List of mathematical jargon

The language of mathematics has a vast vocabulary of

specialist and technical terms. It also has a certain amount
of jargon: commonly used phrases which are part of the
culture of mathematics, rather than of the subject. Jargon
often appears in lectures, and sometimes in print, as informal shorthand for rigorous arguments or precise ideas.
Much of this is common English, but with a specic nonobvious meaning when used in a mathematical sense.

a mathematical proof is like:

The proof that there are innitely
many prime numbers.
The proof of the irrationality of the
square root of two.
Freek Wiedijk (2006, p.2)

Some phrases, like in general, appear below in more

than one section.

deep A result is called deep if its proof requires

concepts and methods that are advanced beyond
the concepts needed to formulate the result. The
prime number theorem, proved with techniques
from complex analysis, was thought to be a deep result until elementary proofs were found. The fact
that is irrational is a deep result because it requires
considerable development of real analysis to prove,
even though it can be stated in terms of simple number theory and geometry.

Philosophy of mathematics

abstract nonsense Also general abstract nonsense or

generalized abstract nonsense, a tongue-in-cheek
reference to category theory, using which one can
employ arguments that establish a (possibly concrete) result without reference to any specics of the
present problem.

elegant Also beautiful; an aesthetic term referring to the

ability of an idea to provide insight into mathematics, whether by unifying disparate elds, introducing a new perspective on a single eld, or providing a technique of proof which is either particularly
simple, or captures the intuition or imagination as
to why the result it proves is true. Gian-Carlo Rota
distinguished between elegance of presentation and
beauty of concept, saying that for example, some
topics could be written about elegantly although the
mathematical content is not beautiful, and some theorems or proofs are beautiful but may be written
about inelegantly.

[The paper of Eilenberg and Mac Lane

(1942)] introduced the very abstract idea of
a 'category' a subject then called 'general
abstract nonsense'!
Saunders Mac Lane (1997)

[Grothendieck] raised algebraic geometry

to a new level of abstraction...if certain
mathematicians could console themselves for
a time with the hope that all these complicated
structures were 'abstract nonsense'...the later
papers of Grothendieck and others showed
that classical problems...which had resisted
eorts of several generations of talented
mathematicians, could be solved in terms
of...complicated concepts.
Michael Monastyrsky (2001)

The beauty of a mathematical theory is

independent of the aesthetic qualities...of the
theorys rigorous expositions. Some beautiful
theories may never be given a presentation
which matches their beauty....Instances can
also be found of mediocre theories of questionable beauty which are given brilliant,
exciting expositions....[Category theory] is
rich in beautiful and insightful denitions
and poor in elegant proofs....[The theorems]
remain clumsy and dull....[Expositions of
projective geometry] vied for one another in
elegance of presentation and in cleverness of
proof....In retrospect, one wonders what all the
fuss was about.

canonical A reference to a standard or choice-free presentation of some mathematical object. The term
canonical is also used more informally, meaning
roughly standard or classic. For example, one
might say that Euclids proof's is the canonical
proof of the innitude of primes.
There are two canonical proofs that are
always used to show non-mathematicians what
1

2
Mathematicians may say that a theorem is
beautiful when they really mean to say that it
is enlightening. We acknowledge a theorems
beauty when we see how the theorem 'ts
in its place....We say that a proof is beautiful
when such a proof nally gives away the secret
of the theorem....
Gian-Carlo Rota (1977, pp.173174,
pp.181182)

elementary A proof or result is called elementary if

it requires only basic concepts and methods, in contrast to so-called deep results. The concept of elementary proof is used specically in number theory, where it usually refers to a proof that does not
use methods from complex analysis.
folklore A result is called folklore if it is non-obvious,
has not been published, and yet is generally known
among the specialists in a eld. Usually, it is unknown who rst obtained the result. If the result
is important, it may eventually nd its way into the
textbooks, whereupon it ceases to be folklore.
Many of the results mentioned in this
paper should be considered folklore in
that they merely formally state ideas that are
well-known to researchers in the area, but may
not be obvious to beginners and to the best
of my knowledge do not appear elsewhere in
print.
Russell Impagliazzo (1995)

