Groundwater Quality Mapping Using Gis

Groundwater Quality
Mapping Using GIS: A

Study from Indias
Kapgari Watershed
Groundwater is an
essential source of
drinking water in
rural India. Contamination of groundwater
(resulting
from human activities or from inherent aquifer material
composition) reduces the supply of safe drinking
water, posing a threat to public health and a challenge to water managers and strategists.
Groundwater quality maps are effective for
identifying locations that involve the threat of
contamination. The study described here uses geographic information system (GIS) technology to
map groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes, utilizing data generated from
chemical analysis of water samples collected from
the area under study.
The study area in this case is the Kapgari catchment in West Bengal, India. To evaluate pollution
within the watershed, we used a vector-based GIS
software package called ArcInfo, along with water
quality analysis data. The locations of wells used for
groundwater sampling were obtained by using a
handheld global positioning system (GPS) receiver.
The final groundwater quality map that we
created pictorially represents groundwater zones
as desirable or
undesirable for
drinking and irrigation purposes. Our
spatially integrated
drinking-water
quality map indicates that almost 80
percent of the study
area is undesirable for drinking purposes. By contrast, the irrigation water quality map shows that
over 93 percent of the study area can be considered suitable for irrigation, with salinity (measured in electrical conductivity) of less than 0.75
decisiemens per meter (dS/m).
In our study, we also assessed the temporal
variation in concentrations of agriculture-generated ions in the shallow groundwater of the Kapgari watershed.
Using geographic information
system technology successfully
in a small catchment area
2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com).
DOI: 10.1002/tqem.20130
Background: Groundwater in India

India is a large country that contains about
1/6th of the worlds population, 1/50th of the
worlds land, and 1/25th of the worlds water resources (Water Management Forum, 2003). The
Renji Remesan and R. K. Panda
Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem / Spring 2007 / 41
population is continuing to grow, putting increasing demands on water resources.

According to Indias National Commission
for Integrated Water Resource Development
(1999), by 2025, the countrys population is expected to be at least 1,286 million (the lowgrowth scenario), and perhaps as high as 1,333
million (the high-growth scenario). By 2050,
low-growth estimates place the population at
nearly 1,346 million, while high-growth projections indicate that the number could reach
1,581 million.
Driven by the rising population and by economic growth (in agriculture, industry, and
other sectors), Indias
Contamination of Indias
demand for freshwater
groundwater resources, and the
is also increasing rapresulting undesirable effects on the
idly. It is estimated
environment and human health,
that by 2025, the
have created a growing concern
countrys annual need
among water managers in all states
for freshwater will
of India in recent years.
reach at least 784
cubic kilometers (km3)
(under the low-demand scenario), and as high as
843 km3 (under the high-demand scenario). By
2050, this requirement could rise to 973 km3
(low-demand scenario) or even 1,180 km3 (highdemand scenario).
A Growing Pollution Problem

Unfortunately, indiscriminate use of agrochemicals, improper sewage management, inadequate water planning, lack of water awareness,
and failure to implement needed protection
measures have already created an alarming level
of freshwater scarcity.
In India, groundwater plays a crucial role as a
decentralized source of drinking water for millions of rural and urban families. It supplies
nearly 80 percent of rural domestic water needs,
and 50 percent of urban water needs.
42 / Spring 2007 / Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem
But a variety of land- and water-based human

activities are contributing to pollution of this precious resource. Almost 70 percent of Indias surface water, and a large portion of its groundwater
reserves, is already contaminated by pollutants
(including biological, toxic organic, and inorganic pollutants).
Contamination of Indias groundwater resources, and the resulting undesirable effects on
the environment and human health, have created a growing concern among water managers
in all states of India in recent years. The country
needs a national groundwater strategy, along
with guidelines that focus on specific aspects of
groundwater management (such as protecting
groundwater from contamination and encouraging land-based management of groundwater
resources).
Understanding the Issues with Groundwater

