconnecting lines, the corresponding voltage dip at
lower voltage levels, near the wind turbine terminals, are likely to be
somewhat around 15%. This facilitates compliance with the LVRT
requirements. As shown in Fig. 12.2, the FRT specifications may vary
according to the voltage level or the wind farm power. For example, wind
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farms connected to the Danish grid at voltages below 100 KV are required to
withstand less severe voltage dips than the ones connected at higher voltages,
in terms of voltage dip magnitude and duration. Similar differences can be
observed in the regulation governing the connection of wind farms below and
above 100MW in the Swedish transmission system.
Apart from the FRT curve, the Denmark and Hydro-Quebec codes define
specific kinds of faults (or sequences of faults, in the Danish code) that the
wind farm must withstand (including remote faults in the case of the Hydro-
Quebec code, cleared by slow protective devices). These more detailed
requirements could be attributed to the isolation of the Hydro-Quebec
transmission system, which has no synchronous link to neighboring
systems232. Another important difference lies in the active power restoration
rates specified by the German and British/Irish grid codes, whereas the
British code requires immediate restoration (at 90% in 0.5s after voltage
recovery), the German (E.ON Netz) code requires restoration with a rate at
232
Bernard, S., Beaulieu, D., & Trudel, G. (2005). Hydro-Quebec grid code for wind farm
interconnection. In Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 2005. IEEE (pp. 1248-
1252).
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
least equal to 20% of the nominal output power (reaching 100% in 5s after
voltage recovery). The less demanding requirement of the German code may
be attributed to the physical location of the German grid and its strong
interconnected system, as opposed to the weakly interconnected British
system, where the need for active power restoration to the pre-fault values is
more crucial for system stability.
Because of its popular use in the research and its demanding requirements
(see Fig. 12.2), the German E.ON Netz code will be considered in this paper
for the analysis of the compatibility of various Wind Energy Conversion
Technologies (WECT) with the grid code requirements. In addition, the
E.ON Betz code demanding FRT capability requirements that are very close
to the Egyptian wind farm grid connection code 233. The FRT requirements of
the E.ON Netz code are shown in Fig. 12.3.
This code requires a wind farm to be connected to the grid as long as the
voltage at the grid connection point is above the solid line (limit line 2)
shown in Fig. 12.3. The E.ON Netz code specifies the following:
233
Egyptian Electricity Transmission Company (EETC). Wind Farm Grid Connection
Code as a part of the Egyptian Transmission Grid Code - 1st Draft on January, 5, 2012.
EETC, Egypt, 2012
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a) According to Fig. 12.3, wind farms must withstand voltage drops down
to zero at the connection point for durations up to 150 ms (7.5cycles)
for 50Hz systems (or 125 ms (7.5 cycles) for 60 Hz systems). In
addition, the E.ON Netz code requires a voltage restoration time of no
more than 1.5 s as shown in Fig. 12.2.
b) Three-phase short circuits or fault-related symmetrical voltage dips
must neither lead to instability above limit line 1 nor disconnection of
the wind farm. After fault clearance, the active power in-feed must
increase with a rate of 20% of the rated power per second.
c) Voltage drops within the area between limit line 1 and limit line 2
should not lead to disconnection, but in case of wind turbine
instability, short-time disconnection is allowed. The resynchronization
must take place within up to 2s and active power in-feed must increase
with a rate of 10% of the rated power per second after fault clearance.
1. Below limit line 2 disconnections of the wind turbines are allowed.
are shown on Fig. 12.4 while the wind turbine, generator, and control
parameters are shown in Table 12.1.
12.3.2 Methodology
The main objective of this paper is to check the compatibility of the
transient response of the considered generators with the E.ON Netz grid code.
In addition, the paper provides a comparison between the responses of the
considered generators as affected by faults of various durations. To fulfill the
main objective, two methods are adopted.
In the first method, the wind farm is subjected to three-phase fault
close to its terminals and the transient response of the system determined by
simulation. The success criteria here is the success of the system to withstand
a three-phase fault for a duration of 7.5 cycles (150 ms on 50 Hz systems or
535
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
The wind farm terminal voltage, active power, and reactive power are
respectively shown in Fig. 12.10, Fig. 12.11, and Fig. 12.12. For comparison
536
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
between the responses of the considered systems, the duration of the voltage
restoration, and the duration of the power restoration indices are determined
and presented in Table 12.2.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 12.10 Terminal voltage: (a) SCIG based system; (b) DFIG based
system
The voltage transients shown in Fig. 12.10 can be explained based on the
reactive power of the machines shown Fig. 12.12 and the nature of the
available voltage controls. With the DFIG-based system, the voltage control
loop causes an initial overshoot in the terminal voltage by injecting a
controlled amount of reactive power from the machine. This is followed by a
transient period till the voltage settles to a steady state value. In the SCIG-
based system, such voltage control loop is absent. Therefore, as shown in Fig.
12.10 to 12.12 the machine consumes reactive power from the power system
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
at the instant of fault clearing to restore the voltage magnitude and generation
mode. Generally, it can be seen from Fig. 10 that the DFIG-based system is
capable of restoring the system stability faster and smoother in comparison
with the SCIG-based system. In addition, the results show that the DFIG-
based system can withstand longer fault durations in comparison with the
SCIG-based system.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 12.11 Active Power: (a) SCIG based system; (b) DFIG based system
Fig. 12.10 to 12.12 and Table 12.2 shows that both systems are capable of
fulfilling the zero voltage dip requirements of the E.ON code; however, it can
be easily depicted from Table 12.2 that the DFIG significantly surpasses the
SCIG from the points of view of voltage restoration time and duration of
power restoration. Therefore, power systems with large amounts of wind
power from DFIGs are less vulnerable to stability and security problems in
comparison with power systems with a large penetration level of SCIG. The
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
results show that the CCT of the SCIG based system is 33.6 cycles while the
DFIG is stable for a fault duration of 36 cycles or even more. For both
WECTs, the results show that the voltage restoration duration increases with
the increase in the fault duration.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 12.12 Reactive power: (a) SCIG based system; (b) DFIG based
system
In the second method, the CCTs of the system are determined for a set of
three phase faults located in the close proximity of the wind farm. The
simulation is conducted such that these faults results in voltage dips that
follow the limit line 2 of the E.ON grid code shown in Fig. 12.3. This is
controlled by controlling the fault impedance. Since the CCTs of the DFIG
based system are very long and could not be determined through the
simulation, this approach is applied only to the SCIG based system. The
results are shown in Fig. 12.13. In addition, the figure also shows the limit
line 2 of the code.