DESCRIPTIVE INFORMALITIES

these strange functions which are the most

general....to-day they are invented expressly to
put at fault the reasonings of our fathers....
Henri Poincar (1913)

[The Dirichlet function] took on an enormous importance...as giving an incentive for

the creation of new types of function whose
properties departed completely from what
intuitively seemed admissible. A celebrated
example of such a so-called 'pathological'
function...is the one provided by Weierstrass....This function is continuous but not
dierentiable.
J. Sousa Pinto (2004)

Note for that latter quote that as the dierentiable functions are meagre in the space of continuous functions, as Banach found out in 1931, dierentiable
functions are colloquially speaking a rare exception
among the continuous ones. Thus it can hardly be
defended any-more to call non-dierentiable continuous functions pathological.
rigor (rigour) Mathematics strives to establish its results using indisputable logic rather than informal
descriptive argument. Rigor is the use of such logic
in a proof.
well-behaved An object is well-behaved (in contrast
with being pathological) if it does satisfy the prevailing regularity properties, or sometimes if it conforms to intuition (but intuition often suggests the
opposite behavior as well).

natural Similar to canonical but more specic, this

term makes reference to a description (almost exclusively in the context of transformations) which holds
2 Descriptive informalities
independently of any choices. Though long used informally, this term has found a formal denition in
Although ultimately every mathematical argument must
category theory.
meet a high standard of precision, mathematicians use
pathological An object behaves pathologically (or, descriptive but informal statements to discuss recurring
somewhat more broadly used, in a degenerated way) themes or concepts with unwieldy formal statements.
if it fails to conform to the generic behavior of Note that many of the terms are completely rigorous in
such objects, fails to satisfy certain regularity prop- context.
erties (depending on context), or simply disobeys
mathematical intuition. These can be and often are almost all A shorthand term for all except for a set of
contradictory requirements. Sometimes the term is
measure zero", when there is a measure to speak
more pointed, referring to an object which is specifof. For example, almost all real numbers are
ically and articially exhibited as a counterexample
transcendental" because the algebraic real numbers
to these properties.
form a countable subset of the real numbers with
Since half a century we have seen arise
a crowd of bizarre functions which seem to
try to resemble as little as possible the honest
functions which serve some purpose....Nay
more, from the logical point of view, it is

measure zero. One can also speak of almost all

integers having a property to mean all but nitely
many, despite the integers not admitting a measure for which this agrees with the previous usage.
For example, almost all prime numbers are odd.
There is a more complicated meaning for integers

3
as well, discussed in the main article. Finally, this
term is sometimes used synonymously with generic,
below.

algebraic variety that holds on a dense Zariski open

set is true generically; however, it is usually not said
that a property which holds merely on a dense set
(which is not Zariski open) is generic in this situation.

arbitrarily large Notions which arise mostly in the context of limits, referring to the recurrence of a phenomenon as the limit is approached. A statement in general In a descriptive context, this phrase introduces a simple characterization of a broad class of
such as that predicate P is satised by arbitrarily
objects, with an eye towards identifying a unifying
large values, can be expressed in more formal notaprinciple. This term introduces an elegant detion by x : y x : P(y). See also frequently. The
scription which holds for "arbitrary" objects. Exstatement that quantity f(x) depending on x can be
ceptions to this description may be mentioned exmade arbitrarily large, corresponds to y : x : f(x)
plicitly, as "pathological" cases.
y.
arbitrary A shorthand for the universal quantier. An
arbitrary choice is one which is made unrestrictedly,
or alternatively, a statement holds of an arbitrary element of a set if it holds of any element of that set.
Also much in general-language use among mathematicians: Of course, this problem can be arbitrarily complicated.