Analysis and GIS-Based Mapping
Groundwater quality analysis and GIS-based
mapping are important components of a groundwater planning strategy.
Analysis based on hydrochemical studies can
reveal groundwater zones and indicate whether
water quality at a particular location is suitable
for drinking, agriculture, or other purposes.
GIS can be used to identify areas affected by
groundwater pollution, and to obtain other reliable information about current groundwater
quality scenarios that may be essential for the effective and efficient implementation of watershed management programs.
GIS is a computer-based tool that can be used
to collect, store, integrate, retrieve, modify, and
display geographical and spatial data. It is very
useful for solving complex planning and management problems related to natural resources.
Within India, several groundwater-related
studies have been conducted to determine potential sites for groundwater evaluation (Kamaraju et
al., 1996; Krishnamurthy & Srinivas, 1995; A. Srivastava, Tripathi, & Gokhale, 1997; P. K. Srivastava & Battacharya, 2000) and groundwater quality mapping (Anbazhagan & Nair, 2004; Hong &
Chon, 1999; A. Srivastava, Tripathi, & Gokhale,
1999) using remote sensing and GIS.
The research described in this article delineated temporal and spatial variations in groundwater quality throughout the Kapgari catchment. The groundwater quality mapping
discussed here relied on GIS technology to derive
several specialized maps (including a drinkingwater quality map, an irrigation water quality
map, and a composite map) that depict groundwater quality as it currently exists within the
Kapgari catchment.
The Study Area: Kapgari Watershed

Our research focused on quantitative assessment of pollution within a shallow groundwater
resource. The area involved in the study is a small
agricultural watershed located in Jamboni block,
Midnapore district of West Bengal state, India. As
Exhibit 1 indicates, the watershed lies between
8650E and 8655E longitude and between
2230N and 2235N latitude.
Watershed Drainage
After a reconnaissance survey, the watershed
was delineated on the basis of drainage line, land
slope, and outlet point. The whole watershed
drains through a single well-defined outlet. Because this outlet falls within the boundary of
Exhibit 1. Location of the Study Area: Kapgari Watershed
Groundwater Quality Mapping Using GIS
Kapgari village, we refer to the entire study area as

the Kapgari watershed.
In all, the watershed has one unlined main
drain and three subdrains. Based on drainage
channels and land topography, we found that the
area could be subdivided into three subwatersheds.
Topography and Soil Types

The watershed consists of uplands, middlezone lands, lowlands, and forestland, with a topography that is nearly flat. Soil within the watershed is primarily sandy loam, with other soil types
(such as clay loam) also being found in some areas.
(2004), as depicted in Exhibit 2. The major

forms of input data used for the study (such as
satellite image data and field data) are indicated
on the top row of this illustration.
For generating thematic maps, we used the National Remote Sensing Agency IRS 1D LISS III digital image (Path-107, Row-56) from November 2001.
We also used the Survey of India Topographic Sheet
(No: 73j/14 scale 1:50,000) and existing groundwater quality data for deriving our final results.
Groundwater Sample Collection and Analysis
The land-use pattern within the watershed is

dominated by agriculture, with some forest and
settlement areas. The dominant crop in the study
area is paddy rice, which generally is cultivated
during the monsoon period.
As part of the study, we collected groundwater

samples from ten locations within the Kapgari
catchment. The samples were taken during June,
August, and December of 2003 and 2004. We analyzed the samples for water quality parameters
such as electrical conductivity (EC), pH, turbidity,
and dissolved oxygen. We also quantified major
ions such as nitrate, phosphorus, potassium, and
chloride.
In addition, premonsoon water samples were
collected from 30 locations during June 2005,
and these samples were analyzed for all major anions and cations.
We also compared the water quality for dug
wells and bore wells during different seasons to
determine any changes in the concentration of
various constituents that may have occurred due
to evaporation and precipitation.
The groundwater samples collected from the
Kapgari basin during the premonsoon seasons
were colorless, odorless, and free from turbidity.
Measurement of temperature and pH was conducted during field visits. We used an ion chromatography system for analyzing major ions.
Other water quality parameters were measured
using a multi probe.
Study Methodology
Preparation of Well Location Point Coverage
The methodology adopted for this study follows the approach of Anbazhagan and Nair
We obtained the location of 30 wells throughout the Kapgari region by using a handheld GPS
Climate, Rainfall, and Hydrology