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Fig. 12.13 Fault tolerance curve of the SCIG-based system and the FRT
E.ON code
It is depicted from Fig. 12.13 that the CCT increases with the decrease of
the voltage dip (or the increase of the remaining voltage). In addition, the
figure shows that for the same voltage dip, the CCT of the system is larger
than the E.ON code minimum withstand durations of faults. Therefore, the
results show the compatibility of the SCIG based system with the FRT
requirements of the E.ON grid code. It is should be mentioned that other code
requirements such as reactive power control, voltage control, and active
power control cannot be provided by the SCIG technology due to the
limitations of the SCIG and the available controls in the FSWT system.
Despite of these drawbacks in the SCIG, the results show that the already
operating SCIG wind farms may be able to withstand the FRT capability
required by grid codes such as the E.ON Netz code.
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Chapter 13
Overview of the Operational Requirements of Grid
Connected Solar-PV Systems
13.1 Introduction
Currently many developing countries are facing a major power and energy
problems. These problems are attributed to many factors. These factors
include insufficient power generation, low network reliability and insufficient
maintenance, insufficient fossil fuels, and bad economy 235. Due to their
availability and competitive prices, renewable energy can contribute in the
national energy security. The whole world is expanding in using the
renewable energy, especially German, China and USA 236.
The nuclear power can be considered as a feasible alternative to renewable
energy. With nuclear power, huge amounts of energy can be generated using
small amounts of nuclear. In addition, the variability, intermittency, and
dispatchability of nuclear power sources are significantly better in
comparison with most renewable energy sources; however, there are these
two major disadvantages related to the nuclear power. These are the nuclear
waste and the safety. Although the waste is very small, it is more dangerous
and hazardous in comparison to fossil fuels; the nuclear waste needs to be
buried deep down to earth for thousands of years so the radioactivity can
diminish. It should also be kept safe from earthquakes, floods and terrorist
attack. The nuclear power is although reliable but maintaining the safety of
the plant is very expensive. In case of any accident, the nuclear power station
can result into a catastrophe. Another operational issue related to large
nuclear plants is the MW/sec rate limit capability. This rate limit is not large
enough to accommodate the variations of the system load, especially during
its peaking. Therefore, nuclear power plants may be considered as base-
loaders. On the other side, the rate limit of renewable energy sources such as
wind and solar power plants is much higher than that of the nuclear plants.
235
M. EL-Shimy, (2015). Wind Energy Conversion Systems: Reliability Prospective,”
Encyclopedia of Energy Engineering and Technology – Second Edition. Vol. 2, pp. 2184 –
2206.
236
REN21 (2014). "Renewables 2014: Global Status Report". pp. 15, 16. Available at
http://www.webcitation.org/6SKF06GAX
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Therefore, renewable energy sources show a good fit to large load variations.
Problems such as the inherent intermittency and variability of renewable
energy sources are currently given high R&D focus.
Connecting a renewable energy plant to the utility grid is facing a lot of
operation and control challenges, also the renewable energy sources have to
comply with the grid code of the relevant country. Most grid codes mandate
that the operational capabilities of renewable energy sources be as close as
possible to conventional power plants. According to SANDIA 2012 report 237,
solar-PV installations are typically separated into three categories:
residential, non-residential, and large or utility scale. Nonresidential solar-
PV would include installations at government buildings and retail stores
ranging from tens of kilowatts (kW) to several MW, while residential
installation would be installed in the homeowner's premises, typically less
than 10 kW. These types of installations are typically on the customer’s side
of the meter and the energy produced is used predominantly on site.
Customer-side generation is under state jurisdiction, and their interconnection
is conducted pursuant to state-specific interconnection procedures.
The solar-PV plants may be connected to either low voltage or medium
voltage power grid depending on the plant size and the available output
power. The grid regulation required for connecting the solar-PV plant to the
medium voltage power grid may vary than that required for connecting the
SOLAR-PV plant to the low voltage grid. Both German grid code238 and
SANDIA 2012 report deals with the technical requirements for connecting
photovoltaic plant to the medium voltage power grid, while the IEEE 929-
2000239 deals mainly with the interconnection regulation of connecting solar-
PV plants to the low voltage power grid and the regulation modification
when the solar-PV plant is connected to the medium voltage power grid.
237
Ellis, A., Karlson, B., & Williams, J. (2012). Utility-Scale Photovoltaic Procedures and
Interconnection Requirements. Sandia National Laboratories SAND2012-2090.
238
Troester, E. (2009, March). New German grid codes for connecting PV systems to the
medium voltage power grid. In 2nd International workshop on concentrating photovoltaic
power plants: optical design, production, grid connection (pp. 9-10).
239
IEEE. (2000). IEEE Recommended Practice for Utility Interface of Photovoltaic (PV)
Systems. IEEE.
542
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
240
H. Khairy, M. EL-Shimy, G. Hashem. Overview of Grid Code and Operational Requirements of Grid-
connected Solar PV Power Plants. Industry Academia Collaboration (IAC) Conference, 2015, Energy and
sustainable development Track, Apr. 6 – 8, 2015, Cairo, Egypt.
241
International Electrotechnical Commission, (2004). IEC 61727 - Photovoltaic (PV) systems –
Characteristics of the utility interface.
543
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
When the solar-PV system is connected to the MV grid side, the frequency
deviation is required to meet the requirements in Table 13.1 as stated in
Germany, France and Spain grid codes242.
Table 13.1: Frequency tolerance (in Hz) according to German, France, and
Spain grid codes for SOLAR-PV plants connected to the MV grid
Country Germany France Spain
Frequency tolerance 47.5 < f < 51.5 48 < f < 51 47.5 < f < 52
Over frequency trip time (sec.) 10 cycles n/a n/a
Under-frequency trip time(sec.) 10 cycles n/a n/a
No trip
Zone
242
Crăciun, B. I., Kerekes, T., Séra, D., & Teodorescu, R. (2012, May). Overview of
recent grid codes for PV power integration. In Optimization of Electrical and Electronic
Equipment (OPTIM), 2012 13th International Conference on (pp. 959-965). IEEE.
