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J
v
J
s
J J
R =r r
=(r cos , r sin )
J
R
.
planet (mass m)
x
Sun (mass M)
GM m
,
r2
Figure 1: Heliocentric diagram
where r is the distance separating the
two masses (measured from their centers). In the above, G is the universal gravitational constant, whose measured
value is approximately
F =
Equation 1: (x(7))^2/16+y^2/9=1
Equation 2: x^2+y^2=.2
point of view), and R is the position vector of the orbiting planet. The vector
depicted in Figure 1 above. In fact, from this picture, we see that r and s are
given explicitly as
r = (cos , sin ),
s = ( sin , cos ),
r
=
m
R
r2
dt2
(1)
since the force on the planet is directed back towards the sun.
d2
In order to compute 2 R explicitly, note first that the velocity vector is
dt
given by
d d dr
dr
d
d
v=
R=
r r =
r +r
r =
r +r
s
(2)
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
The acceleration is the time derivative of Equation (2):
d
d d dr
v=
r +r
s
a =
dt
dt dt
dt
2
d2 r
dr d
d2
d
=
r +2
s +r 2 s r
r
2
dt
dt dt
dt
dt
2 !
dr d
d2 r
d
d2
r
r + 2
=
+r 2 s
dt2
dt
dt dt
dt
However, from equation (1) we see that the acceleration vector is given by
a=
GM
r
r2
d
dt
2
=
GM
r2
dr d
d2
2
+ r 2 = 0.
dt dt
dt
(3)
(4)
.t 3
t4
.t2.t 1
Equation 1: (x(7))^2/16+y^2/9=1
Equation 2: x^2+y^2=.2
1
Area swept between times t1 and t2 =
2
1
r d =
2
2
t2
t1
r2
d
dt.
dt
d
dt
P
.
r
d
L
Lu2
= 2= 2.
dt
r
P
We have, using the Chain Rule, that
dr
d P d
P d du
L du
=
= 2
=
.
dt
d u dt
u dt d
P d
Differentiate again and obtain
d2 r
d dr d
L d2 u d
L2 u2 d2 u
=
=
= 3
dt2
d dt dt
P d2 dt
P d2
Next, we substitute into Equation (3) and get
2 2
L2 u2 d2 u
P
Lu
L2 u2
3
.
=
P d2
u
P2
P3
L2 u2
Dividing by the common factor of 3 results in the inhomogeneous secondP
order differential equation:
d2 u
+ u = 1.
d2
The general solution of this has the form
u = u() = 1 + e cos( 0 ),
where e and 0 are constants which can be determined from the initial conditions.
In terms of the polar radius r, this becomes
P
r=
,
(5)
1 + e cos( 0 )
which gives a circle when e = 0, an ellipse when |e| < 0, a parabola when |e| = 1,
and a hyperbola when |e| > 1 (see Exercise 1, below). Note that the coordinate
system can be chosen so that 0 = 0, (which puts the perihelion1 on the positive
x-axis) giving the equation of the form
r=
1 The
P
,
1 + e cos
perihelion is the point of closest approach of the orbiting planet to the Sun.
(6)
x
have seen, the trajectory of the asteroid is a conic section; we assume
Planet (mass M)
a coordinate system which places the
planet at a focus. Assume that at time
t = 0 we measure the distance of the
Figure 3: Initial configuration
asteroid to the plant to be r0 and that
the corresponding speed of the asteroid is v0 . Assume that relative to our coordinate system, the initial location of the asteroid corresponds to the angle (0) =
and that the angle between the asteroids velocity vector and the position vector
is (as indicated) in Figure 3.
Equation 1: r=a/(1+kcos())
Equation 2: x^2+y^2/3=.1
P
.
1 + e cos( 0 )
(7)
=
.
dt t=0 [1 + e cos( 0 )]2 dt t=0
p
Therefore,
cot =
e sin( 0 )
,
p
and so
e sin( 0 ) = p cot .
(9)
(10)
r0 v02
.
GM
That is to say, an elliptical orbit will occur precisely when
p csc2 =
(11)
Parabola (e2 = 1): Similarly with the above, this will occur when
r0 v02 = 2GM.