Norbert ACampo of the University

of Basel once asked Grothendieck about
something related to the Platonic solids.
Grothendieck advised caution. The Platonic
solids are so beautiful and so exceptional, he
said, that one cannot assume such exceptional
beauty will hold in more general situations.
Allyn Jackson (2004, p.1197)

eventually, denitely In the context of limits, this is

shorthand for suciently large arguments; the relevant argument(s) are implicit in the context. As
an example, one could say that The function left-hand side, right-hand side (LHS, RHS) Most oflog(log(x)) eventually becomes larger than 100"; in
ten, these refer simply to the left-hand or the rightthis context, eventually means for suciently
hand side of an equation; for example, x = y + 1
large x".
has x on the LHS and y + 1 on the RHS. Occasionally, these are used in the sense of lvalue and rvalue:
factor through A term in category theory referring to
an RHS is primitive, and an LHS is derivative.
composition of morphisms. If we have three objects
A, B, and C and a map f : A C which is written nice A mathematical object is colloquially called nice or
as a composition f = h g with g : A B and
suciently nice if it satises hypotheses or properh : B C , then f is said to factor through any
ties, sometimes unspecied or even unknown, that
(and all) of B , g , and h .
are especially desirable in a given context. It is an informal antonym for pathological. For example, one
nite Next to the usual meaning of not innite, in anmight conjecture that a dierential operator ought
other more restrictive meaning that one may ento satisfy a certain boundedness condition for nice
counter, a value being said to be nite also extest functions, or one might state that some interestcludes innitesimal values and the value 0. For exing topological invariant should be computable for
ample, if the variance of a random variable is said
nice spaces X.
to be nite, this implies it is a positive real number.
onto A function (which in mathematics is generally defrequently In the context of limits, this is shorthand for
ned as mapping the elements of one set A to elefor arbitrarily large arguments and its relatives; as
ments of another B) is called A onto B (instead
with eventually, the intended variant is implicit. As
of A to B) only if it is surjective; it may even be
an example, one could say that The function sin(x)
said that f is onto (i. e. surjective). Not transis frequently zero, where frequently means for
latable (without circumlocutions) to languages other
arbitrarily large x".
than English.
generic This term has similar connotations as almost owl An informal name for the origin, or zero-element,
all but is used particularly for concepts outside
particularly in the case of the 2-dimensional plane,
the purview of measure theory. A property holds
where the origin is written (0,0), which closely regenerically on a set if the set satises some
sembles the face of an owl.
(context-dependent) notion of density, or perhaps if
its complement satises some (context-dependent) proper If, for some notion of substructure, objects are
substructures of themselves (that is, the relationship
notion of smallness. For example, a property which
is reexive), then the qualication proper requires
holds on a dense G (intersection of countably many
open sets) is said to hold generically. In algebraic
the objects to be dierent. For example, a proper
geometry, one says that a property of points on an
subset of a set S is a subset of S that is dierent from

2
S, and a proper divisor of a number n is a divisor of
n that is dierent from n. This overloaded word is
also non-jargon for a proper morphism.

regular A function is called regular if it satises satisfactory continuity and dierentiability properties,
which are often context-dependent. These properties might include possessing a specied number of
derivatives, with the function and its derivatives exhibiting some nice property, such as Hlder continuity. Informally, this term is sometimes used synonymously with smooth, below. These imprecise uses
of the word regular are not to be confused with the
notion of a regular topological space, which is rigorously dened.

DESCRIPTIVE INFORMALITIES

from the rst but not conversely. An example is

the sequence of theorems: Fermats little theorem,
Eulers theorem, Lagranges theorem, each of which
is stronger than the last; another is that a sharp upper
bound (see above) is a stronger result than a nonsharp one. Finally, the adjective strong or the adverb strongly may be added to a mathematical notion
to indicate a related stronger notion; for example,
a strong antichain is an antichain satisfying certain
additional conditions, and likewise a strongly regular graph is a regular graph meeting stronger conditions. When used in this way, the stronger notion
(such as strong antichain) is a technical term with
a precisely dened meaning; the nature of the extra
conditions cannot be derived from the denition of
the weaker notion (such as antichain).