243
Std, N.E.R.C. "PRC-024-1/Draft 6." Draft on Generator Frequency and Voltage
Protective Relay Settings (2013).
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
with disconnection time as shown in Table 13.3. For system with line voltage
greater than 120 V, the same ratio of 88% - 110% of nominal voltage is
applied. It has to be noticed that if the system line voltage differ than 120 V,
the percentage value of nominal voltage in Table 13.3 should be followed.
According to IEC 61727 the voltage limit for LV grid connected solar-PV
plants is from 85% to 110% for nominal voltage with disconnection times as
shown in Table 13.4 when the voltage becomes outside these allowable
limits.
In countries with increased solar-PV penetration, in normal conditions the
voltage limits specified by the LV GCs should not exceed the limits
expresses in Table 13.5. The maximum allowed voltage rise caused by the
solar-PV systems should be less than 3% and is estimated in terms of short
circuit power of PCC and the apparent power of the solar-PV system.
545
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Another point that attention has to be paid for is voltage flickers i.e. the
frequent variation of voltage which could lead to modulations of light
intensity of incandescent. Even more flickers can affect the operation of some
244
IEEE. (2000). IEEE Recommended Practice for Utility Interface of Photovoltaic (PV)
Systems. IEEE.
546
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
245
IEEE 519 Working Group. (1992). IEEE recommended practices and requirements for
harmonic control in electrical power systems. IEEE STD, 519-1992.
246
M. EL-Shimy. “Renewable energy: Grid Codes and Integration”. Lecture notes
available at: http://shimymb.tripod.com/id12.html
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Fig. 13.3: Active power and frequency control in - wind power plants
Fig. 13.4: Active power and frequency control of solar-PV power plants
548
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Usually the plant has to be able to inject the required reactive power
within a few minutes and as often as required.
Fig. 13.5: Power factor – active power dependency requirements for solar-
PV plants connected to the MV grid
During a symmetrical fault or heavy load steady changes, the plant has
to support the utility voltage by injecting more reactive current to the
network, voltage control should comply to Fig. 13.6. In Germany, if the
voltage drops more than 10% of nominal voltage the control must inject
reactive current at the low voltage side of the plant transformer with a
contribution of at least of 2% of the rated current per percent of voltage drop.
The plant must be capable of injecting the required reactive current within 20
ms into the grid. If required, the plant has to be able to supply reactive current
at least 100% of the rated current. In case of an unsymmetrical fault, the
reactive current must not exceed values that cause voltages higher than 110%
of nominal voltage in the non-faulty phases.
549
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Fig. 13.6: Required injected reactive current with respect to voltage drop,
according to German grid code for the MV grid
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
A.6. Harmonics
The harmonic component of the injected current has to be in
accordance with clause 10 of IEEE Std. 519-1992. This is to avoid the
adverse effect of harmonics on the other equipments connected to the grid.
The harmonic limits mentioned are summarized as follows:
247
Guozhen, H., Tao, C., Changsong, C., & Shanxu, D. (2009, May). Solutions for
SCADA system communication reliability in photovoltaic power plants. In Power
Electronics and Motion Control Conference, 2009. IPEMC'09. IEEE 6th International
(pp. 2482-2485). IEEE.
248
Troester, E. (2009, March). New German grid codes for connecting PV systems to the
medium voltage power grid. In 2nd International workshop on concentrating photovoltaic
power plants: optical design, production, grid connection (pp. 9-10).
551
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
552
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
depicted in Fig. 13.8249; above the solid line the plant must not be
disconnected from the utility grid while underneath the line there are no
requirements to stay connected. However, each code can add more
constraints on the connection and the disconnection of the plant. Four main
parameters can define the FRT requirements which are the minimum
acceptable voltage during the fault (Vmin), fault duration, voltage restoration
time and steady state voltage (Vss). These FRT requirements are applicable
for both wind and solar-PV plants.
For a wind plant, the FRT parameters according to some different grid
codes are shown in Table 13.8. While in solar-PV grid connected systems,
Fig. 13.9 represent the FRT limits in the German E.ON Netz grid code. The
plant must not be disconnected above borderline 1, which means it must not
disconnect when voltage drops to 0% of the utility nominal voltage with a
duration not more than 150 ms (7.5 cycles based on 50Hz system). The
voltage restoration time must not exceed 1500 ms (75 cycles on 50Hz
system) with minimum acceptable steady state voltage equals to 90% of the
utility nominal voltage. Underneath border line 3 there are no requirements to
remain connected to the grid. In the area above borderline 2 and beneath
249
M. EL-Shimy, and N. Ghaly, (2015). Grid-Connected Wind Energy Conversion Systems:
Transient Response. Encyclopedia of Energy Engineering and Technology, second edition.
Vol. 2, pp. 2162 – 2183.
553
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Table 13.8: FRT requirements for wind generator according to different grid
codes
Grid Fault duration Fault duration Min Voltage
Germany
code 150
(ms) based 7.5
on 50Hz 0
voltage 1.5
restoration
Denmark
(E.On) 100 system 5(cycles) 25
level 10
(s)
Spain 500 25 20of
(% 1
Vnom)
250
Order 661 - Interconnection with Wind Energy, issued by Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission (FERC) of United States, June 2, 2005
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
251
Std, N.E.R.C. "PRC-024-1/Draft 6." Draft on Generator Frequency and Voltage
Protective Relay Settings (2013).
555
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
252
Guozhen, H., Tao, C., Changsong, C., & Shanxu, D. (2009, May). Solutions for
SCADA system communication reliability in photovoltaic power plants. In Power
556
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Appendix 1
Steady state modeling of the SMIB considering the effect of the
excitation control
Electronics and Motion Control Conference, 2009. IPEMC'09. IEEE 6th International
(pp. 2482-2485). IEEE.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
1. A field winding placed either in the slots of the rotor or on its poles in
the form of coils.
2. An exciter, which is a dc power, source with its auxiliary equipment. A
dc generator, an inverted ac generator or a rectifier can be used as the
exciter.
3. An automatic excitation regulator (AER) controlling the field current
of the synchronous machine within a specified field limits in
accordance with a desired law.
The excitation regulators are divided into regulators with a dead zone
performs discontinuous control and regulators without a dead zone that
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
performs continues (linear) control. Large generators are equipped with linear
regulators. Theses regulators are subdivided into two basic groups:
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1. Uncontrolled machine.