(12)
(13)
Exercise 1.
(a) Using the equations x = r cos , y = r sin , show that Equation (6) can
be expressed in cartesian coordinates as
2
Pe
y2
P2
x+
+
=
, if e 6= 1,
1 e2
1 e2
(1 e2 )2
and as
y 2 + 2P x = P 2
if e = 1.
(b) Given that e2 < 1, show that the semi-major axisof the ellipse has length
P/(1 e2 ) and the semi-minor axis has length P/ 1 e2 .
P
.
1 + e cos
d
is a constant, which we earlier denoted by L:
dt
L
d
= 2.
dt
r
L2
P2
GM
,
P
algebra leads to
e=
GM
.
P
rmax rmin
0.055.
rmax + rmin
Exercise 5. On the earth an astronomer spots a very slow-moving asteroid at time t = 0 moving at a speed
of roughly v0 42 m/sec and whose
initial distance from the earth is approximately r0 7.5 108 km. Assume at the time of observation the angle between the velocity vector and
asteroid
J
v(0)
R(0)
Earth
and the initial angle relative to the coordinate system indicated in Figure 4 is
(0) 120 .
(i) Will this asteroid be captured into an elliptical orbit about the Earth?8
(ii) Compute the eccentricity of the asteroids orbit relative to Earth.9
(iii) Relative to Figure 4 and the model
r=
P
,
1 + e cos( 0 )
determine the angular shift 0 and plot the trajectory of the asteroid.10
(iv) Compute the speed of the asteroid at its perigee. (Just use the result for
v 2 in Step 2 of Exercise 2, above.)11
Exercise 6. Prove Keplers Third Law, namely, that the square of the orbital
period (for an elliptical orbit) is proportional to the cube of the semi-major
To compute the corresponding velocities, just use the equation
r=
P
;
1 + e cos
2 v2
the perigee occurs at = 0, and P = rmin
max /GM . Put this together and get vmax = 1.074 km/sec. Likewise, get vmin = 0.963
km/sec.
8 No,
because
r0 v02 1.32 1015 > 8 1014 = 2GM.
9 Using
axis.
To do this, just carry out the indicated steps.
Step 1. Denoting by T the orbital period, note that the area of the ellipse swept
out by the orbiting body is
Z
1 t=T 2 d
r
dt.
A=
2 t=0
dt
d
is a constant, denoted L. Therefore, the
dt
above area is given by A = 12 LT.
However, weve seen that r2
Step 2. Denoting by a the semi-major axis and by b the semi-minor axis, the
area of the corresponding ellipse can be expressed by the integral
Z
4b a p 2
A=
a x2 dx = ab.
a 0
Step 3. Recall from Analytical Geometry that anellipse with semi-major axis a
and eccentricity e has semi-minor axis b = a 1 e2 . (See also Exercise 1,
above.) Conclude from Steps 1 and 2 that
2A 2a2 1 e2
T =
=
.
L
L
Step 4. Using the equation
r=
P
,
1 + e cos
P =
L2
,
GM
together with
2a = rmin + rmax =
P
P
+
1+e 1e
leads immediately to
L2 = a(1 e2 )GM.
Step 5. Conclude by showing that
T2
4 2
=
.
a3
GM
Exercise 7: A Paradox?
As we Suppose that we return to the Earth-Moon system of Exercise 4, where the
Moons orbit about the Earth was determined to be elliptical, having eccentricity
e 0.055. Furthermore, a moments thought reveals that relative to observers
on the Moon, the Earth can be said to orbit about the Moon in an
elliptical orbit with the same eccentricity and the same velocities at perigee and
apogee. However, suppose that we adopt a coordinate system which places the
Moon at the origin and the positive x-axis in the direction of the Earths perigee
relative to the Moon. Then the equation of motion predicting the Earths motion
relative to the Moon should be
P
r=
,
1 + e cos
2
2
vmax
rmin
where P =
, and where m is the mass of the Moon and is
Gm
P
1 80.8,
rmin