1.

1 TYPES OF BITUMINOUS MIX

Bituminous mix design is a delicate balancing act among the proportions
of various aggregate sizes and bitumen content. There are various ways of
mixing asphalt and aggregate, thereby creating different kinds of
mixtures. Hot mix asphalt concrete, cut-back asphalt concrete, warm mix
asphalt concrete, mastic asphalt concrete or sheet asphalt concrete are
some of them. Different types of asphalt concrete have different
characteristics thereby responding to durability, tire wear, braking
efficiency and roadway noise and other factors in ways unique to each
mixture. The Hot Mix asphalt concrete is made by heating the asphalt
binder to decrease its viscosity. The Warm Mix asphalt concrete uses
waxes, emulations or even water to the asphalt binding which allows more
rapid availability of the surface for use and is often used for construction
sites with tight time schedules. The Cold Mix asphalt concrete is produced
by emulsifying the asphalt with water and soap, thus reducing the
viscosity of the mixture before adding it to the aggregate. This is
essentially used on less trafficked roads or as patching up material. The
Cut-back asphalt concrete is produced by dissolving the binder in
kerosene or another lighter fraction of petroleum while Sheet asphalt or
Mastic asphalt concrete is made by heating hard grade blown in a green
cooker till it becomes a liquid and then adding it to the aggregates.
Asphalt concrete is also known to be 100% recyclable and thereby, 100%
environmental friendly. For a given aggregate gradation, the optimum
bitumen content is estimated by satisfying a number of mix design
parameters. A good design of bituminous mix is expected to result in a mix which has

Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement,

Sufficient strength to resist shear deformation under traffic at higher

temperature,
Sufficient air voids in the compacted bitumen to allow for additional

compaction by traffic,
Sufficient workability to permit easy placement without segregation,
Sufficient flexibility to avoid premature cracking due to repeated
bending by traffic,
Page | 1

Sufficient flexibility at low temperature to prevent shrinkage cracks.

[1]

1.1.1

LABORATORY SIMULATION OF BITUMINOUS MIX

First, and foremost, mix design is a laboratory simulation. Mix design is

meant

to

simulate

actual

HMA

manufacturing,

construction

and

performance to the extent possible. Then, from this simulation we can

predict (with reasonable certainty) what type of mix design is best for the
particular application in question and how it will perform.

Fig. 1.1 Laboratory bituminous mix samples

Being a simulation, mix design has its limitations. Specifically, there are
substantial differences between laboratory and field conditions. Certainly,
a small laboratory setup consisting of several 100 150 mm (4 6 inch)
samples, a compaction machine and a couple of testing devices cannot
fully

recreate

actual

manufacturing,

construction

and

performance

conditions. For instance, mix design compaction should create the same
Page | 2

general density (void content) to which the traffic will finally compact a
mix in the field under service conditions. However, it is difficult to
calibrate a number of tamper blows (laboratory compaction) to a specific
construction

compaction

and

subsequent

traffic

loading

(field

compaction). Currently used correlations between these densities are

empirical in nature and extremely rough (e.g., high, medium and low
traffic categories).

However, despite limitations such as the preceding,

mix design procedures can provide a cost effective and reasonably

accurate simulation that is useful in making mix design decisions.

[2]

Table 1.1 Comparison of Laboratory vs Field Conditions of Bituminous mix

Laboratory Conditions

Field Conditions
ASPHALT BINDER

Aging is simulated using the TFO, RTFO or Aging is much more complex especially after
PAV. All of these methods are only rough construction when it is highly dependent upon
simulations of actual asphalt binder aging.

construction quality and the environment.

After mixing, the loose mix is generally aged After mixing the loose mix can be immediately
to allow for asphalt binder absorption and an transported to the construction site or can be
increase in viscosity.

placed in storage silos for up to a week.

AGGREGATE
During

Gradation

is

carefully

measured

controlled.

the manufacturing

process aggregate

and gradation will change slightly as it passes through

the cold feed bins, aggregate dryer and drum
mixer/pugmill.

Aggregate used is completely dry.

Even after drying, aggregates typically contains

Page | 3

between 0.1 0.5 percent by weight moisture.

Oven heating of the aggregate usually results In a drum plant there is often a distinct
in uniform heating of the coarse and fine temperature difference between the coarse and
aggregate.

fine aggregate.
Some fines are collected in the mix plant
baghouse. If all of these fines are not put back

Fines are retained during the mixing process. into the mix (practically, they cannot be because
baghouse efficiencies are less than 100%) the
aggregate gradation will change slightly.
If RAP is used, it is heated to the same If RAP is used its degree of heating may be
uniform temperature as the virgin aggregate.

different than the virgin aggregate.