resp. (Respectively) A convention to shorten parallel expositions. A (resp. B) [has some relationship to] X suciently large, suitably small, suciently close
(resp. Y)" means that A [has some relationship to]
In the context of limits, these terms refer to some
X and also that B [has (the same) relationship to] Y.
(unspecied, even unknown) point at which a
For example, squares (resp. triangles) have 4 sides
phenomenon prevails as the limit is approached.
(resp. 3 sides); or compact (resp. Lindelf) spaces
A statement such as that predicate P holds for
are ones where every open cover has a nite (resp.
suciently large values, can be expressed in more
countable) open subcover.
formal notation by x : y x : P(y). See also
eventually.
sharp Often, a mathematical theorem will establish con-

straints on the behavior of some object; for example,

upstairs, downstairs A descriptive term referring to
a function will be shown to have an upper or lower
notation in which two objects are written one above
bound. The constraint is sharp (sometimes optimal)
the other; the upper one is upstairs and the lower,
if it cannot be made more restrictive without failing
downstairs. For example, in a ber bundle, the total
in some cases. For example, for arbitrary nonnegspace is often said to be upstairs, with the base space
x
ative real numbers x, the exponential function e ,
downstairs. In a fraction, the numerator is occawhere e = 2.7182818..., gives an upper bound on
sionally referred to as upstairs and the denominator
2
the values of the quadratic function x . This is not
downstairs, as in bringing a term upstairs.
sharp; the gap between the functions is everywhere
at least 1. Among the exponential functions of the up to, modulo, mod out by An extension to mathematform x , setting = e2/e = 2.0870652... results in a
ical discourse of the notions of modular arithmetic.
sharp upper bound; the slightly smaller choice = 2
A statement is true up to a condition if the establishfails to produce an upper bound, since then 3 = 8
ment of that condition is the only impediment to the
< 32 . In applied elds the word tight is often used
truth of the statement. Also used when working with
with the same meaning.[1]
members of equivalence classes, esp. in category
theory, where the equivalence relation is (categorismooth Smoothness is a concept which mathematics has
cal)
isomorphism; for example, The tensor product
endowed with many meanings, from simple dierin
a
weak
monoidal category is associative and unital
entiability to innite dierentiability to analyticity,
up
to
a
natural
isomorphism.
and still others which are more complicated. Each
such usage attempts to invoke the physically intuvanish To assume the value 0. For example, The funcitive notion of smoothness.
tion sin(x) vanishes for those values of x that are integer multiples of . This can also apply to limits:
strong, stronger A theorem is said to be strong if it
see Vanish at innity.
deduces restrictive results from general hypotheses.
One celebrated example is Donaldsons theorem,
washing machine Informally, a matrix with a single
which puts tight restraints on what would otherwise
non-zero entry on the top left corner. The name
appear to be a large class of manifolds. This (inarises from the
convention of writing
a matrix of
formal) usage reects the opinion of the mathematx 0 0
ical community: not only should such a theorem be
0 0 0

strong in the descriptive sense (below) but it should

the form M = . . .
.. by noting only
.
.
.
. .
. .
also be denitive in its area. A theorem, result,
or condition is further called stronger than another
0 0 0
the non-zero entry and drawing a big zero inside the
one if a proof of the second can be easily obtained

matrix, M =

, which resembles the

eponymous appliance.
weak, weaker The converse of strong.