The climate of the Kapgari watershed area is
humid subtropical. The daily mean temperature
ranges from 20 to 38 degrees Celsius. The daily
mean relative humidity varies from 40 to 88
percent.
Rainfall data for 2003 through 2006 were collected from a meteorological observatory installed
at the study area. The average annual rainfall in the
Kapgari watershed is 1,250 millimeters (mm),
around 80 percent of which is received from July
through September. A
considerable amount of
The land-use pattern within the
water drains from the
watershed is dominated by
watershed as direct suragriculture, with some forest and
face flow during the
settlement areas.
monsoon period.
Land Use
Exhibit 2. Methodology Used for Integrated Groundwater Quality Mapping
receiver. GPS technology proved to be very useful

for enhancing the spatial accuracy of the data integrated in the GIS.
We utilized ArcInfo GIS software in our study.
Based on the location data we obtained, we prepared Arc point coverage showing the position of
eight domestic wells and 22 agricultural wells.
From these wells, we collected and analyzed
groundwater samples for the Kapgari catchment.
We then entered the attribute information for
these wells (water quality parameters) into the
ArcInfo software. The point coverage was converted to a grid format and reprojected using the
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system.
This grid coverage was used for preparing an
interpolated surface showing the spatial distribution of water quality parameters throughout the
Kapgari catchment. We used Kriging interpolation techniques (made available as part of the GIS
software) for generating interpolated surfaces
from point data. The well location map for the
Kapgari catchment is shown in Exhibit 3.
Groundwater Quality Analysis and Mapping

We analyzed the groundwater samples separately for drinking and irrigation water quality
purposes. Because there is no major industry located within the study area, we did not perform
water quality analysis for industrial uses.
We analyzed groundwater quality for drinking based primarily on World Health Organization (WHO) standards. Exhibit 4 shows a number of major drinking-water quality parameters,
and their corresponding permissible limits, as
Exhibit 3. Location of Sampling Wells in Kapgari Watershed
recommended by the WHO (1993) and the Bureau of Indian Standards, or BIS (Indian Standards Institution, 1991). Some groundwater samples were found to have chloride, hardness, and
total dissolved solids (TDS) values above desirable limits.
We plotted the values for the various sample
locations and interpolated surfaces. We generated
water quality maps for chloride, TDS, and hardness within the study area, showing locations
that fell within both the desirable and undesirable ranges. We also prepared a salinity hazard
map showing regions with low-, medium-, and

high-salinity hazards.
Generating the Drinking-Water

Groundwater Quality Map
Three thematic maps (for the parameters of
chloride concentration, TDS, and hardness) were
integrated using the addition function available
in the ArcInfo software. We created a final drinking-water groundwater quality map by overlaying
these three thematic maps. We then delineated
two areas within the Kapgari catchment based on
Exhibit 4. Drinking Water: Parameters and

Recommended Permissible Limits
Parameters
pH
TDS
Hardness
Calcium
Magnesium
Chloride
Sulfate
Nitrate
Fluoride
Nitrite
WHO (mg/L)
BIS (mg/L)
78.5
500
500
200
150
200
200
40
1.5
3
6.58.5
500
600
200
100
250
200
45
1.5
3
the quality of the groundwater for drinking purposes: desirable and undesirable.
Generating the Irrigation Groundwater

Quality Map
We also analyzed the chemical quality of Kapgari groundwater for irrigation purposes. Water
quality, soil types, and cropping practices all play
an important role in determining whether an
area is suitable for agricultural irrigation.
Certain chemical characteristics can affect the
suitability of water for irrigation. Among the
most important are the total concentration of soluble salts, the relative proportion of bicarbonate
to calcium and magnesium, and the relative proportion of sodium to calcium.
Excessive sodium content makes water unsuitable for irrigation purposes. Groundwater
samples taken from the study area fell into four
salinity hazard classes, based on their electrical
conductivity values: excellent, good, doubtful,
and unsuitable. Utilizing Kriging techniques, we
generated interpolated surfaces, and then divided
the Kapgari basin into these four salinity classes.
Combining the two maps allowed us to pictorially represent groundwater zones as being:
desirable for both drinking and irrigation,

desirable for irrigation only,
moderately desirable for irrigation, or
undesirable for both drinking and irrigation.
Prioritization of groundwater zones based on

the quality of the water for drinking and irrigation purposes can assist land-use planners and
help preserve groundwater resources.
Study Results: Analysis of Groundwater