MIXING PROCESS
The mixing process occurs on essentially
unaged asphalt binder for the Hveem and The mixing process can substantially age the
Marshall methods. The Superpave method

asphalt binder. A mixing time of 45 seconds can

roughly simulates short-term aging using the increase asphalt binder viscosity by up to 4 times.
RTFO.
COMPACTION
Compaction uses a laboratory device and a
small cylindrical sample of HMA.

This Particle orientation and compactive effort can

combination attempts to simulate the particle vary widely depending upon roller variables and
orientation achieved by field compaction with the environment (e.g., temperature, wind speed).
rollers.
Compaction is relatively quick (< 5 minutes) Compaction can take a significant amount of time
and thus occurs at an almost constant (30 minutes or more in some cases) and thus
temperature.

occurs over a wide range of mix temperatures.

Compaction occurs against a solid foundation. Foundation rigidity will affect compaction.
Compaction can occur against a range of
foundations: some can be quite stiff (like old
pavement) while some can be quite soft (like a
Page | 4

clay subgrade).

1.2 MIX CONSTITUENTS

Binder and Aggregates are the main constituents of bituminous mix along with the third
constituent Voids.
Bitumen holds the aggregates in position, and the load is taken by the aggregate mass through
the contact points. If all the voids are filled by bitumen, then the load is rather transmitted by
hydrostatic pressure through bitumen, and strength of the mix therefore reduces. That is why
stability of the mix starts reducing when bitumen content is increased further beyond certain
value.

Fig. 1.2 Phase diagram showing various constituents of bituminous mix

During summer season, bitumen melts and occupies the void space between the aggregates
and if void is unavailable, bleeding is caused. Thus, some amount of void is necessary to
provide by design in a bituminous mix, even after the final stage of compaction. However
excess void will make the mix weak from its elastic modulus and fatigue life considerations.
The chances of oxidative hardening of bitumen are more, where the mix has more voids.

Page | 5

Evaluation and selection of aggregate gradation to achieve minimum VMA is the most
difficult and time-consuming step in the mix design process. [3]
VMA specification has always been a big issue in mix design specifications. The
recommendation of minimum VMA is sometimes questioned by the researchers, and is said
not to be equitable across different gradations. It believed that the bitumen film thickness,
rather than the VMA, may be related to durability of the mix.
1.2.1 BINDER
Generally binders are selected based on some simple tests and other site-specific
requirements. These tests could be different depending on the type of binder viz. penetration
grade, cutback, emulsion, modified binder etc. For most of these tests, the test conditions are
pre-fixed in the specifications.
The proportion of binder in the asphalt mixture is critical and is required to
be accurately determined in the laboratory and then precisely controlled
at the plant. The binder content for a particular asphalt mixture is
established by the mix design. The optimum binder content of the asphalt
mixture is highly dependent on aggregate characteristics such as
gradation and absorptiveness. Aggregate gradation is directly related to
optimum binder content. The finer the asphalt mixture gradation, the
larger the total surface area of the aggregate, the greater the amount of
binder required to uniformly coat the particles. Conversely, because
coarser asphalt mixture has less total aggregate surface area, the
aggregates require less binder. This is why surface asphalt mixture
requires more binder than base asphalt mixture.

Fig.1.3 Bitumen used as binder in bituminous mix

The relationship between aggregate surface area and optimum binder
content is most pronounced where very fine aggregate fractions which
Page | 6

pass through the No. 200 sieve exist, such as baghouse fines. Baghouse
fines in asphalt mixture may act as a binder extender resulting in lower air
voids in the asphalt mixture and possible flushing. If the binder content is
reduced to stop the flushing, the asphalt mixture may become dry and
brittle. This is because the baghouse fines increase the viscosity of the
binder changing the rheological properties. Variations in the amount of
fines may cause changes in asphalt mixture properties creating a very
inconsistent asphalt mixture from the standpoint of appearance and
performance. When this occurs, proper sampling and testing is required to
be done to determine the cause of the variations and to establish a new
mix design, if necessary. The absorptiveness (ability to absorb binder) of
the aggregate used in the asphalt mixture is critical in determining
optimum binder content. Enough binder is required to be added to the
asphalt mixture to allow for absorption and also coat the particles with an
adequate film. Total binder content and effective binder content are the
terms normally used. [4]
1.2.2 AGGREGATE
Aggregate is a collective term for the mineral materials such as sand,
gravel and crushed stone that are used with a binding medium (such as
water, bitumen, portland cement, lime, etc.) to form Bituminous Mixes. By
volume, aggregate generally accounts for 75 to 85 percent of HMA.
Aggregate is also used for base and subbase courses for both flexible and
rigid pavements.

