The chemical Earth

1. The living and nonliving components of the Earth contain mixtures

Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reaction as they
are encountered
- In chemical reactions, the arrangement of atoms is changed to produce new
substances

Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of

particle theory
Pure substance: substance made of only one type of particle
Mixture: substance made of more than one type of particle
Compound: pure substance made up of particles that contain more than one
type of atom
Element: pure substance made of particles that contain only one type of atom
Homogeneous mixture: mixture in which all the particles are uniformly
distributed eg. Salt water
Heterogeneous mixture: mixture in which the particles are not uniformly
distributed eg salad dressing

identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain

examples of mixtures of elements and compounds
Biosphere: air, land, rocks, water, living things where life occurs. Oxygen,
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium
Lithosphere: solid outermost rocky shell of planet, crust. Silicates, carbonates,
oxides, sulphides, aluminium, iron, sodium
Hydrosphere: all water on earth. Chloride, sodium, sulfate, magnesium, fluoride
atmosphere: gas layer of earth. Nitrogen, oxygen, water, carbon dioxide,

identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally

occurring mixtures of:
assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of
Earth's materials, identifying the differences in properties that enable these
separations

Solids of different sizes:

Sifting/sieve: unwanted particles are left behind. Size difference enable
this to happen. Mixtures of rocks, sand/gravel
Solids and liquids:
Filtering: insoluble liquid out of a mixture. Insoluble solid allows it to work.
Sand and water, curd from milk. Mixture poured into filter funnel, with
filter paper over test tube
dissolved solids in liquids:
Evaporation: dissolved solid is recovered from liquid. Happens because
crystal in a liquid, soluble substance. Liquid is evaporated and solid is left
behind. salt water
Liquids:
Distillation: separated based on boiling points. Obtaining fresh water.
Steam flows through condenser into receiving flask, distilled water.
Separation funnel: tap is opened allowing flow of lower layer out. Liquids
that dont mix are immiscible. One liquid is heavier than the other.
Kerosene and water.
Gases:
Fractional distillation: each gas collected separately. They have different
boiling points. Nitrogen, oxygen and argon

Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources
to identify the industrial separation processes used on a mixture obtained from the
biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere or atmosphere and the evidence available to
- Identify the properties of the mixture used in its separation
- Identify the products of separation and their uses
- Discuss issues associated with wastes from the processes used
Separation of Argon from the air
Sphere
Atmosphere
Mixtures to be separated
Air
Products of separation
Argon (other atmospheric gases)
Uses of products
-blue/green discharge lamps (neon signs)
Properties of components
- Chemically inert
- Different boiling from other air components
used to separate the
(close to oxygen)
mixture and refine the final
product
Extraction procedure
Compression: air -s cooled cryogenically and compressed
Rapid expansion: air cools and liquefies
Fractional distillation:
-Argon separated from other gases (except oxygen) when
temp. rises to -186
-Oxygen is removed by its reaction with hydrogen to form
water. Argon does not react as it is inert
-After removing water using a molecular sieve dryer, the
argon is re-cooled
Waste management issues

Heat must dissipate slowly into the environment to reduce

thermal pollution

Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for

chemists and other scientists
Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment and perform a first-hand
investigation to separate the components of a naturally occurring or appropriate mixture
such as sand, salt and water.
Gather first-hand information by carrying out a gravimetric analysis of a mixture
to estimate its percentage composition
Gravimetric: analysis by weight or by mass
Quantitative technique: numbers, how much, more precise
E.g. 3.67g sample of a certain NPK fertiliser (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) was found
to contain 1.79g urea and 0.81 ammonium phosphate with the composition of this fertiliser
Urea= 1.79/3.67x100= 48.77%

ammonium= 0.81/3.67x100= 22.07%

Potassium chloride=29.16%
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Weigh the beaker and then the mixture and the beaker together
Filter the sand from the water using filter paper and filter funnel
Allow the sand to dry, or dry in oven
Weigh the sand
Weigh ceramic dish
Weigh the salt water solution in the ceramic dish
Heat the salt water over the Bunsen flame (dont let the salt spit out of
ceramic)

8.