Q.E.D. (Quod erat demonstrandum): A Latin abbreviation, meaning which was to be demonstrated,
historically placed at the end of proofs, but less
common currently, having been supplanted by the
Halmos end-of-proof mark.

well-dened Accurately and precisely described or suciently nice A condition on objects in the scope of
the discussion, to be specied later, that will guaranspecied.
tee that some stated property holds for them. When
working out a theorem, the use of this expression
in the statement of the theorem indicates that the
3 Proof terminology
conditions involved may be not yet known to the
speaker, and that the intent is to collect the condiThe formal language of proof draws repeatedly from a
tions that will be found to be needed in order for the
small pool of ideas, many of which are invoked through
proof of the theorem to go through.
various lexical shorthands in practice.
the following are equivalent (TFAE) Often
several
equivalent
conditions
(especially
for
a
denition,
aliter An obsolescent term which is used to announce to
such as normal subgroup) are equally useful in
the reader an alternative method, or proof of a result.
practice; one introduces a theorem stating an
In a proof, it therefore ags a piece of reasoning that
equivalence of more than two statements with
is superuous from a logical point of view, but has
TFAE.
some other interest.
by way of contradiction (BWOC), or for, if not, ... transport of structure It is often the case that two objects are shown to be equivalent in some way, and
The rhetorical prelude to a proof by contradiction,
that one of them is endowed with additional strucpreceding the negation of the statement to be
ture. Using the equivalence, we may dene such a
proved. Also, starting a proof or a sub-proof with
structure on the second object as well, via transport
Assume... indicates that a proof by contradiction
of structure. For example, any two vector spaces of
will be employed.
the same dimension are isomorphic; if one of them
if and only if (i) An abbreviation for logical equivais given an inner product and if we x a particular
lence of statements.
isomorphism, then we may dene an inner product
on the other space by factoring through the isomorin general In the context of proofs, this phrase is often
phism.
seen in induction arguments when passing from the
base case to the induction step, and similarly, in
Let V be a nite-dimensional vector
the denition of sequences whose rst few terms are
space over k....Let (ei) i n be a basis for
exhibited as examples of the formula giving every
V....There is an isomorphism of the polynoterm of the sequence.
mial algebra k[Tij] i,j n onto the algebra
necessary and sucient A minor variant on if and
Symk(V V * )....It extends to an isomorphism
only if"; A is necessary (sucient) for B means
of k[GLn] to the localized algebra Symk(V
A if (only if) B. For example, For a eld K to
V * )D, where D = det(ei ej * )....We write
be algebraically closed it is necessary and sucient
k[GL(V)] for this last algebra. By transport of
that it have no nite eld extensions" means "K is
structure, we obtain a linear algebraic group
algebraically closed if and only if it has no nite exGL(V) isomorphic to GLn.
tensions. Often used in lists, as in The following
Igor Shafarevich (1991, p.12)
conditions are necessary and sucient for a eld to
be algebraically closed....
need to show (NTS), required to prove (RTP), wish to without (any) loss of generality (WLOG, WOLOG,
WALOG), we may assume (WMA)
show, want to show (WTS)
Sometimes a proposition can be more easily proved
Proofs sometimes proceed by enumerating several
with additional assumptions on the objects it
conditions whose satisfaction will together imply
concerns. If the proposition as stated follows from
the desired theorem; thus, one needs to show just
this modied one with a simple and minimal explathese statements.
nation (for example, if the remaining special cases
one and only one A statement of the uniqueness of an
are identical but for notation), then the modied
object; the object exists, and furthermore, no other
assumptions are introduced with this phrase and the
such object exists.
altered proposition is proved.

REFERENCES

Proof techniques

handwaving A non-technique of proof mostly employed in lectures, where formal argument is not
strictly necessary. It proceeds by omission of deMathematicians have several phrases to describe proofs
tails or even signicant ingredients, and is merely a
or proof techniques. These are often used as hints for
plausibility argument.
lling in tedious details.
in general In a context not requiring rigor, this phrase
often appears as a labor-saving device when the
technical details of a complete argument would outweigh the conceptual benets. The author gives a
proof in a simple enough case that the computations
back-of-the-envelope calculation An informal compuare reasonable, and then indicates that in general
tation omitting much rigor without sacricing corthe proof is similar.
rectness. Often this computation is proof of concept and treats only an accessible special case.
index battle for proofs involving object with plurious
brute force Not seeking a short or clever method of
indices which can be solved by going to the bottom
proof, but instead plowing through as many lines of
(if anyone wishes to take up the eort). Similar to
computation as is necessary.
diagram chasing.
angle chasing Used to describe a geometrical proof that
involves nding relationships between the various
angles in a diagram.[2]