Page | 7

Fig. 1.4 Aggregate used as one of the constituents in bituminous mix

Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured. Natural aggregates are
generally extracted from larger rock formations through an open
excavation (quarry). Extracted rock is typically reduced to usable sizes by
mechanical crushing. Manufactured aggregate is often the by-product of
other manufacturing industries.
1.2.3 VOIDS
1.2.3.1 AIR VOIDS
Air voids are small air spaces or pockets of air that occur between the
coated aggregate particles in the final compacted asphalt mixture. A
certain percentage of air voids is necessary in all dense-graded mixes to
prevent the pavement from flushing, shoving and rutting. Air voids may
be increased or decreased by lowering or raising the binder content. They
may also be increased or decreased by controlling the amount of material
passing the No. 200 sieve in the asphalt mixture. The more fines added to
the asphalt mixture generally the lower the air voids. If a plant has a
baghouse dust collection system, the air voids may be controlled by the
amount of fines which are returned to the asphalt mixture. Finally, the air
voids may be changed by varying the aggregate gradation in the asphalt
mixture.
The durability of an asphalt pavement is a function of the air void content.
Too high an air void content provides passageways through the asphalt
Page | 8

mixture for the entrance of damaging air and water. Too low an air void
content, on the other hand, may lead to flushing, a condition where
excess binder squeezes out of the asphalt mixture to the surface. Density
and air void content are directly related. The higher the density, the lower
the percentage of air voids in the asphalt mixture. Specifications require
pavement densities that produce the proper amount of air voids in the
pavement.
The air void content of bituminous materials is an important control
parameter for the quality of bitumen being laid and compacted. If the air
void content is too high, it allows for intrusion of air and water. Moreover,
it also increases the rate of hardening of binders which produce premature
embrittlement of pavements. In addition, too high a void content will also
lead to differential compaction subject to traffic loads and result in
formation of ruts and grooves along the wheel track.
However, a minimum amount of air void should be maintained to avoid
instability during compaction process and to provide space for bitumen
flow in long-term consolidation under traffic loads. A sufficient amount of
air voids should be designed to make room for expansion of binder in
summer and compaction by road traffic as suggested by National
Association of Australian State Road Authorities (1968), otherwise
bleeding and loss of stability may occur and the pavement will deform
readily under severe loads.

[5]

1.2.3.2 VOIDS IN MINERAL AGGREGATE (VMA):

Voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) are the void spaces that exist between the aggregate
particles in the compacted paving asphalt mixture, including the space filled with the binder.
VMA represents the space that is available to accommodate the effective volume of binder
(i.e., all of the binder except the portion lost by absorption into the aggregate) and the volume
of air voids necessary in the asphalt mixture. The more VMA in the dry aggregate, the more
space is available for the binder. Since a thick binder film on the aggregate particles results
in a more durable asphalt mixture, specific minimum requirements for VMA are
recommended and specified as a function of the aggregate size
Page | 9

Minimum VMA values are required so that a durable binder film thickness may be achieved.
Increasing the density of the asphalt mixture by changing the gradation of the aggregate may
result in minimum VMA values with thin films of binder and a dry looking, low durability
asphalt mixture. Therefore, economizing in binder content by lowering VMA is actually
counter- productive and detrimental to pavement quality. Low VMA mixes are also very
sensitive to slight changes in binder. If binder content varies even slightly during production,
the air voids may fill with binder resulting in a pavement that flushes and ruts.
VMA is most affected by the fine aggregate fractions which pass the No. 200 sieve. The
reason for this is that these particles tend to be absorbed by the binder film. Because they
take up volume, there is a tendency to bulk (extend) the binder resulting in a lower VMA.
Other factors that affect VMA are compactive effort, gradation, particle shape and particle
texture. [4]

Figure1.5 Illustration of VMA in a compacted specimen (For

simplification, the volume of absorbed binder is not shown)
1.2.3.3 VOIDS FILLED WITH ASPHALT (VFA)
Voids filled with asphalt (VFA) are the void spaces that exist between the aggregate particles
in the compacted paving asphalt mixture that are filled with binder. VFA is expressed as a
percentage of the VMA that contains binder.
Including the VFA requirement in a mix design helps prevent the design of asphalt mixture
with marginally acceptable VMA. The main effect of the VFA is to limit maximum levels of
VMA and subsequently maximum levels of binder content.
VFA also restricts the allowable air void content for asphalt mixtures that are near the
minimum VMA criteria. Asphalt mixtures designed for lower traffic volumes may not pass
the VFA requirement with a relatively high percent air voids in the field even though the air
void requirement range is met.

The purpose for the VFA is to avoid less durable asphalt

Page | 10

mixtures resulting from thin films of binder on the aggregate particles in light traffic
situations.
Asphalt mixtures designed for heavy traffic may not pass the VFA requirement with a
relatively low percent of air voids in the field even though the amount of air voids is within
the acceptable range.