Weigh the salt

Calculate answers and % composition

Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are introduced in the

laboratory not containing carbon

Inorganic compounds: contain elements other than carbon. Eg. Water (H 2O),
Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered. All contain
carbon, universal name for carbon compounds
Methane CH4, propane C3H6, butane C4H6

2. Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some elements are found
un-combined
Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of it
existing as an un-combined element
- The more reactive it is, the less likely it is to be found as an un-combined
element in nature
- Because of reactivity most other elements are found combined with other
elements and chemical process are required to extract them.

plan and perform an investigation to examine some physical properties, including

malleability, hardness and electrical conductivity, and some uses of a range of common
elements to present information about the classification of elements as metals, nonmetals or semi-metals
- aim: examine physical properties of elements and determine if metal, semi metal
or non-metal.
Property
Test
Lustre
Clean surface of material with abrasive
paper, observe surface
Electrical conductivity
Connect to power supply, globe or ammeter
and material in a simple series to ake circuit
Hardness
Scratch with steel knife, or iron nail
Malleability
Use hammer to see if material will flatten
Solubility in water
Solubility meter

analyse information from secondary sources to distinguish the physical properties of

metals and non-metals
- Metals distinguished from non-metals, by physical properties. Metals good
electricity conductivity, high melting point, malleable. Non-metals do no conduct
electricity, have low melting points, most are gases or brittle solids

Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their physical

properties
Metals
Non-metals
Semi metal
Malleable
Not malleable
Moderate
Ductile
Not ductile
Not brittle
Generally brittle
Strong, high tensile strength
Not strong, low tensile
strength
Good conduct of heat and
Bad conductors of heat and low
electricity
electricity (except graphite)
Good lustre
Poor lustre
No
Solid at room temp. (except
Solids, liquids or gaseous at Various
mercury)
room temp.
High melting/boiling points
Solid non-metals have low
High to very high
(except sodium and
melting points
potassium)
Generally high densities
Generally low densities

Process information from secondary sources and use a periodic table to present
information about the classification of elements as:

 metals, non-metals and semi-metals

solids, liquids and gases at 25C and normal atmospheric pressure.
Most elements at room temp. are solids
Metals left hand side
Non-metal left hand right hand side
Semi metals are in between
Elements in same group (column) have similar properties (Na and K are
both very reactive)
Change in properties across a period (row), most obvious change is the
change from very reactive metals to less reactive

Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties.
Metals
Non metals
Copper: electrical wiring, good conductor
Argon: fill light bulbs and welding, not
of electricity, very ductile (can be drawn
react chemically
Chlorine: used as a bleach and
into wires)
Iron: construct tools, buildings, bridges,
disinfectant, chemically very active
Oxygen: used in medicine, its chemistry
vehicles. Strong, malleable and ductile
Aluminium: strong, malleable, ductile,
is vital for respiration. Combustion
light weight, corrosion resistant. Cars,
reactions
drink cans

3. Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds because of interactions

at the atomic level
identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously moving and interacting
- matter consists of particles that are in continual motion
- solid particles are held closely together, vibrate to and fro
- liquids are close together, able to move or slide past each other with frequent
collisions
- gases, particles are spaced apart and move freely
- strong interactions between particles allow a solid to maintain shape
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Particles are closely packed,
Particles, fairly close, able to Particle widely spaced, mo
in fixed arranged positions
slide over each other
independently
Definite shape
Take shape of container
Take shape of container
Almost incompressible
Difficult to compress
Easily compressed
Diffusion rate negligible
Diffusion rate slow
Diffusion rate fast
describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number
Atoms made of protons, neutrons and electrons. Heating increases energy in particle, making
them move faster. Cooling particles slows down movement and gases condense. Liquids
freeze. In a solid particles are fixed and only vibrate
- protons and neutrons are found within the nucleus
- electrons move around the nucleus
- number of protons= atomic number
- protons and neutron= mass number
Isotopes: different number of neutrons, protons are the same. Eg carbon-12, carbon-13

describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms

- electrons orbit in shells
- number of protons in a neutral atom are equal to number of electrons
- shells: 2, 8, 8
Closer the electron to the nucleus, more strongly the electron is held
Electrons close the nucleus have lower energy because more energy to be provided to pull
away from nucleus

describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons

- atoms are neutral particles, number of electrons equals protons. Atoms can gain
or lose electrons, when they do, no longer neutral, called ions
- electrons are either gained or lost from valance shell (outermost shell)
- cation: atoms loses electrons- excess of protons compared to electron-positively
charged
- anion: atoms gain electrons- less protons compared to electrons- negatively
charged
- Generally, metals lose electrons, form cations, non-metals gain, form anions

apply the periodic table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals
- depending if an atom gains or loses electrons depends on the valance shell