Samples
Physiochemical Characteristics
We carried out chemical analyses for the
major ion concentrations in groundwater samples collected from various locations within the
Kapgari catchment. Exhibit 5 summarizes the
results of these analyses for 30 samples collected
from the Kapgari aquifer during June 2005.
The Kapgari groundwater is enriched in NO3and SO4- (anions) and Ca2+ and Mg2+ (cations),
which is typical of water that is contaminated by
chemical fertilizers.
Turbidity
Turbidity is recognized as a major water quality parameter. For drinking water, the recommended turbidity value is less than five nephelometric turbidity units (NTU).
In our samples from the Kapgari watershed,
analyzed turbidity values ranged from a low of
3.1 NTU to a high of 7.8 NTU. The mean turbidity value was 5.86 NTU.
Generating the Integrated Groundwater

Quality Map
Salinity
After creating separate groundwater quality

maps for drinking water and for irrigation, we integrated the two using ArcInfo overlay analysis.
In terms of salinity (as measured by electrical

conductivity), some of the Kapgari groundwater
samples showed values higher than 3 dS/m,
Exhibit 5. Groundwater Quality Statistics for Samples Collected During June 2005
Parameter
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
SD
CV (%)
pH
EC (dS/m)
Turbidity
(NTU)
5.9
0.06
7.21
3.10
5.86
0.495
0.59
0.014
9.50
2.83
3.1
7.80
5.86
0.071
1.20
TDS (mg/L)
DO (mg/L)
40.0
3.5
2115
8.70
320.8
5.34
14.14
0.64
4.40
11.98
Hardness as
CaCO3 (mg/L)
Nitrate (mg/L)
Nitrite (mg/L)
Chloride
( mg/L)
Calcium
(mg/L)
107.15
5997.46
424.9
39.61
9.32
0.01
0.035
67.80
0.926
9.81
0.45
4.74
0.65
48.32
145.55
2.04
372.94
40.06
36.42
90.91
42.349
2194.74
430.1
39.61
9.21
Magnesium
(mg/L)
Sulfate (mg/L)
Phosphorus
(mg/L)
Potassium
(mg/L)
0.313
124.54
29.54
7.54
25.52
0.384
0.001
134.79
0.02
28.67
0.0056
12.10
0.0021
42.20
37.5
0.361
815.04
80.19
64.74
80.72
12.19
524.86
68.64
43.16
62.88
Sodium (mg/L)
which makes the water unsuitable even for irrigation purposes. However, the mean salinity of the
catchment was found to be 0.495 dS/m, which is
within acceptable limits.
Total Dissolved Solids
prescribed limit. The mean pH value was observed to be slightly below the WHO standard.
Hardness
Hardness of water depends on the concentration of substances such as calcium and magnesium. The equation we used for calculating the
hardness of water samples from the Kapgari watershed was as follows (expressed in terms of the
concentration of calcium carbonate, CaCO3):
The total dissolved solids parameter reflects

the level of minerals (such as carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, sulfate, phosphate, silica, calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium) that
are present in water in dissolved form. The TDS
values for groundwater samples taken from the
Kapgari watershed ranged from 40 to 2,115 milligrams per liter (mg/L).
Even though some samples showed very high
TDS readings (as compared to WHO recommended
values), the mean TDS value for the Kapgari watershed (320.8 mg/L) is within acceptable limits.
with concentrations of substances expressed in

milligrams per liter.
At some locations, the hardness value was
found to be very high. Nonetheless, the mean
hardness value for the catchment was within acceptable limits, at 424.9 mg/L.
pH
Parameter Variability
Nearly 30 percent of the Kapgari groundwater