Because low air void contents may be very critical in terms of

permanent deformation, the VFA requirement helps to avoid those mixes that are susceptible
to rutting in heavy traffic situations. [4]

1.3 PROPERTIES CONSIDERED IN MIX DESIGN

Good asphalt mixture pavements function well because they are
designed, produced and placed in such a way as to give them certain
desirable properties. There are several properties that contribute to the
quality of asphalt mixture pavements. They include stability, durability,
impermeability, workability, flexibility and fatigue resistance.
Ensuring that asphalt mixture has each of these properties is a major goal
of the mix design procedure. Therefore, one should be required to be
aware what each of the properties measures, how the property is
evaluated, and what the property means in terms of pavement
performance.
1.3.1 STABILITY
Stability of an asphalt mixture pavement is the ability of the mixture to
resist shoving and rutting under loads (traffic).

A stable pavement

maintains the shape and smoothness required under repeated loading; an

unstable pavement develops ruts (channels), ripples (washboarding or
corrugation), raveling and other signs of shifting of the asphalt mixture.
Because stability for a pavement depends on the traffic expected to use
the pavement, stability may be established only after a thorough traffic
analysis. Stability is required to be high enough to handle traffic
adequately, but not higher than traffic conditions required.
The stability of a mix depends on internal friction and cohesion. Internal
friction among the aggregate particles (inter-particle friction) is related to
aggregate characteristics such as shape and surface texture. Cohesion
Page | 11

results from the bonding ability of the binder.

A proper degree of both

internal friction and cohesion in asphalt mixture prevents the aggregate

particles from being moved past each other by the forces exerted by
traffic.
In general, the more angular the shape of the aggregate particles and the
more rough their surface texture, the higher the stability of the asphalt
mixture. The binding force of an asphalt mixture is called cohesion.
Cohesion increases with increasing loading (traffic) rate.

Cohesion also

increases as the viscosity of the binder increases, or as the pavement

temperature decreases. Additionally, cohesion increases with increasing
binder content, up to a certain point.

Past that point, increasing the

binder content creates too thick a film on the aggregate particles,

resulting in loss of inter-particle friction. Insufficient stability in a
pavement has many causes and effects. Table 1.1 lists some of them. [4]
Table 1.1 Causes and Effects of Pavement Instability
LOW STABILITY
Causes

Effects
Rutting and flushing or

Excess binder in asphalt mixture

bleeding
Tenderness during rolling

Excess medium size sand in asphalt

mixture

and for a period after

construction, and difficulty in

Rounded aggregate, little or no

crushed surfaces

compacting
Rutting
and channeling

1.3.2 DURABILITY
The durability of an asphalt mixture pavement is the ability of the asphalt
mixture pavement to resist changes in the binder oxidation and
disintegration of the aggregate. These factors may be the result of
weather, traffic, or a combination of the two.
Generally, durability of an asphalt mixture may be enhanced by three
methods. They are:

using maximum binder content, using a sound

Page | 12

aggregate and designing and compacting the asphalt mixture for

maximum impermeability.
Maximum binder content increases durability because thick binder films
do not age and harden as rapidly as thin films. Consequently, the binder
retains the original characteristics longer. Also, maximum binder content
effectively seals off a greater percentage of interconnected air voids in the
pavement, making the penetration of water and air difficult.

A certain

percentage of air voids is required to be left in the pavement to allow for

expansion of the binder in hot weather.
A dense gradation of sound, tough aggregate contributes to pavement
durability by providing closer contact between aggregate particles that
enhances

the

impermeability of the asphalt mixture, and resists

disintegration under traffic.

A lack of sufficient durability in a pavement may have several causes and
effects. Table 1.2 presents a list of some of them.

[4]

Table 1.2 Causes and Effects of Poor Pavement Durability

POOR DURABILITY
Causes

Effects

Low binder content

Dryness or ravelling
High void content through design or Early hardening of binder followed
Lack of compaction
Water susceptible (hydrophilic)
aggregate in asphalt mixtures

by cracking or disintegration
Films of binder strip from aggregate
leaving an abraded, ravelled or
mushy pavement

1.3.3 IMPERMEABILITY
Impermeability is the resistance of an asphalt mixture pavement to the
passage of air and water into or through the mixture. This characteristic
is related to the void content of the compacted asphalt mixture and much
of the discussion on voids in the mix design relates to the impermeability.
Even though void content is an indication of the potential for passage of
air and water through a pavement, the character of these voids is more
important than the number of voids. The size of the voids, whether or not

Page | 13

the voids are interconnected, and the access of the voids to the surface of
the pavement all determine the degree of impermeability.
Although impermeability is important for the durability of a compacted
paving asphalt mixture, virtually all asphalt mixture used in highway
construction is permeable to some degree. This is acceptable as long as
the permeability is within specified limits.