by example A proof by example is an argument whereby trivial Similar to clearly. A concept is trivial if it holds
a statement is not proved but instead illustrated by
by denition, is immediate corollary to a known
an example. Often, the statement is obscure and the
statement, or is a simple special case of a more genexample is trivial and unhelpful. Asking the reader
eral concept.
to accept a proof by example is equivalent to asking
to accept a statement without proof.
by inspection A rhetorical shortcut made by authors
who invite the reader to verify, at a glance, the correctness of a proposed expression or deduction. If
an expression can be evaluated by straightforward
application of simple techniques and without recourse to extended calculation or general theory,
then it can be evaluated by inspection. It is also applied to solving equations; for example to nd roots
of a quadratic equation by inspection is to 'notice'
them, or mentally check them. 'By inspection' can
play a kind of gestalt role: the answer or solution
simply clicks into place.
by intimidation Style of proof where claims believed by
the author to be easily veriable are labelled as 'obvious or 'trivial', which often results in the reader
being confused.
clearly, can be easily shown A term which shortcuts
around calculation the mathematician perceives to
be tedious or routine, accessible to any member
of the audience with the necessary expertise in the
eld; Laplace used obvious (French: vident).
complete intuition commonly reserved for jokes (puns
on complete induction).
[3]

diagram chasing
Given a commutative diagram of
objects and morphisms between them, if one wishes
to prove some property of the morphisms (such as
injectivity) which can be stated in terms of elements,
then the proof can proceed by tracing the path of
elements of various objects around the diagram as
successive morphisms are applied to it. That is, one
chases elements around the diagram, or does a diagram chase.

5 Notes
[1] Boyd, Stephen (2004). Convex Optimization. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0521833787.
[2] Roe, John (1993), Elementary Geometry, Oxford science
publications, p. 119, ISBN 0-19-853456-6
[3] Numerous examples can be found in (Mac Lane 1998),
for example on p. 100.

6 References
Eilenberg, Samuel; Mac Lane, Saunders (1942),
Natural Isomorphisms in Group Theory, Proc.
Natl.
Acad.
Sci.
USA, 28: 537543,
doi:10.1073/pnas.28.12.537.
Impagliazzo, Russell (1995), A personal
view of average-case complexity,
Proc.
Tenth Annual Structure in Complexity Theory Conference (SCT'95), pp.
134147,
doi:10.1109/SCT.1995.514853.
Jackson, Allyn (2004), Comme Appel du Nant
As If Summoned from the Void: The Life of
Alexandre Grothendieck, AMS Notices, 51 (9,10)
(Parts I and II).
Mac Lane, Saunders (1997), The PNAS way back
then (PDF), Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94 (12):
59835985, doi:10.1073/pnas.94.12.5983.
Mac Lane, Saunders (1998), Categories for the
Working Mathematician, Springer.

7
Monastyrsky, Michael (2001), Some Trends in
Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal (PDF),
Can. Math. Soc. Notes, 33 (2 and 3).
Pinto, J. Sousa (2004), Hoskins, R.F., ed.,
Innitesimal methods for mathematical analysis,
Horwood Publishing, p. 246, ISBN 978-1-89856399-0.
Poincare, Henri (1913), Halsted, Bruce, ed., The
Foundations of Science, The Science Press, p. 435.
Rota, Gian-Carlo (1977), The phenomenology of
mathematical beauty, Synthese, 111 (2): 171182,
doi:10.1023/A:1004930722234, ISSN 0039-7857.
Shafarevich, Igor (1991), Kandall, G.A., ed., Algebraic Geometry, IV, Springer.
Wiedijk, Freek, ed. (2006), The Seventeen Provers
of the World, Birkhuser, ISBN 3-540-30704-4.

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