samples were acidic as compared to the WHO
Since the coefficient of variation (CV) for the

parameters discussed above is comparatively
Hardness([CaCO3]) = 2.5x[Ca2+]+4.1x[Mg2+]
small, these parameters showed less variability as

compared to that of the anions and cations, as
discussed below.
Major Anions
The major anions analyzed in this study were
fluoride, sulfate, chloride, bromide, nitrate, and
nitrite. The results were as follows:
Fluoride concentrations were observed to be

within acceptable limits.
Sulfate levels for all groundwater samples
were within the maximum permissible limit
of 200 mg/L.
Chloride concentrations ranged from a minimum value of 2.04 mg/L to a maximum of
372.94 mg/L. The mean value was 40.06
mg/L, with a CV of 90.91 percent.
Bromide concentrations ranged between
0.036 mg/L and 7.66 mg/L.
The mean value of observed nitrate concentrations (9.81 mg/L) was much lower than the
maximum acceptable limit. Still, nitrate concentrations exceeded the BIS limit for drinking water (45 mg/L) in more than 6 percent of
the Kapgari region.
With respect to nitrite, all analyzed samples
were within acceptable limits. Because the coefficient of variation for nitrite was 145.55
percent, we can infer that nitrite concentration values were more variable than those for
other ions.
Major Cations
The major cations analyzed in this study were
calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and
ammonium. The results were as follows:
In some samples, calcium values showed very

high concentrations (up to 2,194.74 mg/L).
About 70 percent of the analyzed samples exhibited higher calcium concentrations than
the maximum permissible value (200 mg/L).

The mean calcium concentration was found
to be over twice as high as the recommended
value. Thus, the catchment groundwater faces
a significant threat from calcium contamination. The coefficient of variation for calcium
was low because of the small standard deviation (SD) for calcium concentration values.
The magnesium concentrations in all samples
were within acceptable limits, based on the
WHO standard.
The mean observed
value for potassium
About 70 percent of the analyzed
was 80.19 mg/L,
samples exhibited higher calcium
which is much
concentrations than the maximum
higher than the recpermissible value (200 mg/L).
ommended value.
But the coefficient
of variation for
potassium also was high, indicating the presence of a few samples with extremely high values. Excluding these few extreme cases, the
mean value was within acceptable limits.
The observed sodium concentration ranged
from a minimum value of 12.19 mg/L to a
maximum of 524.86 mg/L. The mean sodium
concentration in groundwater was found to
be 68.64 mg/L, which is much lower than the
recommended limit of 200 mg/L.
The ammonium concentration ranged from
28.35 mg/L to 342.72 mg/L, with a mean concentration of 239.17 mg/L.
Temporal Variation in Water Quality

Parameters
During study years 2003 and 2004, we collected water samples for three different seasons:
premonsoon, monsoon, and postmonsoon. This
allowed us to analyze temporal variations in
groundwater quality parameters.
Our samples were taken from ten selected
wells within the Kapgari catchment. We com-
pared the characteristics of samples collected during all three seasons to determine whether the
concentration of various constituents was changing due to evaporation and precipitation.
Our study of temporal variations in water
quality considered a number of agriculture-derived ions, such as nitrate, phosphorus, and
potassium. We also looked at other parameters,
including dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, electrical
conductivity, and turbidity.
Exhibits 6, 7, and 8 show the temporal variation in concentrations of nitrate, phosphorus,
and potassium, respectively, for three selected

wells. As the graphs make clear, these substances
showed higher concentrations during the monsoon season (July and August) than during the
other two seasons (pre- and postmonsoon). This
trend shows the influence of precipitation and
leaching on groundwater contamination within
the Kapgari catchment.
The values of other parameters also were
higher during the monsoon season. The higher
turbidity values we observed might be caused
by the release of sediments from the local
Exhibit 6. Temporal Variation of Nitrate Concentrations in Kapgari Watershed
Exhibit 7. Temporal Variation of Phosphorus Concentrations in Kapgari Watershed
Exhibit 8. Temporal Variation of Potassium Concentrations in Kapgari Watershed
aquifer to well water. The high DO concentration results from aeration in the atmosphere
during precipitation.
Electrical conductivity is directly related to
the concentration of ions in the water. The presence of elevated levels of agriculture-derived ions
results in higher electrical conductivity values
during the monsoon period than during other
seasons.
Groundwater Quality for Drinking Purposes