Causes and effects of poor

impermeability values in normal dense-graded asphalt mixture pavements

are shown in Table 1.3.

[4]

Table 1.3 Causes and Effects of Permeable Pavement

MIX TOO PERMEABLE
Causes
Low binder content
High void content in design
asphalt mixture
Inadequate compaction

Effects
Thin binder films that causes early
aging and ravelling
Water and air may easily enter
pavement causing oxidation and
disintegration
Results in high voids in pavement
leading to water infiltration and
low strength

1.3.4 WORKABILITY
Workability describes the ease with which a paving asphalt mixture may
be placed and compacted. Workability may be improved by changing mix
design parameters, aggregate sources and/or gradation.
Harsh asphalt mixture (asphalt mixture containing a high percentage of
coarse aggregate) has a tendency to segregate during handling and also
may be difficult to compact.

Through the use of trial mixes in the

laboratory, additional fine aggregate and perhaps binder may be added to

a harsh asphalt mixture to make the mixture more workable. Care is
required to be taken to ensure that the altered asphalt mixture meets all
the other design criteria.
Excess fines may also affect workability. Depending on the characteristics
of the fines, the fines may cause the asphalt mixture to become tough or
gummy, making the mixture difficult to compact. Workability is especially
important where excessive hand placement and raking around manhole
Page | 14

covers, sharp curves and other obstacles is required.

Asphalt mixture

used in such areas is required to be highly workable.

Asphalt mixture that may be too easily worked or shoved is referred to as
tender asphalt mixture. Tender asphalt mixture is too unstable to place
and compact properly. This problem often is caused by a shortage of
mineral filler, too much medium sized sand, smooth rounded aggregate
particles or excess moisture in the asphalt mixture.
Although not normally a major contributor to workability problems, the
binder does have some effect on workability. Because the temperature of
the asphalt mixture affects the viscosity of the binder, too low a
temperature makes asphalt mixtures unworkable.

Too high a mixture

temperature may make the mixture tender. Binder grade may also affect
workability, as may the percentage of binder in the asphalt mixture.

[4]

Table 1.4 Causes and Effects of Workability Problems

POOR WORKABILITY
Causes

Effects

Large maximum size particle

Rough surface, difficult to place

Excessive coarse aggregate

Too low an asphalt mixture
temperature

May be hard to compact

Uncoated aggregate, not durable,
rough surface, hard to compact
Asphalt mixture shoves under
roller,
remainsmixture,
tender highly
Tender asphalt
permeable
Asphalt mixture may be dry or
gummy, hard to handle, not durable

Too much medium sized sand

Low fines content
High fines content
1.3.5 FLEXIBILITY

Flexibility is the ability of an asphalt mixture pavement to adjust to

gradual settlements and movements in the subgrade without cracking.
Since virtually all subgrades either settle (under loading) or rise (from soil
expansion), flexibility is a desirable characteristic for all asphalt mixture
pavements.
An open graded asphalt mixture with high binder content is generally
more flexible than a dense graded, low binder content asphalt mixtures.
Sometimes the need for flexibility conflicts with stability requirements, so
that tradeoffs are required to be made.

[4]

Page | 15

1.3.6 FATIGUE RESISTANCE

Fatigue resistance is the pavement's resistance to repeated bending under
wheel loads (traffic). Air voids (related to binder content) and binder
viscosities have a significant effect on fatigue resistance. As the
percentage of air voids in the pavement increases, either by design or
lack of compaction, pavement fatigue life (the length of time during which
an in-service pavement is adequately fatigue-resistant) is drastically
shortened. Likewise, a pavement containing binder that has aged and
hardened significantly has reduced resistance to fatigue.
The thickness and strength characteristics of the pavement and the
supporting strength of the subgrade also have an effect on the pavement
life and prevention of load associated cracking. Thick, well supported
pavements do not bend as much under loading as thin or poorly
supported pavements. Therefore, thick well supported pavements have
longer fatigue lives.