2. Machine equipped with PAER (or subjected to a sudden change).
3. Machine equipped with FAER.
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562
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
X d X d X e (A1.10)
EqV
P sin (A1.11)
X d
EqV V2
Q cos (A1.12)
X d X d
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The power – angle characteristics for this case is shown in Fig. A1.8.
The peak of this characteristic, Pmax defines the pull-out power or the
steady state stability limit (SSSL). The corresponding angle in this case is
equals to 90o. From (A1.11),
EqV
SSSL Pmax (A1.13)
X d
If the generator deliver power Po to the IB then the steady state stability
margin (SSSM) Ks is defined as:
Pmax Po
Ks (A1.14)
Pmax
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Suppose that a certain minimum value of the steady state stability margin is
considered for secure steady-state operation of the system. Then the
maximum loading can be found as follows:
Pmax Pomax
K smin (A1.15)
Pmax
Hence,
Max. Loading Pomax (1 K smin )Pmax (A1.16)
Based on the vector diagram of Fig. 12 the emf as function of the power can
be found as follows:
Eq ( I a X d ) 2 (V I r X d ) 2 (A1.17)
where Ia and Ir are the active and reactive components of the stator current.
Also,
Po VI cos VI a I a Po / V (A1.18)
Qo VI sin VI r I r Qo / V (A1.19)
2 2
P Q
Eq o X d V o X d (A1.20)
V V
Similarly the power angle as function of the power can be found as follows:
I a X d
tan (A1.21)
V I r X d
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
( Po / V ) X d
tan (A1.22)
V (Qo / V ) X d
Based on the vector diagram of Fig. 12, the d- and q- components of the
current and the IB bus voltage are defined as:
V q V cos
(A1.23)
V d V sin
and
V sin
Iq
X d
(A1.24)
E q' V cos
Id
X d'
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Eq' V V2 V2
Q cos ' cos
2
sin2 (A1.26)
X d' X d X d
Usually B << A. The power – angle characteristics for this case is shown in
Fig. 10.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Although the PAER (or the transient condition) results in higher SSSL
that improves the steady state characteristics of the machine, the
synchronizing power is lower than that of uncontrolled machine that results
in less dynamic stability.
P
0 (A1.28)
P Pmax
P
Acos max 2 Bcos2δ max 0 (A1.29)
P Pmax
1 A
2
A
cos max 2 (A1.32)
2 4B 4B
Then the SSSL takes the form:
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
The SSSM and maximum loading can be found by equation (A1.14) and
(A1.16) respectively.
Based on the vector diagram of Fig. 12, the transient emf can be found as
function of power as follows:
(A1.34)
(A1.35)
(Po /V )X d'
tan
'
(A1.36)
V (Qo /V )X d'
V q V cos
(A1.37)
V d V sin
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
and
V sin
Iq
X d
(A1.38)
V gq V cos
Id
Xe
V gqV V2 V2
Q cos cos
2
sin 2 (A1.40)
Xe Xe X d
Equation (A1.39) takes the same form of (A1.27). Also, B << A and the
power – angle characteristics for this case is shown in Fig. A1.11.
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Similarly to the effect of the PAER, the FAER improves the steady
state characteristics as compared with both unregulated machines and
machines equipped with PAER; however, more reduction in the
synchronizing power occurs resulting in degrading of the dynamic
performance of the system. The SSSL and max can be found in the same
way described by equations (A1.28) – (A1.33). Based on the vector diagram
of Fig. 12, the terminal voltage of the machine and e as function of power
takes the form:
2 2
P Q
Vg o X e V o X e (A1.41)
V V
V gq V g cos( e ) (A1.42)
(Po /V )X e
tane (A1.43)
V (Qo /V )X e
The effect of various types of AER on the SSSL is shown in Fig. A1.12.
V q V cos
(A1.44)
V d V sin
and
V sin
Iq
X q
(A1.45)
E q V cos
Id
X d
where Xq = Xq + Xe.
Sub. (A1.44) and (A1.45) in (A1.4) resulting in:
EqV V 2 1 1
P sin sin 2 (A1.46)
X d 2 X q X d
EqV V2 V2
Q cos cos
2
sin2 (A1.47)
X d X d X q
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It is clear that in this case the power angle characteristic is not a pure
sinusoidal curve as in the case of non-salient pole machine. In addition, the
angle at the SSSL, max < 90o. Although, max < 90, the synchronizing
power of uncontrolled salient pole machine is larger than that of uncontrolled
non-salient pole machine. Hence, uncontrolled salient pole machines is
dynamically more stable than non-salient pole machines with any of the
considered excitation control conditions.
In this case the term B sin () is known as the saliency power. Usually, B <<
A. Based on the vector diagram of Fig. 13, the excitation emf and the power
angle can be found as functions of the power Po and Qo as follows:
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M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
E q EQ I d (X d X q ) (A1.49)
where EQ has no physical meaning and it is just a point on the vector diagram
helping in calculations.
2 2
P Q
EQ o X q V o X q (A1.50)
V V
E q V cos
Id (A1.51)
X d
X d Xd Xq
Eq EQ V cos (A1.52)
X q X q
and
( Po / V ) X q
tan (A1.53)
V (Qo / V ) X q
Based on the vector diagram of Fig. 13, the d- and q- components of the
current and the IB bus voltage are defined as:
V q V cos
(A1.54)
V d V sin
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and
V sin
Iq
X q
(A1.55)
E q' V cos
Id
X d'
Eq' V V 2 1 1
P sin sin 2 (A1.56)
X d' 2 X d' X q
Eq' V V2 V2
Q cos ' cos
2
sin2 (A1.57)
X d' X d X q
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2 2
P Q
E o X d' V o X d'
'
(A1.58)
V V
( Po / V ) X d'
tan '
(A1.60)
V (Qo / V ) X d'
V q V cos
(A1.61)
V d V sin
and
V sin
Iq
X q
(A1.62)
V gq V cos
Id
Xe
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VgqV V 2 1 1
P sin sin 2 (A1.63)
Xe 2 X e X q
VgqV V2 V2
Q cos cos
2
sin2 (A1.64)
Xe Xe X q
Based on the vector diagram of Fig. 13, the terminal voltage and angle
e can be found as functions of the power Po and Qo as follows:
2 2
P Q
Vg o X e V o X e (A1.65)
V V
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( Po / V ) X e
tan e (A1.67)
V (Qo / V ) X e
The effect of various types of AERs on the SSSL of SEPS with non-salient
pole generator is shown in Fig. A1.16.