The pictorial representations of groundwater
quality that we prepared for the Kapgari basin
show its suitability (or unsuitability) for drinkingwater purposes. These maps were based on the
chemical analysis data described above, and prepared with the help of GIS technology.
As noted earlier, we first created separate distribution maps for chloride, TDS, and hardness,
and then combined these three themes into a
composite drinking-water quality map.
Chloride Distribution Map

According to the WHO standard, the desirable limit for chloride is 200 mg/L. We mapped
the areas of the Kapgari watershed that had
chloride concentrations above this desirable

limit (expressed in parts per million, or ppm)
and differentiated those locations from areas
that had chloride values within the desirable
limit. The chloride distribution map is shown
in Exhibit 9.
The interpolated image reveals that only a
very small part (1.24 percent) of the Kapgari watershed is under threat of chloride contamination. Out of a total 973.5 hectares (ha), an area of
only 12.05 ha was identified as being threatened
by chloride contamination.
TDS Distribution Map

According to WHO standards, the highest
desirable limit for total dissolved solids in drinking water is 500 mg/L. In a majority of the water
samples we analyzed from the study area, TDS
fell within the fresh water category according
to Carrolls (1962) classification (as shown in
Exhibit 10). However, in some locations the
TDS values exceeded the WHO standards desirable limit.
Hence, the study area was divided into two
classes based on TDS concentrations: desirable
and undesirable. The TDS undesirable zones of
Exhibit 9. Chloride Distribution Map for Kapgari Watershed
Exhibit 10. Classification of Water Quality Based on TDS*

TDS (mg/L)
Water quality
Premonsoon samples
01,000
1,00010,000
10,000100,000
> 100,000
Fresh water
Blackish water
Salty water
Brine
40490 (28 samples)

< 2,115 (2 samples)
* Using methodology of Carroll (1962).
the Kapgari watershed cover 30 percent of the

total area. Exhibit 11 shows the TDS distribution map for the Kapgari region, with 292.25
hectares indicating high TDS concentrations.
Hardness Distribution Map

According to WHO recommendations, the
highest desirable value for water hardness is 100
mg/L, and the maximum permissible limit is 500
mg/L. In the Kapgari study area, all groundwater
samples showed hardness values higher than the
desirable limit. For this reason, we used the maximum permissible limit as the datum value for delineating the area.
According to Sawyer and McCartys (1967)
classification system for water hardness, two samples each fell within the categories of moder-
Exhibit 11. TDS Distribution Map for Kapgari Watershed
ately hard and very hard, while 26 fell within

the range of hard. The hardness classification
for our study samples is shown in Exhibit 12.
Exhibit 13 shows the hardness distribution
map for the Kapgari watershed, revealing that
78.86 percent of the area falls within the undesirable classification. Our study found that, out
of the total 973.5-hectare Kapgari catchment
area, 767.75 hectares have a severe problem with
water hardness.
Drinking-Water Groundwater Quality Map

The spatially integrated drinking-water
quality map for the groundwater of Kapgari
Exhibit 12. Classification of Water Based on Hardness*

Hardness as CaCO3 (mg/L)
Water class
Premonsoon samples
075
75150
1503,000
> 3,000
Soft
Moderately hard
Hard
Very hard
--107149 (2 samples)
2472,230 (26 samples)
4,4905,998 (2 samples)
* Using methodology of Sawyer and McCarty (1967).
basin is shown in Exhibit 14. This was prepared by integrating three thematic grid maps
for chloride, TDS, and hardness (using the
ArcInfo grid addition).
Exhibit 13. Hardness Distribution Map for Kapgari Watershed
The integrated map divided the Kapgari basin

into two classifications, based on whether
groundwater within the delineated area is desirable or undesirable for drinking purposes. The
map shows that only about one-fifth of the basin
contains groundwater that is desirable for drinking purposes. As indicated on the map, 783.17
hectares (or nearly 80 percent of the catchment)
contains groundwater that is undesirable for

drinking purposes.
Groundwater Quality for Irrigation Purposes

Our pictorial representations of groundwater
quality within the Kapgari basin also delineated
the areas that are suitable or unsuitable for agricultural irrigation purposes.
Exhibit 14. Drinking-Water Groundwater Quality Map: Kapgari Watershed
Sodium Hazard Classification