Positive ions:
-

giving up electrons to form stable outer shell

e.g. Elements in group 1, gives away 1 electron, forms +1 ion

Negative ion:
-

accepting electrons to form stable outer shell

e.g. Elements in group 6, accept 2 electrons, form -2 ion

Construct ionic equations showing metal and non-metal atoms forming ions.
- Ions are formed when atoms give up or accept electrons. Metals give up
electrons to form positive ions (cations)
Na Na+ + e- Non-metals generally accept electrons to form anions (negative). Cl + e- Cl-

describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions of opposite
charge
- atoms combine because it decreases total energy to achieve a more stable state
- ionic compounds form when atoms gain or lose electrons to attain stable valance
shell
- most ionic compounds have a positive metal ion and a negative non-metal ion

describe molecules as particles that can move independently of each other

- molecule applies to elements and compounds, smallest particle of a substance,
retains its properties
- Forces holding molecules together are much stronger than forces between
molecules
- All molecules are in constant motion, move independently of each other, they
vibrate, rotate and may change location
- Molecules of a liquid have more freedom than a solid
- Gases have the most freedom and movement
distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules
with more than one atom
- molecules vary in size and complexity
- some consist of two atoms of the same element, e.g. O 2
Noble gases
- are so unreactive they exist as single atoms

describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons

Single covalent
- atoms chemically bond to achieve stable configuration
- they can do this by forming ions or by covalent bonding
- - indicates shared pair of electrons, called single bond

- E.g. H2O written as H-O-H, 2 single bonds

Multiple covalent
- Oxygen molecule, 2 oxygen atoms need to share two pairs of electrons to be
stable
- 2 pairs of electrons are shared O2 can be written as O=O, double bond

apply Lewis electron dot structures to:

the formation of ions
electron sharing in some simple molecules
Show the symbol element and represent the valance electrons
Dots are placed in each of the four sides around the symbol before second one is
applied
E.g. aluminium: has 3 electrons in valance shell, has 3 dots surrounding its symbol
Electron sharing
- Shows a simplified diagram of bonding in covalent molecules, that have shared
electrons
- E.g. water H2O

Construct formulae for compounds formed from:

ions
atoms sharing electrons.
Compounds with ions-ionic compounds
- ions with one atom are called simple or monatomic ions
- E.g. sodium- Na+, zinc- Zn 2+, iron (iii)- Fe3+
- Compounds formed from ions are usually between metal and non-metal
- Overall charge is 0
Compounds with atoms sharing electrons- covalent molecules
- Compounds formed from atoms sharing electrons are generally between nonmetal and non-metal
- Examples: phosphorus dichloride PCl3, Nitrogen dioxide NO2

analyse information by constructing or using models showing the structure of metals,

ionic compounds and covalent compounds
Metals and ionic compounds
- space filling models, used to show metals and ionic compounds in their solid
state
- ions of the metals are held in a rigid lattice
Covalent molecules
- space fillings models show the general shape of these particles but do not give
indication to the bonding
- ball and stick models may not give an accurate representation but do indicate
the bonding
Large covalent carbon molecules
- long chains of molecules, polymers
Covalent network substances
- form 3 dimensional network, extremely stable

4. Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring sources

Identify the differences between physical and chemical change in terms of
rearrangement of particles
Physical change:
- No new chemical substance
- Small energy changes, easily reversed

In some cases, chemical bonds can be broken, copper is rolled, metallic bonds
broken and reformed
Filtering
Chemical changes
- Form new substances
- Requires breaking and reforming of chemical bonds
- More energy required
- Reversal is difficult
Lighting a match
-

plan and safely perform a first-hand investigation to show the decomposition of a

carbonate by heat, using appropriate tests to identify carbon dioxide and the oxide as
the products of the reaction
Aim: investigate the decomposition of carbon
Equipment:
- copper carbonate, limewater, Bunsen burner, matches, test tube, stand and
clamp, gas delivery tube and stopper
Method:
1. place small amount of carbonate in large test tube and fit with gas delivery
tube and stopper, clamp test tube to stand
2. half fill another test tube with limewater and place gas delivery tube in it
3. using blue flam gently heat carbonate, observe the carbonate and lime water,
record observations
Results:
CuCO3: Bubbled, bright blue, went murky
CuO: slightly bubbled, colourless

gather information using first-hand or secondary sources to:

observe the effect of light on silver salts and identify an application of this reaction
Aim: investigate the effect of light in silver halides
Equipment: silver nitrate, sodium bromide, chlorine solution, iodine solution, sodium, 4
petri dishes, 4x filter paper, stiff paper
Method:
1. using stiff paper, cut 4 shapes to fit on filter paper
2. pour each of the silver nitrate and sodium halide solutions into separate petri dishes
3. label each of the fur pieces of filter paper
4. immerse piece of filter paper in silver nitrate solution, place shape on top
5. with another piece of filter paper place in silver nitrate, then sodium bromide
solution, place shape on top
6. repeat step 5 with other 2 halide solutions
7. expose all to sunlight
8. record changes over 15-20 mins
Results:
NaCl- white shape, dark blue filter paper, very sensitive to light, clearest
NaBr- pale green shape, black/grey background, sensitive to light
NaI- yellow/green shape, brown background, light sensitive
AgNO3- white shape, brown background, 2nd clearest
- decomposition: compound splits into its elements, heat, light or electricity are
needed

gather information using first-hand or secondary sources to:

observe the electrolysis of water, analyse the information provided as evidence that
water is a compound and identify an application of this reaction
- Water decomposes
- Oxygen is collected in one electrode and hydrogen in the other
- Ratio is 2:1, stays the same
- Hydrogen gives a pop when in presence of candle

Oxygen will reignite a blown out candle, product of combustion reaction

Summarise the differences between boiling and electrolysis of water as an example of

the difference between physical and chemical change
Boiling water (physical change)
Electrolysis of water (chemical change)
No new substance produced
Two new substances produced, hydrogen
and oxygen
Easy to reverse
Difficult to reverse
To evaporate 1 gram of water requires
To convert 1 gram of water into hydrogen
2.3 kilojoules of energy
and oxygen, 23 kilojoules of energy is
needed

Analyse and present information to model the boiling of water and the electrolysis of
water tracing the movements of and changes in arrangements of molecules.
Boiling water is a physical change.
H2O molecules remain intact,
however water has changed from
closely packed molecules in a liquid
in a beaker to well-spaced
molecules in a gas that mixes with
air

Electrolysis is a chemical change: bonds are broken

ones formed.

and new

identify light, heat and electricity as common

forms of
energy that may be released or absorbed during decomposition or synthesis of
substances and identify examples of these changes occurring in everyday life
Decomposition: chemical compound if split up into its elements or simpler
compounds. Heat, light or electricity is needed.
- Silver halide salts decompose in the presence of sunlight

2AgCl(s) 2Ag(s) + Cl2 (g)

Mercury (ii) oxide has to be heated strongly

2HgO (l) 2Hg

(l)

+ O2 (g)

Electricity decomposes water

2H2O 2H2 + O2
More energy to decompose means more stable and bonds are stronger
Synthesis: is the opposite of decomposition
- Rusting, iron reacts with oxygen to form iron oxide
Endothermic reactions- energy released to surroundings
Exothermic reactions- energy absorbed from surroundings
-

Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an

indication of the strength of the attraction, or bond, between them.
- Amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of
the strength of the attraction, or bond between them
- Covalent bonding involves sharing electrons, this may be sharing 1, 2 or 3 pairs
- It is this bond energy that indicates the strength of the forces holding the atom
together in a molecule
- A molecule with strong chemical bonds generally has fewer tendencies to
undergo chemical change

5. The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their bonding and
structure
identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds
and mixtures
- physical properties- without altering chemical composition, colour, lustre,
hardness, conductivity, melting/boiling points, solubility
differences in physical properties made it to physically separate mixtures
- chemical properties- reaction of one substance with another, one substance
decomposes or reacts with another

perform a first-hand investigation to compare the properties of some common elements

in their elemental state with the properties of the compound(s) of these elements (e.g.
magnesium and oxygen)
- properties of a compound can be quite different from its constituent elements
- e.g. hydrogen, flammable gas, oxygen supports a flame, together they form
water, a liquid
Comparing properties of magnesium and oxygen in elemental state, with
properties of it in its compound state
- magnesium ribbon- test malleability and solubility
- oxygen gas- notice appearance
- burn magnesium-forms magnesium oxide, test solubility, its soluble

Perform an investigation to examine the physical properties of a range of common

substances in order to classify them as metallic, ionic, covalent molecular or covalent
network substances and relate their characteristics to their uses.
Physical properties of common substances
Common substance Solid/liquid/gas