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of the generator (node 1) to the infinite bus node (node 2), the system of Fig.
A1.17(a) can be transformed to the original structure by the Y-
transformation. The validity condition of the transformation and the use of
the presented models is that both nodes (1 and 2) must be of a fixed voltage
magnitude during a transient process. Therefore, the additional shunt
reactances (X1o, and X2o) resulting from the transformation (Fig. A1.17(c))
will not significantly affect the transient performance of the system.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. A1.17: SMIB system with fixed shunt reactive element; (a) system
topology; (b) equivalent circuit of the system; (c) reactance transformation
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pole
FAER Vg -
No control EQ Xq Xq
Salient
FAER Vg -
Fig. A1.18: The use of the Thevenin theorem for treating shunt elements in
the SMIB system; (a) original system; (b) the equivalent Thevenin’s network
(A1.68)
253
Demello, F. P., & Concordia, C. (1969). Concepts of synchronous machine stability as
affected by excitation control. IEEE Transactions on power apparatus and systems, 88(4),
316-329.
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Explain the actual benefits of the AERs considering the physical limits of the
system. Consider that the generator apparent power rating is 1.7 p.u. The
thermal limit of the transmission system also equals to 1.7 p.u.
Solution
Xe = 0.1 +0.4 0.1 = 0.6 p.u.
Xd = 1.5 + 0.6 = 2.1 p.u.
X’d = 0.55 + 0.6 = 1.15 p.u.
a. Unregulated machine.
EqV
The P- relation is given by P sin
X d
Consequently, max = 90o and Pmax = SSSL = VEq/Xd
2 2
P Q
Eq is calculated using Eq o X d V o X d Therefore, Eq =
V V
2.1185 p.u.
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(Po /V )X d'
tan '
V (Qo /V )X d'
or
A 1
cos 2 max cos max 0
4B 2
The solution of this quadratic equation gives max. Two values are obtained;
however, the correct solution satisfies max > 90o. Therefore,
1 A
2
A
cos max 2
2 4B 4B
For the given conditions and parameters, max = 104.74o, Pmax = SSSL = 1.4
p.u., Ks = 64.29%, and the max. loading = 1.26 p.u.
V gqV V 2 1 1
P sin sin 2
Xe 2 X e X d
2 2
P Q
Vg o X e V o X e
V V
(Po /V )X e
tane
V (Qo /V )X e
V gq V g cos( e )
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Fig. A1.24: Effect of excitation system control on the Power factor (PF) -
characteristics of non-salient pole machines
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The transient emf and its phase angle can be determined as,
( Po / V ) X d'
tan '
o’ = 23.03o (< )
V (Qo / V ) X d '
2 2
P Q
E o X d' V o X d' E’ = 1.60 p.u
'
V V
( Po / V ) X e
tan e e = 19.44o ((< & < o’)
V (Qo / V ) X e
2 2
P Q
Vg o X e V o X e Vg = 1.442 p.u.
V V
Therefore, max = 102.4o, Pmax = SSSL = 2.10 p.u, Max. Loading = 0.9 Pmax =
1.89 p.u.
Therefore, max = 107.5o., Pmax = SSSL = 2.50 p.u, Max. Loading = 0.9 Pmax =
2.25 p.u.
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Appendix 2
Linearized transfer function of a simulink model, and root
locus based controller design
Fig. A2.1: Transfer function extraction from the simulink model of SISO
system
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Fig. A2.2: Transfer function of the system in Fig. 56 between Efd and Vt
considering the time delay of the AER
Once the system transfer function is determined, the regulator gain can be
determined using, for example, the root locus method. The root locus is used
here for the analysis of the feedback gain (KA) loop considering the open-loop
transfer function of the system (Fig. A2.3). The impact of the value of the
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gain on the system stability and dynamic as well as steady state performance
can be easily determined from the root locus plot.
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Appendix 3
Modeling of individual and aggregate loads in power systems
A3.1 Introduction
In the analysis of power systems, a great deal of attention has been
given to the detailed representation of generating units and the transmission
system whereas load representation has received secondary attention. There
is a continues need for improvement of power system stability studies
requires an improvement of power system load modeling in practice and
theory. To develop a general-purpose load model, which would be flexible
enough to be utilized for all types of studies for system planning and
operation, would be difficult indeed.
When the modeling is done on a device or a component level, it needs
more detailed representation in comparison with the modeling on composite
basis as viewed from a supply point. Intended application of the model and
consideration of computational constraint must govern the determination of
the model detail.
In stability analysis, representation of effective power demand at high
voltage buses is necessary. This may include the aggregate effect of
numerous load devices that may be divided into two basic classes, static and
rotating. The static type includes heating and lighting equipment. The
rotating type of loads consists mainly of induction motors driving equipment
with variety of torque/speed characteristics.
In many cases, simplified aggregate load representation like constant
impedance model is used alongside the detailed generator models 254. This
seems related to three-research questions referred as model justification,
structure, determination, and identification respectively. These questions are:
To what extent are accurate load models important in power system
stability analysis?
What are appropriate mathematical structures to represent high
voltage effective load?, and
How can the aggregate load models be determined in practice?
254
Wen-Shiow, “The Effect of Load Models on Unstable Low-Frequency Damping in
Taipower System Experience w wo Power System Stabilizers”, IEEE trans. on power
systems, Vol. 16, No. 3, Feb. 2001
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Generally, the specific cases where modeling load dynamics are necessary
are:
Study of industrial plant.
An area having a large concentration of motors.
Self-excitation and sub-synchronous resonance.
Study of applying shunt-reactive power control devices as an aid to
stability.