The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is one of
the major parameters for determining irrigation
water quality. The potential sodium hazard increases as higher SAR values are attained.
The SAR can be calculated using the following
equation (Karanth, 1987):
______________
_ _
SAR = Na/ {(Ca + Mg)/2}
in which concentrations are expressed in gram
equivalent per mole (eq/mole) values. As this equation indicates, the presence of calcium and magnesium ions can help offset the effects of sodium.
The SAR can also be determined by using the

nomogram shown in Exhibit 15. With this
method, the concentration of sodium (Na) is plotted on the left-hand scale, while the concentration of calcium and magnesium is plotted on the
right-hand scale (concentrations are expressed in
milliequivalents per liter). The point at which a
line connecting the two intersects the scale for the
sodium adsorption ratio indicates the SAR value.
Low-sodium water (with a classification of S1)
can be used for irrigation on almost all soils. All
groundwater samples collected from the Kapgari
basin during the monsoon season fell within the
Exhibit 15. Nomogram for Determining Sodium Adsorption Ratio of Water
Exhibit 16. Sodium Hazard Classes (Alkalinity Class)

Sodium hazard class
SAR (eq/mole)
Remark
Premonsoon samples
S1
S2
S3
S4
< 10
1018
1826
> 26
Excellent
Good
Doubtful
Unsuitable
0.182.95 (30 samples)
Salinity hazard class
EC (dS/m)
Remark
Premonsoon samples
C1
C2
C3
C4
< 0.25
0.250.75
0.752.25
> 2.25
Excellent
Good
Doubtful
Unsuitable
0.060.25 (13 samples)

0.270.6 (14 samples)
0.77 (1 sample)
2.83.1 (2 samples)
(low sodium)
(medium sodium)
(high sodium)
and S5 (very high sodium)
Exhibit 17. Salinity Hazard Classes
(low salinity)
(medium salinity)
(high salinity)
and C5 (very high salinity)
low-sodium category (based on SAR expressed in

eq/mole), and presented no hazard for alkalinity
(Richards, 1954). The sodium hazard classifications
for irrigation water are shown in Exhibit 16.
majority of soils. Fourteen samples were found to

be within the medium-salinity classification (C2),
while only three fell into the high- or very
high- salinity hazard categories (C3, C4, and C5).
Salinity Hazard Classification
Irrigation Groundwater Quality Map
The quality of groundwater for irrigation purposes also depends on salinity, as measured by
electrical conductivity. The salinity hazard classes
are shown in Exhibit 17.
Thirteen groundwater samples from the Kapgari watershed fell within the low-salinity hazard
category (C1). Groundwater that is classified as C1
can be used for irrigating most crops grown on the
The groundwater quality map of Kapgari watershed for agricultural irrigation purposes is
shown in Exhibit 18. The whole area is divided
into four classes based on groundwater salinity, as
measured by electrical conductivity: excellent for
irrigation (C1), good for irrigation (C2), of doubtful value for irrigation (C3), and unsuitable for irrigation (C4 and C5).
Exhibit 18. Irrigation Groundwater Quality Map (Salinity Hazard Map): Kapgari Watershed
The map shows that 742.09 hectares (or 76.22

percent of the total study area) fall within the C2
category, meaning that the water located there is
of good quality for use in irrigation. The portion
of the watershed rated excellent for irrigation
(C1) contains 169.46 hectares. The areas that are
deemed of doubtful quality (C3) and unsuitable
(C4 and C5) for irrigation measure 57.02 and 4.92
hectares, respectively.
Integrated Groundwater Quality Map for