Boiling point

Water
Sodium chloride

Liquid
Solid, brittle

Low
High

Aluminium
Graphite

Solid, flexible
Solid, slippery

High
High

Classification and uses

Common substance
Formula
Water
H2O
Sodium chloride
NaCl
Aluminium
Al
Graphite
C

Classification
Covalent molecule
Ionic
Metallic
Covalent network

Electrical
conductivity
No
Solid-no
In solution-yes
Yes
Yes

Example of uses
Drinking
Table salt
Drink cans
Pencils

describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic, covalent

molecular or covalent network
Ionic compounds:
- Solids at room temp.
- electrostatic forces holding them together are strong, lots of energy to break
apart
- do not conduct in solid state, ions are held tight and cant move
- when melted or dissolved ions are free, thus can conduct
- hard and brittle
Covalent molecular:
- Generally gases or liquids at room temp.
- low melting points, weak intermolecular forces (forces between molecules)
- do not conduct in solid or molten state, no free electrons

Covalent
-

in solid state are soft and waxy appearance

network (covalent lattice)
no free electrons
3 dimensional network of strong covalent bonds
Melting/boiling points, high
Good conductors
Solids are hard and brittle
insoluble

distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

Metallic:
- high densities
- good conductors of heat and electricity
- malleable, ductile
- shiny surface
- high melting point- strong bond
- valence electrons more freely within 3 dimensional array of positive ionssurrounded by sea of electrons
- outer electrons are delocalised (no associated with a particular metal ion)
Ionic:
- strong electrostatic bond between positive metal ion and negative non-metal ion
Covalent:
- intermolecular forces are weak
- boiling over comes intermolecular forces but does not break covalent bonds
- dont conduct
- 2 atoms sharing electrons
- Electrons not free to move

describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons

- bonding in metals can be described as 2 dimensional lattices of ion in a sea of
electrons
- as an electric current is a flow of electrons, voltage across the metal allows
delocalised electrons to migrate, making metals good conductors of electricity
- heat energy allows electrons to more rapidly, transferring heat
- applying for to the metal allows one layer of ions to slide over another with the
mobile electrons maintaining the glue between the ions

describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions

- consist of oppositely charged ions held together by electrostatic attraction
between the positive and negative ions
- arranged in 3 dimensional lattices
- electrostatic attraction makes these compounds hard and brittle
- high melting/boiling points, strong electrostatic attraction
- positively and negatively charged ions are fixed in position in solid lattices, ionic
solids, do not conduct
- when molten or dissolved ions are free to move- can conduct

explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula, the smallest
ratio
- shows ration of ions or atoms in compound using simple whole numbers
- consist of continuous 3 dimensional lattices

identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices

- solid carbon dioxide and iodine crystals are molecular
- diamond and graphite are covalent lattice

Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the
structure of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network structures.

Ionic:
- Strong electrostatic attractions between positive and negative, takes a lot of
heat energy to overcome, hence high melting and boiling points
Covalent molecular:
- When substance is melted or boils, weak intermolecular forces are broken, very
little energy needed, quite soft
Covalent network:
- Large amount of energy needed to break, high melting and boiling points

choose resources and process information from secondary sources to construct and
discuss the limitations of models of ionic lattices, covalent molecules and covalent and
metallic lattices
- ball and stick models show boding, bonds are not narrow cylindrical lengths
- space filling models better show idea of electrons overlapping
- different strength of attraction of ionic covalent and metallic bonds cannot be
shown using models
- cant show sea of delocalised electrons

Metals
1. Metals have been extracted and used for many thousands of years
outline and examine some uses of different metals through history, including
contemporary uses, as un-combined metals or as alloys
- Metal: high melting/boiling point, malleable, ductile, conducts electricity, solid at room
temp. except mercury
- Alloy: two metals combined to form new metal
- Frist used by people 6-10 thousand years ago
- Gold- jewellery
- Silver: jewellery
- Copper: tools, electrical cables
- Aluminium: cooking utensils and foil
Explain why energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its ore
- Energy required depends on bonds between elements
- bonds between molecules (intermolecular) is so strong, need large amounts of energy
in order to break them apart