255
Abuel-wafa AR, EL-Shimy M. Dynamic Aggregation of Induction Motor Loads for
Transient Stability Studies. Scientific Bulletin - Faculty of Engineering - Ain Shams Uni
2003 June 30;38(2):553 - 67.
256
Torbjorn Thiringer, “Comparison of Reduced-Order Dynamic Models of Induction
Machines”, IEEE, P.S., Vol. 16, No. 1, Feb. 2001
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257
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X mX r X m2
X Xs
'
X ss (A3.3)
X rr X rr
X rr
T o' (A3.4)
o rr
(a)
(b)
Fig. A3.2: Equivalent circuits of induction machines; (a) steady-state
equivalent circuit (first-order dynamic model); (b) Transient equivalent
circuit considering the rotor electromagnetic dynamics (third-order equivalent
circuit)
v d V sin (A3.5)
v q V cos (A3.6)
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v d rs X ' i d E d
'
v (A3.7)
q X rs i q E q'
'
It is clear that the stator voltage equations are algebraic as the stator transients
are neglected. Expressions for id and iq can be obtained from (A3.17). Also, a
simple equivalent circuit can represent these equations as shown in Fig.
A3.2(b). The rotor state equations take the form,
The mechanical state equation of the rotor (i.e. the swing equation) is
obtained from the fundamental acceleration equation of rotating bodies and
takes the form
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Table A3.4: Basic mechanical load representation
Mechanical load torque Representation (p.u or SI) Examples
Constant TL = TLo Conveyor systems
PL = r PLo
Proportional to the speed TL = r TLo Loads
PL = r2 PLo characterized by
friction
Proportional to the speed TL = r2 TLo Fans and
squared PL = r3 PLo centrifugal pumps
Second order polynomial TL = TLo[ A r2 + B r + C] General model
Table A3.5: Typical parameters of induction motors data (all values in p.u)
Type Rs Xso Xm Rr Xro A B D H L.F
1 0.031 0.1 3.2 0.018 0.18 1 0 0 0.7 0.6
2 0.013 0.067 3.8 0.009 0.17 1 0 0 1.5 0.8
3 0.013 0.14 2.4 0.009 0.12 1 0 0 0.8 0.7
4 0.013 0.14 2.4 0.009 0.12 1 0 0 1.5 0.7
5 0.077 0.107 2.22 0.079 0.098 1 0 0 0.74 0.46
6 0.035 0.094 2.8 0.048 0.163 1 0 0 0.93 0.6
7 0.064 0.091 2.23 0.059 0.071 0.2 0 0 0.34 0.8
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According to the available data, two proposed locations for static load
placement in the aggregate system model are shown in Fig. A3.4 and A3.5.
The first aggregate model is used when the data of static load distribution
within the plant to be aggregated (load subsystem) is available. The second
aggregate model is used when the static loads are given as a percentage of the
total interface busload. From practical point of view, static loads represents
30% to 40% of industrial area load, the rest (60% to 70%) is mainly
induction motor loads. The equivalent circuits of the first and second
aggregate models are shown in Fig. A3.6 and A3.7 respectively.
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m m
Psi
G G i 2
(A3.10)
i 1 i 1 |V Li |
m m
Qsi
B Bi 2
(A3.11)
i 1 i 1 |V Li |
where m is the number of static load in the load subsystem, the voltage VLi is
the bus voltage of each static load bus and can be obtained from base-case
load flow with all motors represented by constant PQ loads.
For the second aggregate model, with the static load at the interface bus, the
static load is given as percentage of the total busload and it is represented as
constant admittance to ground at the interface bus. The components G, B
representing admittance to ground of this static load are calculated as
Ps
G (A3.12)
|V b |2
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Qs
B (A3.13)
|V b |2
The interface bus voltage Vb can be obtained from base-case load flow with
all motors represented by constant PQ loads.
Write down the bus admittance matrix Ybus representing all the k buses
in the load subsystem and the interface bus with all parameters entered
on the aggregate motor base. This matrix will take the form
I b Y bb Y bk V b
I Y (A3.14)
k kb Y kk V k
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I b Y bb Y bs V b
I Y ' (A3.15)
s sb Y ss E
T
E ' The motors' transient voltage vector E1' E '2 E 'n
The input impedance of the load subsystem at the interface bus is defined in
Fig. A3.8 and takes the form
1
Re jX e Yinp (A3.17)
n
M j M j (A3.18)
j 1
n
j j (A3.19)
j 1
kV A j
j n
(A3.20)
kV A j
j 1
and
Prated , j
kVA j (A3.21)
j cos j
262
William W. , others, “Load Modeling for Power Flow and Transient Stability
Computer Studies”, IEEE trans. on power systems, Vol. 3, No. 1, Feb. 1 88
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n
1
j (A3.23)
X m j 1 X mj
1 n j
(A3.24)
R r / so jX r j 1 R rj / s oj jX rj
From the simplified equivalent circuit the normal rotor current Io is calculated
as
V so
Io (A3.25)
(R r / s o ) X
2
t
2
Then the output electrical power of induction motor is equals to the motor
loading in p.u, and takes the form
263
V. Venikov: “Transient Processes in Electrical Power Systems”, Mir Publishers–
Moscow 1985
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Rr V so2 (R r / so )
I o2 (A3.26)
s o (R r / so )2 X t2
Solution of (A3.26) for so have two values, the stable value of the operating
slip is the lower among the two solutions. This is because the stable part of
the steady-state torque-slip relation (Fig. A3.10) is characterized by dTe/ds >
0.Therefore, for individual motors in the load subsystem, so can be calculated
as
2
1 V so2 R r R r V so2
so 4 (A3.27)
2 X t2 X t X t
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n
s cr j scrj (A3.28)
j 1
and
n R rj j
Rr X t (A3.29)
j 1 X tj
Rc jX c Re R s j (X e X T X ' ) (A3.30)
n
j j (A3.31)
j 1
n
cos j cos j (A3.31)
j 1
264
P.M. Anderson & A.A. Fouad, “Power System Control and Stability”, Galgotia
publications, 1981
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The interface bus or the point of common coupling (PCC) with the rest
of the power system is defined as the bus at which the aggregate load model
will be attached. The parameters of the aggregate load as obtained using the
proposed algorithm and the results are shown in Table 3.11.
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Appendix 4
Fundamentals of speed governors
Given that a prime mover is the source of mechanical power for supplying
a generator. Prime movers are mechanical power sources such as turbines and
engines. A governor is then the device which controllers the speed or output
power of a prime mover. A governor senses the speed or load of a prime
mover and consequently controls the primary input source (such as fuel,
steam, or water flow) to the prime mover. The target of the governor control
action is to maintain the speed (or load) of the prime mover at a specific
desired level.