[4]

Table 1.5 List of causes and effects of poor fatigue resistance

POOR FATIGUE RESISTANCE
Causes

Effects

Low asphalt binder content

Fatigue cracking
Early aging of binder followed by
fatigue cracking
Early aging of binder followed by
fatigue cracking
Excessive bending followed by
fatigue cracking

High design voids

Lack of compaction
Inadequate pavement thickness

1.4 VARIOUS MIX DESIGN APPROACHES

There is no unified approach towards bituminous mix design, rather there
are a number of approaches, and each has some merits are demerits.
Table 1.6 summarizes [RILEM 17 1998] some of the important bituminous
mix design approaches:

[6]

Page | 16

Table 1.6 Various mix design approaches [6]

Mix design method

Description
It is based on experience of traditional mixes of known composition. This is

Recipe method

experience based approach, which has shown good performance over long
period of time, and under given site, traffic and weather conditions.
In empirical mix design method, optimization of several variables are done by

Empirical mix

mechanical empirical test, taking into account some specifications as limits

Design method

which evolved through prior experience. Variables considered in this approach

may not be used as direct measures of performance.
The analytical method does not consider preparation of any physical

Analytical method specimen. Composition

is

determined

exclusively through analytical

computations.
In volumetric method, proportional volume of air voids, binder and aggregates
Volumetric method are analysed in a mixture, which is compacted in the laboratory by some
procedure close to field compaction process.
Performance
related
approach

In performance related mix design, the specimens that meet volumetric criteria
are compacted and tested with simulation and/or fundamental tests to estimate
their properties that are related to pavement performance.
Performance based approach is something which is based on the performance
of the complete system. Laboratory instrumentation tends to simplify the

Performance based
approach

situation, yet it is indeed difficult to simulate field conditions. Superpave mix

design recommends use of Superpave shear tester, indirect tensile tester for
evaluation of laboratory of the bituminous mix. These tests are basically
accelerated performance tests of bituminous mixes.

1.5 PERFORMANCE TESTS ON BITUMINOUS MIX

Performance tests are used to relate laboratory mix design to actual field
performance.

The Marshall (stability and flow) mix design method use

only one or two basic performance tests. Superpave is intended to use a

Page | 17

better and more fundamental performance test. However, performance

testing is the one area of Superpave yet to be implemented.

The

performance tests discussed here are used by various researchers and

organizations to supplement existing Hveem and Marshall Tests and as a
substitute for the Superpave performance test until it is finalized. [7]
As

with

asphalt

binder

characterization,

the

challenge

in

HMA

performance testing is to develop physical tests that can satisfactorily

characterize key HMA performance parameters and how these parameters
change throughout the life of a pavement. These key parameters are:

Deformation resistance (rutting): A key performance parameter

that can depend largely on HMA mix design. Therefore, most
performance test efforts are concentrated on deformation resistance

prediction.
Fatigue life. A key performance parameter that depends more on
structural design and subgrade support than mix design. Those HMA
properties that can influence cracking are largely tested for in
Superpave asphalt binder physical tests.

Therefore, there is

generally less attention paid to developing fatigue life performance

tests.
Tensile strength: Tensile strength can be related to HMA cracking
especially at low temperatures. Those HMA properties that can
influence low temperature cracking are largely tested for in
Superpave asphalt binder physical tests. Therefore, there is
generally

less

attention

paid

to

developing

tensile

strength

performance tests.
Stiffness: HMAs stress-strain relationship, as characterized by
elastic or resilient modulus, is an important characteristic. Although
the elastic modulus of various HMA mix types is rather well-defined,
tests can determine how elastic and resilient modulus varies with
temperature. Also, many deformation resistance tests can also

determine elastic or resilient modulus.

Moisture susceptibility: Certain combinations of aggregate and
asphalt binder can be susceptible to moisture damage. Several
Page | 18

deformation resistance and tensile strength tests can be used to

evaluate the moisture susceptibility of a HMA mixture.
1.5.1 PERMANENT DEFORMATION (RUTTING)
Research is ongoing into what type of test can most accurately predict
HMA pavement deformation (rutting). The methods currently in use can be
broadly categorized as follows:
1.5.1.1 STATIC CREEP TESTS: A static load is applied to a sample and
is measured how it recovers when the load is removed. Although these
tests measure a specimens permanent deformation, test results generally
do not correlate with actual in-service pavement rutting measurements.

[7]

Unconfined Static Creep Test

The most popular static creep test, the unconfined static creep test
(also known as the simple creep test or uniaxial creep test), is
inexpensive and relatively easy. The test consists of a static axial
stress of 100 kPa (14.5 psi) being applied to a specimen for a period
of 1 hour at a temperature of 40C (104F). The applied pressure
usually does not exceed 206.9 kPa (30 psi) and the test temperature
usually cant exceed 40C (104F) or the sample may fail
prematurely. Actual pavements are typically exposed to tire
pressures of up to 828 kPa (120 psi) and temperatures in excess of
60C (140F). Thus, the unconfined test does not closely simulate

field conditions.
Confined Static Creep Test
The confined static creep test (also known as the triaxial creep test)
is similar to the unconfined static creep test in procedure but uses a
confining pressure of about 138 kPa (20 psi), which allows test
conditions to more closely match field conditions.