Compounds of metals which are found naturally in rocks are called minerals. Ores are
rocks from which metals can be economically obtained. The unwanted waste from an
ore after the mineral has been extracted is called gangues
Why aluminium does requires more energy to extract than copper? Aluminium has
stronger intermolecular forces, it harder to extract than copper (is a transition metal)
Identify why there are more metals available for people to use now than there were 200
years ago.
Some metals were so reactive and found un-combined whereas 200 years ago, this
technology wouldnt have been available to extract them from their ores
Describe the use of common alloys including steel, brass and solder and explain how
these relate to their properties
alloys are classified as alloys not mixtures: alloys are two different elements bonded
together, therefore making them a mixture not a pure substance
Alloys used today: Brass, solder and steel
Alloy
Composition
Uses
Properties
Steel
Iron 80% nickel
Cutlery, sinks,
Strong and resists
and chromium
machinery,
corrosion
20%
construction
Brass
65% copper 35%
Taps, fittings for
Hard, resists
zinc
water and gas
corrosion,
pipes
attractive
appearance
solder
63% tin, 37% lead Plumbing,
Low melting point
connecting small
components in
circuit boards
gather, process, analyse and present information from secondary sources on the range
of alloys produced and the reasons for the production and use of these alloys
Name of alloy

Composition

Zinc
aluminium

45% zinc, 55%

aluminium

Uses

Relevant
properties
Strong, resists
corrosion

Coating steel to
use for roofing
and walls
Solder
30-50% tin with
Plumbing,
Low melting
lead
sealing joints
point
Mild steel
Iron 0.2% carbon Car bodies,
Strong
pipes, roofing
malleable
More alloys available more as they are easier and cheaper to access

Analyse information to relate the chronology of the Bronze Age, the Iron Age and the
modern era and possible future developments.
Oder of ages: stone, copper, bronze, iron, modern metal
Why did people start to use bronze (copper and tin) instead of just copper? Adds
strength to the alloy as copper is weak
Fibre optics is a recent development to transmit messages
CSIRO are working on developing lightweight alloy car parts

2. Metals differ in their reactivity with other chemicals and this influences their uses
describe observable changes when metals react with dilute acid, water and oxygen

construct word and balanced formulae equations for the reaction of metals with water,
oxygen and dilute acid
Dilute acid: metal + acid hydrogen + Salt
may bubble
heat may be produced
Water: Metal + water hydrogen + metal hydroxide
products are hydrogen gas and metal hydroxide
bubble
pop test to see if hydrogen present
Oxygen: metal + oxygen metal oxide
all metal form oxides (except silver, gold)
all oxides formed are ionic
may form white powder (oxide)

perform a first-hand investigation incorporating information from secondary sources to

determine the metal activity series
Acid: place in test tube of acid
Water: place in test tube of water
Oxygen: heat with flame

describe and justify the criteria used to place metals into an order of activity based on
their ease of reaction with oxygen, water and dilute acids
depending on how fast or slow or how vigorous the reaction was the reactivity can be
determined

outline the relationship between the relative activities of metals and their positions on
the periodic table
across a period- decreases them increases
down a group: increases left hand side
identify the reaction of metals with acids as requiring a transfer of electrons
when a metal reacts it gives up its outer shell electrons
when a metal reacts with a dilute acid, electrons are transferred from the metal to the
acid
the reaction of a dilute acid with a metal is an electron transfer reaction
when a metal gives up electrons, it becomes an ion
when an acid gain an electron, its hydrogen ions become hydrogen atoms
Construct half-equations to represent the electron transfer reactions occurring when
metals react with dilute hydrochloric and dilute sulfuric acids.
Magnesium and hydrochloric acid: net ionic equation
Mg + 2H Mg2+ + H2
Magnesium: Mg Mg2+ + 2eHydrogen: 2H + 2e- H2

outline examples of a selection of metals for different purposes based on their

reactivity, with a particular emphasis on current developments in the use of metals
Metal
Use
Reason for choice
Silver
Silver salts used in
Unreactive, unstable,
photography
decompose in light release

Lead
Magnesium

Used in batteries and solder

silver, darkens film

Relatively unreaction, low
corrosion rate
An active metal, used in boat
building

Sacrificial anodes to slow the

rate of corrosion of metal in
boats
silver and gold, good conductors of electivity, used in electronic application e.g.
microchips
titanium, strong, used for aeroplane party, metal alloy

Identify the importance of first ionisation energy in determining the relative reactivity of
metals.
Ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to remove an electron from an
atom
Group 1 lower ionisation energy
1st ionisation energy is very high
In order for a metal to being reacting with an acid, it must lose and electron. Will
require the input of its first ionisation energy
If its value for 1st ionisation energy is higher, the atom cannot react so readily or
vigorously, its activity is lower
More reactive metal, less energy