As an example of governors is a person driving a car. The person in
this case acts as a governor to the car’s engine which is the prime mover. To
do the governing function, you have to read the speed meters and to know the
acceptable speed limit. Then you have to control the input fuel throttle to the
engine for controlling the speed of the car. Therefore, a governor should have
sensors of speed (or load) and tools/power to change the operating setting to
a desired one. The main components of a governor are then:
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Changes in the input power to the turbine are determined by the changes
in the position of the control valve. The position of the control valve is
determined by the movement xE which control the position of point E and
consequently the position of the control valve. Downward movements of the
control valve (xE > 0) results in increase in the steam flow and consequently
increase to the turbine power input. The opposite action occurs with upward
movements in the control valve (xE < 0). In the following analysis of the
operation of the system, downward movements are considered positive while
upward movements are considered negative. The changes in the position of
the control valve are due to one of the following causes:
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In the governing system shown in Fig. A4.1, the interaction between the
governing system and the control valve is the cause of the droop. In the
isochronous governors (Fig. A4.2), these interactions are absent.
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Appendix 5
Transient droop compensators for speed-droop governors of
hydroelectric units
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where L is the length of the conduit, A is the pipe area, ρ is the mass density,
ag is the acceleration due to gravity. The term ρLA represents the mass of
water in the conduit while the term ρagH represents the incremental change
in the pressure at turbine gate. For small displacements about an initial
operating point (subscript "o") it can shown that,
where
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This TD function is plotted as shown in Fig. A5.2 for a unit step change in
the gate position for a turbine with a time constant of 1.0 second. As shown
in the figure, an initial surge of power reduction of 2.0 p.u (i.e. opposite to
the direction of the gate direction and with double the magnitude of the gate
change) is shown at the instant of the unit step increase in the gate position.
This surge is due to the inertia of the water that prevents immediate change in
the water flow. Consequently, the sudden change in the gate position is
initially translated to a reduction in the pressure across the turbine. As a
result, the initial surge of power reduction appears. With time, the water
accelerates and the power starts to compensate the initial surge and finally the
power reaches the new steady state value which equals to + 1.0 p.u.
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Appendix 6
Interrelation between the dynamic and the static security
265
Wood, A. J., & Wollenberg, B. F. (2012). Power generation, operation, and control.
John Wiley & Sons
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(a)
(b)
Fig. A6.3: OED-based static security analysis; (a) Pre-fault; (b) Steady-
state post-fault operating conditions
(a)
(b)
Fig. A6.4: SCOPF-based static security analysis; (a) Pre-fault; (b) Steady-
state post-fault operating conditions
The shown corrective action affects the economy due to the shift in the
power generation. Therefore, it is a non-cost free action; however, proper
action may include increasing the transfer capacity by adding new line(s)
such the local generator can operate at full load without violating the static
security requirements. In this case, the time frame of implementing the
corrective action is in the order of months or years and the associated costs
may to very large.
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Appendix 7
Numerical integration methods
o
Pm Pe ( (t )) (a )
(A 6.1)
2H
(b )
For various conditions of a fault (see chapter 5), Pe(δ(t)) is given by the
power flow equations:
where i represented either the pre-fault (I), during-fault (II), or post-fault (III)
transfer reactance between the generator’s internal emf and the infinite bus.
Note that in multi-machine power systems (see volume 1 of this textbook),
each generator has a swing equation similar to that presented by (A6.1) while
the electrical power takes the form,
where Ei, Ej are the internal bus voltage magnitudes that are having angles of
δi and δj, respectively. Yij=Gij+jBij=Yij/_θij is the element in the ith row, jth
column of the appropriate Y-bus matrix. Depending on the particular time
interval we are integrating, the “appropriate Y-bus” will be YI, YII, or YIII,
corresponding to pre-fault, during-fault, and post-fault conditions,
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respectively. This equation is also applicable for the SMIB system if the
losses are not neglected.
The solution of (A6.1) can be found by integrating both sides of each
equation. This action results in the form,
t t
o
(t ) ( )d Pm Pe ( ( )) d (a )
0 0
2H
t t
(A 6.4)
(t ) ( )d ( )d (b )
0 0
Note that there is a cross-coupling between the parts of A6.4 i.e. δ appears in
the integrand of (a), and that ω appears in the integrand of (b). Since, the
required solutions are (t) and (t), then a general closed form solutions
cannot be obtained. Therefore, numerical integration is a suitable approach
for solving such a problem. Let x1=ω and x2=δ, then (A6.4) can be written as,
x 1 f 1 (x 1, x 2 )
x f (x ) (A 6.5)
x 2 f 2 (x 1 , x 2 )
It is important to note that, a power system with any scale and any
configuration can be represented by the form of equation (A6.5). in solving
(A6.5), the boundary conditions are the initial values (0) = oI and (0) =
o. Therefore, the problem is an initial value problem.
The fundamentals of the numerical integration for initial value problems
can be demonstrated considering a single-state-variable; however, the
treatment of many state-variable will be the same. For a single-state-variable,
the problem is represented by,
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t t
x (t ) x ( )d f (x ( ))d (A 6.7)
0 0
kT
x (kT ) f (x (k ))d
0
kT T kT
f (x (k ))d f (x (k ))d
0 kT T
x ( kT T )
kT
x (kT T ) f (x (k ))d (A 6.8)
kT T
kT
x f (x (k ))d (A 6.9)
kT T
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explicit methods are numerically unstable, i.e., they have a bounded stability
domain. Explicit methods are therefore must utilize small step-sizes to work
correctly. The second class of integration methods that does not have this
problem is called implicit methods. The implicit methods include the
trapezoidal rule and the backward rule. Implicit methods require a value of
the function x(kT) at a future time step. Implicit methods are good for “stiff”
problems, where. Stiff problems are often characterized by large differences
between the real parts of system eigenvalues. Details and implementation
examples of these classes and methods are available at Hairer 266.
266
Hairer, E., & Wanner, G. (1996). Solving ordinary differential equations ii: Stiff and
differential-algebraic problems second revised edition with 137 figures. Springer series in
computational mathematics, 14.
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Appendix 8
Data of the detailed two-area system
The system is shown in Fig. A8.1. The system consists of two similar
areas connected by a weak tie. Each area consists of two synchronous
generator units. The rating of each synchronous generator is 900 MVA and
20 kV. Each of the units is connected through transformers to the 230 kV
transmission line. The generator parameters in per unit on the rated MVA and
KV base are shown in Table A8.1. Each step up transformer has as
impedance of per unit on 900 MVA and 20/230 KV base. The
transmission system nominal voltage is 230 KV. The line lengths are
identified in Fig. A8.1. The parameters of the lines in per unit on 100 MVA,
230 KV base are r = 0.0001 pu/km, xL = 0.001 pu/km, and bc = 0.00175
pu/km. The operating loadings on various generators are listed in Table A8.2.