Research

suggests that the static confined creep test does a better job of
predicting field performance than the static unconfined creep test.
1.5.1.2 REPEATED LOAD TESTS:

A repeated load at a constant

frequency is applied to a test specimen for many repetitions (often in

Page | 19

excess of 1,000) and the specimens recoverable strain and permanent

deformation is measured.
This test applies a repeated load of fixed magnitude and cycle duration to
a cylindrical test specimen. The specimens resilient modulus can be
calculated using the horizontal deformation and an assumed Poissons
ratio. Cumulative permanent deformation as a function of the number of
load cycles is recorded and can be correlated to rutting potential. Tests
can be run at different temperatures and varying loads. The load varies is
applied in a short pulse followed by a rest period. Repeated load tests are
similar in concept to the triaxial resilient modulus test for unconfined soils
and aggregates. [7]
Repeated load tests correlate better with actual in-service pavement
rutting than static creep tests (Brown et al., 2001)
Most often, results from repeated load tests are reported using a
cumulative axial strain curve. The flow number (FN) is the load cycles
number at which tertiary flow begins. Tertiary flow can be differentiated
from secondary flow by a marked departure from the linear relationship
between cumulative strain and number of cycles in the secondary zone. It
is assumed that in tertiary flow, the specimens volume remains constant.
The flow number (FN) can be correlated with rutting potential.

Unconfined Repeated Load Test

The unconfined repeated load test is comparatively simpler to run
than the confined test because it does not involve any confining
pressure or associated equipment.

However, like the unconfined

creep test, the allowable test loads are significantly less that those

experience by in-place pavement.

Confined Repeated Load Test
The confined repeated load test is more complex than the
unconfined test due to the required confining pressure but, like the
confined creep test, the confining pressure allows test loads to be
applied that more accurately reflect loads experienced by in-place
pavements.

Page | 20

1.5.1.3 DYNAMIC MODULUS TESTS:

A repeated load is applied at

varying frequencies to a test specimen over a relatively short period of

time and the specimens recoverable strain and permanent deformation
are measured. Some dynamic modulus tests are also able to measure the
lag between the peak applied stress and the peak resultant strain, which
provides insight into a materials viscous properties. Test results correlate
reasonably well with in-service pavement rutting measurements but the
test is somewhat difficult to run.
Dynamic modulus tests differ from the repeated load tests in their loading
cycles and frequencies. While repeated load tests apply the same load
several thousand times at the same frequency, dynamic modulus tests
apply a load over a range of frequencies (usually 1, 4 and 16 Hz) for 30 to
45 seconds. The dynamic modulus test is more difficult to perform than
the repeated load test since a much more accurate deformation
measuring system is necessary.
The

dynamic

modulus

test

[7]

measures

specimens

relationship under a continuous sinusoidal loading.

stress-strain

For linear (stress-

strain ratio is independent of the loading stress applied) viscoelastic

materials this relationship is defined by a complex number called the
complex modulus (E*) as seen in the equation below:
E =|E|cos+i |E|sin
Where,

E*

| E*|

complex modulus
=

dynamic modulus
phase angle, the angle by which o lags behind o

For a pure elastic material, = 0, and the complex modulus

(E*) is equal to the absolute value, or dynamic modulus. For pure viscous
materials, = 90.
i

imaginary number

Page | 21

The absolute value of the complex modulus, |E*|, is defined as the

dynamic modulus and is calculated as follows:

|E|= 0
0

Where,

| E*|
0

dynamic modulus

peak stress amplitude (applied load / sample cross

peak amplitude of recoverable axial strain = L/L.

sectional area)
0

Either measured directly with strain gauges or calculated from displacements

measured with linear variable displacement transducers (LVDTs).
L

gauge length over which the sample deformation is

the recoverable portion of the change in sample

measured

length due to the

applied load

The dynamic modulus test can be advantageous because it can also measure
a specimens phase angle (), which is the lag between peak stress and peak
recoverable strain. The complex modulus, E*, is actually the summation of
two components:
1. the storage or elastic modulus component and
2. the loss or viscous modulus
It is an indicator of the viscous properties of the material being evaluated.

Unconfined Dynamic Modulus Test

The unconfined dynamic modulus test is performed by applying an axial
haversine load to a cylindrical test specimen. Although the recommended
specimen size for the test is 100 mm (4 inch) in diameter by 200 mm (8
inches) high, it may be possible to use smaller specimen heights with
success.

Unconfined

dynamic

modulus

tests

do

not

permit

the

determination of phase angle ().

Confined Dynamic Modulus Test
Page | 22

The confined dynamic modulus test is basically the unconfined test with
an applied lateral confining pressure. Confined dynamic modulus tests
allow

for

the

determination

of

phase

angle

().

Although

the

recommended specimen size for the dynamic modulus test is 100 mm (4

inch) in diameter by 200 mm (8 inches) high, it may be possible to use
smaller

specimen

heights

with

success.