3. As metals and other elements were discovered, scientists recognised that patterns in
their physical and chemical properties could be used to organise the elements into a
Periodic Table
identify an appropriate model that has been developed to describe atomic structure
Neils Bohr: solar system model, shows electrons exist which orbit in shells

outline the history of the development of the periodic table including its origins, the
original data used to construct it and the predictions made after its construction
19th century more elements became available because of electricity
Sae how elements reacted, tried to figure out pattern/puzzle
Mendeleev was determined to figure out relationship between elements
He had a dream and was able to come up with a table of the 63 known elements
Placed in order of atomic mass
Several gaps, there were more to discover
Now days sorted by atomic number, protons and neutrons
explain the relationship between the position of elements in the periodic table, and:
electrical conductivity:
Across a period: decrease, elements less metallic
Down a group: increase, more metallic
ionisation energy:
Across a period: increase, less reactive, harder to remove electron
Down a group: decrease, more reactive metals further down
atomic radius
Across a period: decrease, more electrons in outer shell, same number of shells
Down a group: increase, more electron shells
melting point and boiling point:
Across a period: decrease, elements less metallic
Down a group: increase, more metallic metals
combining power (valency)
Across a period: increase
Down a group: doesnt change
Electronegativity
Across a period: increases
Down a group: decreases
Reactivity

Across a period: decreases then increases

Down a group: increases left hand side

Use computer-based technologies to produce a table and a graph of changes in one

physical property across a period and down a group.
An excel spreadsheet can produce a table or graph of changes in physical properties
such as combining power.
process information from secondary sources to develop a periodic table by recognising
patterns and trends in the properties of elements, and use available evidence to predict
the characteristics of unknown elements both in groups and across periods
trends across and down a group can be used to predict the properties of elements

4. For efficient resource use, industrial chemical reactions must use measured amounts of
each reactant
define the mole as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12 (Avogadro's
number)
A mole of atoms= 6.022 X 1023
The number NA= 6.022 X 1023 is Avogadros constant and represents the number of
atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12 isotopes. For any elements the atomic weight
in grams contains 1 mole of atoms

solve problems and analyse information from secondary sources to perform calculations
involving Avogadro's number and the equation for calculating the number of moles of a
substance: n=m/M
Particle: n=N/NA = number of moles=number of particles/particles in 1 mole
E.g. how many atoms of sulphur are there in 0.250 moles of sulfur atoms?
0.250=N/6.022 X 1023 = 1.505 X1023
Mass: n=m/M=
number of moles= mass of substance/mass of 1 mole of
substance
E.g. how many moles in 15g of grams of sulphur
n=15/32.07= 0.47 moles

describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of gaseous reactions and

apply this to an understanding of the mole concept
Volumes of gases taking part in a chemical reaction show simple whole number ratios
to one another, when measured at same temperature and pressure

Recount Avogadro's law and describe its importance in developing the mole concept
Hydrogen gas + bromide gas hydrogen bromide gas
1 volume
+ 1 volume 2 volumes
From Avogadros law, equal volumes contain equal numbers of particles

process information from secondary sources to interpret balanced chemical equations

in terms of mole ratios
2 moles of hydrogen and 1 mole of oxygen combine to produce 2 moles of water
molecules
2H2 + O2 2H2O
moles are useful for calculating exact quantities of different chemicals needed for
reactions

Process information from secondary sources to investigate the relationship between the
volumes of gases involved in reactions involving a metal and relate this to an
understanding of the mole.
Reaction between magnesium and oxygen 2Mg + O2 2MgO. For every 2 moles of Mg
that reacts 1 mole of oxygen gas is consumed. Ratio is 2:1

compare mass changes in samples of metals when they combine with oxygen
the product will have the mass of the oxygen + the metal

Distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular formulae

Empirical formulae: formula of a compound which tells us the ratio in which the atoms
or ions are present, all ionic formulas are empirical formulas
Molecular formulae: formula which tells us how many of each type of atom are present
in a molecule

perform a first-hand investigation to measure and identify the mass ratios of metal to
non-metal(s) in a common compound and calculate its empirical formula
Aim: determine empirical formula for magnesium oxide
Equipment: magnesium ribbon, crucible and lid, gauze mate, tripod, matches, abrasive
paper, Bunsen burner
Method:
1. heat crucible strongly for 5 minutes, allow to cool (removes impurities)
2. weight crucible and lid
3. clean surface of magnesium ribbon with sand paper
4. fit the ribbon in the crucible, weight crucible, lid and magnesium ribbon
5. Place mat over the flame on the stand. Carefully heat without lid till magnesium
begins to glow, then place lid on
6. heat strongly for 10 minutes and lift lid occasionally to allow oxygen
7. remove the lid and heat for further 5 minutes to ensure completion
8. replace lid and allow to cool, re-weight crucible, lid and magnesium oxide
Results: ration of magnesium to oxygen was 1:1 therefore empirical formula MgO