The loads and reactive power supplied by the shunt capacitors at buses
7 and 9 are shown in Table A8.3. The AVR data are shown in Table A8.4
while the PSS data are shown in Table A8.5. The parameters of the SVCs are
listed in Tables A8.6 and A8.7.
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The parameters of the FS-SCIG and the DFIG integrated with the system
(chapter 9) are listed in the following tables.
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Appendix 9
Nomenclature of the symbols used in Chapter 10 and 11
Cf Correction factor to account for the effect of off-optimal tilt angle of the PV-
generator on the temperature of the PV-modules.
EH Monthly mean daily hydraulic energy demand (kWh/day)
Es Monthly mean daily radiation on a horizontal plane (terrestrial radiation) in
(kWh/m2/day)
EA Actual monthly mean produced energy available for water pumping
(kWh/day)
Load matching factor to PV generator characteristics
g Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) = 9.81 m/s2
H Monthly mean hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface (kW/m2)
Hb Beam or direct component of H
Hd Diffuse component of H
Ht Hourly irradiance in the plane of the PV-generator (kW/m2)
Total daily radiation in the plane of the PV-generator (kWh/m2/day)
Monthly mean daily global radiation on a horizontal surface (kW/m2/day)
Diffuse component of
HTE Total pumping head (m)
i The month of a year (i = 1 for January)
Monthly average clearance index (dimensionless)
m Number of PV modules
n The day of a year (n = 32 for February 1)
NOCT Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (oC)
Nominal capacity or peak Watt of a PV- generator (Wp)
Optimal capacity of a PV-generator (Wp)
PModule Rated power of a PV module (Wp)
Qdc Total daily demanded water flow required for irrigating the crops (plant
water requirements) in (m3/day)
Rb Tilt factor for beam radiation
Rd Tilt factor for diffuse radiation
rd Ratio of total hourly to total daily diffuse radiation
rt Ratio of hourly total to daily total values
of monthly mean global radiation on a
horizontal surface (dimensionless)
S Overall solar collector area of the PV-generator (m2)
t Local time on the 24-hour basis.
to Solar noon (hr)
Tc Temperature of the PV module (oC)
Tr Reference temperature of the PV module ( oC) = 25oC
Ta Mean monthly ambient temperature (oC)
Diffuse reflectance (or ground albedo) of the ground
Actual tilt angle (deg)
637
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
638
M. EL-Shimy. Dynamic Security of Interconnected Electric Power Systems – Volume 2. LAP, 2015.
Empirically determined ‘diode factor’ associated with individual cells in
the module, with a value typically near unity, (dimensionless).
Fraction of diffuse irradiance used by module
Empirically determined polynomial relating the solar spectral influence
on to air mass variation over the day, where:
at ( 1000 W/m2, , o
C, = 0) (A)
at ( , ) (A)
at ( , ) (V)
at ( , ) (V)
at ( , ) (A)
at ( , ) (A)
Normalized temperature coefficient for , (1/°C)
Normalized temperature coefficient for , (1/°C)
2
Temperature coefficient for module at a 1000 W/m irradiance level,
(V/°C)
Coefficient providing the irradiance dependence for the temperature
coefficient, typically assumed to be zero, (V/°C)
Temperature coefficient for module maximum-power-voltage as a
function of effective irradiance, . Usually, the irradiance dependence
can be neglected and is assumed to be a constant value
2
Temperature coefficient for module at a 1000 W/m irradiance level,
(V/°C)
Coefficient providing the irradiance dependence for the temperature
coefficient, typically assumed to be zero, (V/°C)
CEC Model
Ideality factor (eV)
Absolute air mass
Ideality factor at SRC (eV)
Total irradiance on horizontal surface (W/m2)
Beam component of total irradiance on horizontal surface (W/m 2)
Diffuse component of total irradiance on horizontal surface (W/m2)
Effective irradiance incident on the tilted surface (W/m2)
Effective irradiance at SRC (W/m2)
Predicted current (A)
Light Current (A)
Light Current at SRC (A)
Current at maximum power point (A)
Current at maximum power point at SRC (A)
Diode reverse saturation current (A)
Diode reverse saturation current at SRC (A)
Incidence angle modifier at incidence angle θ
Incidence angle modifier at θ =58o
Air mass modifier
639
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Air mass modifier at SRC (=1)
Number of cells in series
Predicted power (W)
Ratio of beam radiation on tilted surface to that on a horizontal surface
Series resistance (ohm)
Series resistance at SRC (ohm)
Shunt resistance (ohm)
Shunt resistance at SRC (ohm)
Cell temperature (oC)
Cell temperature at SRC(oC)
Assigned voltage (V)
Voltage at maximum power point (V)
Voltage at maximum power point at SRC (V)
Temperature coefficient for short circuit current (A/ oC)
Slope of the PV panel (Deg.)
Open circuit voltage temperature coefficient (V/ oC)
Material band gap energy (eV)
Incidence angle, angle between the beam of light and the normal to the
panel surface (Degree)
Zenith angle, angle between the vertical and the line to the sun (beam)
(Degree)
Ground reflectance factor
Other quantities
Life of the project (years)
Year number; t = 0, 1, 2…, T
Net annual cost of the project for year t ($)
The energy produced in year t (kWh)
Initial investment and cost of the system for year t ($)
Maintenance cost for year t ($)
Operational cost for year t ($)
Interest expenditure for year t ($)
Discount rate (%)
The initial rated energy output (kWh/year)
Degradation rate (%)
Depreciation rate (%)
Tax rate (%)
Residual value (%)
The net present value of the cost factors till the loan payment ending period ($)
The net present value of the cost factors after loan payment ending period to
the end of the effective lifetime of the project ($).
The total energy production till the end of the effective lifetime period (kWh).
Effective lifetime of the PV technology (years).
Financial lifetime of the PV project (years).
No. of inverter replacements.
Inverter capacity (W)
Inverter cost ($/W)
Per unit energy produced in year t (p.u)
640
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