Kapgari Watershed
After creating separate groundwater quality
maps for drinking-water and irrigation purposes,
we integrated the two into a combined map. This
allowed us to classify all groundwater zones
within the Kapgari watershed as falling into one

of four categories: desirable for both drinking and
irrigation, desirable for irrigation only, moderately desirable for irrigation, or undesirable for
both drinking and irrigation.
Exhibit 19 shows the integrated groundwater
quality map, indicating the suitability of groundwater zones for drinking-water and irrigation purposes. As this map shows, the groundwater in most
of the Kapgari basin can be classified as moderately
desirable for irrigation. The specific breakdown of
groundwater zones was found to be as follows:
desirable for both drinking and irrigation

205.62 hectares,
desirable for irrigation only90.98 hectares,
Exhibit 19. Integrated Groundwater Quality Map: Kapgari Watershed
moderately desirable for irrigation615.08

hectares, and
undesirable for drinking or irrigation61.82
hectares.
Thus, groundwater from approximately 21 percent of the Kapgari catchment is suitable for both
drinking and irrigation purposes, while groundwater from 6.35 percent of the area is unsuitable
for either purpose.
Conclusion
Water is a major environmental parameter,
and water resource degradation is an issue of significant societal and environmental concern.
In India, groundwater plays a crucial role as a
decentralized source of drinking water. At the
same time, pollution of groundwater resources
has become a major problem. Nonpoint source
pollutants, including pesticides from agriculture,
are recognized as the greatest threat to surface
and subsurface drinking water.
In the study discussed here, we analyzed
groundwater quality parameters within the Kapgari watershed, noting spatial and temporal variations. We performed chemical analysis on
groundwater samples taken from various locations within the catchment at different times.
We noted that major water quality parameters
(such as turbidity, pH, salinity, and dissolved oxygen) and measures of agriculture-derived ions
(such as potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen)
reflected higher pollutant concentrations during
the monsoon season, which highlights the effect
of precipitation on groundwater quality.
Hydrochemical analysis data revealed that the
region has high concentrations of potassium and
calcium. From our hydrochemical analysis results, it can also be inferred that excess concentrations of chloride and TDS, as well as the presence of water hardness, make the groundwater at
some locations undesirable for drinking.
The GIS techniques used in this study demonstrated their capability in groundwater quality
mapping. The maps we were able to create offered
a pictorial representation of groundwater quality
throughout the Kapgari basin, and allowed us to
delineate clearly whether the groundwater found
within specified locations was suitable or unsuitable for purposes of drinking and irrigation.
As indicated on our spatially integrated drinking-water quality map, the groundwater found in
almost 80 percent of the Kapgari basin is undesirable for drinking purposes. The irrigation water
quality map shows that groundwater in over 93
percent of the area is desirable or moderately desirable for irrigation purposes, with salinity (as
measured by electrical conductivity) of less than
0.75 dS/m.
Some parts of the Kapgari basin present a
high-salinity hazard. If they are to be used for
agricultural purposes, these zones require special
care and utilization of an alternative salt tolerance cropping pattern.
It is not entirely clear why portions of the Kapgari basin contain excess concentrations of certain
elements and high-salinity levels; these issues require further detailed investigation. However, this
study has made clear that GIS-based methodology
can be used successfully for groundwater quality
mapping even in small catchments.
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Renji Remesan is a postgraduate research scholar with the Water and Environmental Management Research Centre, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol.
R. K. Panda, PhD, is a professor in the Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology,
Kharagpur.

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Groundwater Quality

Mapping Using GIS: A

Using geographic information

system technology successfully

in a small catchment area

2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Background: Groundwater in India

Renji Remesan and R. K. Panda

Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem / Spring 2007 / 41

population is continuing to grow, putting increasing demands on water resources.

A Growing Pollution Problem

42 / Spring 2007 / Environmental Quality Management / DOI 10.1002/tqem

But a variety of land- and water-based human

Understanding the Issues with Groundwater

Renji Remesan and R. K. Panda

The Study Area: Kapgari Watershed

Exhibit 1. Location of the Study Area: Kapgari Watershed