5. The relative abundance and ease of extraction of metals influences their value and
breadth of use in the community.
define the terms mineral and ore with reference to economical and non-economical
deposits of natural resources
Mineral: naturally occurring chemical element or compound in the earths crust
Ore: aggregate of minerals from which one or more materials can be extracted
profitably

describe the relationship between the commercial prices of common metals, their
actual abundances and relative costs of production

explain why ores are non-renewable resources

They are naturally occurring elements
form over millions of years

describe the separation processes, chemical reactions and energy considerations

involved in the extraction of copper from one of its ores
1. copper bearing ores are extracted transported to primary crushers
2. they are crushed and screened with fine sulfied ore, then froth flotation cells, copper
is recovered from the sulfied res by chemically attaching itself to a chemical bubble
3. then processed into powder form
4. copper concentrate is smelted
5. placed in furnace traces of oxygen are removed
6. copper anodes are placed in electrolysis cells with acidic copper sulfate collation,
anode dissolves and very pure copper is deposited

Recount the steps taken to recycle aluminium

The aluminium is collected and taken to a treatment factory. Here the aluminium is

cleaned and sorted. It is then melted, this rids the metal of any colourings, coatings or
inks which may be on the aluminium. It is then made into large blocks called ingots.
These blocks are sent to mills where they are rolled out. Rolling the aluminium out
enables it to become flexible. The rolled out aluminium is then manufactured into
products such as drink cans and foil

discuss the importance of predicting yield in the identification, mining and extraction of
commercial ore deposits
Mining is an expensive business. Predicting the yield of the deposit determines whether
the extraction of the metal from the ore will profitable or not. It is determining the
amount of metal per ton of ore. It will provide an idea of quantity of metal that will be
produced, an estimate will be obtained as to how much the processing cost will be and
how much metal can be extracted before the deposit runs out. Identifying the mineral
can make it easy to calculate the costs of the metal per unit of ore. Will also allow it to
be understood which metal is being extracted and working out if it will be profitable.
Understanding which method of mining to use is important, as it can answer important
business questions such as: will it create more product for a cheaper price?
Determining the location of the ore deposit and comparing a high yield deposit with a
low yield deposit all relate to the profit the deposit will bring. It is highly important to
predict yield as accurately as possible what the profit of the ore deposit will be. It will
determine the value and expense of the deposit.

justify the increased recycling of metals in our society and across the world
There is not an endless supply of metals in the world. As society continues to grow and
develop the demand for more metals is increasing. The search for new ore deposits
continues. Recycling and reusing these metals in our society is required to sustain what
we have left. Recycling these metals is a way restore these metals so they can continue
to be used. It is also much cheaper to recycle metals than to continually search for and
mine deposits. The recycling of metals produces less pollution and waste disposal. The
increase of recycled metals is solving the problem for their limited supply and it also
cuts back on pollution and costs that come with the continuous mining and extracting
of metals.

Analyse information to compare the cost and energy expenditure involved in the
extraction of aluminium from its ore and the recycling of aluminium.
The costs involved in the extraction process are for clearing the land, buying the land,
employing miners, using machinery, transporting the minerals to the refinery, obtaining
the chemicals to convert and extract the aluminium. To obtain pure aluminium is has to
be extracted from bauxite. The waste management are also costly. To dispose of waste,
it has to be transported to disposals ponds. The bauxite methods requires higher
energy as heat, steam, natural gas, coal and oil are the main fuel sources combusted.
2-3 tons of bauxite are needed to produce 1 ton of aluminium. Recycling aluminium
costs a lot less. It only requires minimal machinery, less transportation costs and no
cost involved with waste management as there is no waste. It only requires a few fuel
sources for melting the aluminium and no chemicals are required to be bought. The
only energy required is heat for melting the metal, pollution is decreased as few excess
pollutants are released, reduces land fill sites. When aluminium is recycled less
electricity is needed, not as much bauxite has to be mined and fewer greenhouse gases
are emitted into the atmosphere. Twenty aluminium cans can made and the equivalent
energy expenditure results in one can from raw materials.