The

Superpave

Simple

Performance Test will provide a performance test for the Superpave mix
design method.
Shear Dynamic Modulus Test
The shear dynamic modulus test is known as the frequency sweep at
constant height (FSCH) test. Shear dynamic modulus equations are the
same as those discussed although traditionally the term E* is replace by
G* to denote shear dynamic modulus and o and o are replaced by o and
o to denote shear stress and axial strain respectively. The shear dynamic
modulus can be accomplished by two different testing apparatuses:

Superpave shear tester (SST): The SST FSCH test is a constant

strain test (as opposed to a constant stress test). Test specimens
are 150 mm (6 inches) in diameter and 50 mm (2 inches) tall. To
conduct the test the HMA sample is essentially glued to two plates
and then inserted into the SST.

Horizontal strain is applied at a

range of frequencies (from 10 to 0.1 Hz) using a haversine loading

pattern, while the specimen height is maintained constant by
compressing or pulling it vertically as required. The SST produces a
constant strain of about 100 microstrain. The SST is quite expensive
and requires a highly trained operator to run thus making it

impractical for field use and necessitating further development.

Field shear tester (FST): The FST FSCH test is a constant stress
test (as opposed to a constant strain test). The FST is a derivation
of the SST and is meant to be less expensive and easier to use. For
instance, rather than compressing or pulling the sample to maintain
a constant height like the SST, the FST maintains constant specimen

Page | 23

height using rigid spacers attached to the specimen ends. Further,

the FST shears the specimen in the diametral plane.
1.5.1.4 EMPIRICAL TESTS: The Hveem stabilometer and cohesiometer
and Marshall stability and flow tests are empirical tests used to quantify
an HMAs potential for permanent deformation. Test results can correlate
well with in-service pavement rutting measurements but these tests do
not measure any fundamental material parameter. [7]
1.5.1.5 SIMULATIVE TESTS- Laboratory wheel tracking devices:
Test

results

can

correlate

well

with

in-service

pavement

rutting

measurements but these tests do not measure any fundamental material

parameter. Laboratory wheel tracking devices measure rutting by rolling a
small loaded wheel device repeatedly across a prepared HMA specimen.
Rutting in the test specimen is then correlated to actual in-service
pavement rutting. Laboratory wheel-tracking devices can also be used to
make moisture susceptibility and stripping predictions by comparing dry
and wet test results. Some of these devices are relatively new and some
have been used for upwards of 15 years like the Laboratoire Central des
Ponts et Chauses (LCPC) wheel tracker also known as the French
Rutting Tester (FRT).

Cooley et al. (2000) reviewed U.S. loaded wheel

testers and found:

Results

obtained

from

the

wheel

tracking

devices

correlate

reasonably well to actual field performance when the in-service

loading

and

environmental

conditions

of

that

location

are

considered.
Wheel tracking devices can reasonably differentiate between binder

performance grades.
Wheel tracking devices, when properly correlated to a specific sites
traffic and environmental conditions have the potential to allow the
user agency the option of a pass/fail or go/no go criteria. The
ability of the wheel tracking devices to adequately predict the
magnitude of the rutting for a particular pavement has not been
determined.

Page | 24

A device with the capability of conducting wheel-tracking tests in

both air and in a submerged state, will offer the user agency the
most options of evaluating their materials.

In other words, wheel tracking devices have potential for rut and other
measurements but the individual user must be careful to establish
laboratory conditions (e.g., load, number of wheel passes, temperature)
that produce consistent and accurate correlations with field performance.
Each test has been used to successfully predict HMA permanent
deformation characteristics however each test has limitations related to
equipment

complexity,

expense,

time,

variability

and

relation

to

fundamental material parameters.

1.5.2 FATIGUE LIFE
HMA fatigue properties are important because one of the principal modes
of HMA pavement failure is fatigue-related cracking called fatigue
cracking.

Therefore, an accurate prediction of HMA fatigue properties

would be useful in predicting overall pavement life.

1.5.2.1 Flexural Test
One of the typical ways of estimating in-place HMA fatigue properties is
the flexural test. The flexural test determines the fatigue life of a small
HMA beam specimen (380 mm long 50 mm thick 63 mm wide) by
subjecting it to repeated flexural bending until failure. The beam specimen
is sawed from either laboratory or field compacted HMA.

Results are

usually plotted to show cycles to failure vs. applied stress or strain. [7]
1.5.3 TENSILE STRENGTH
HMA tensile strength is important because it is a good indicator of
cracking potential. A high tensile strain at failure indicates that a
particular HMA can tolerate higher strains before failing, which means it is
more likely to resist cracking than an HMA with a low tensile strain at
failure. Additionally, measuring tensile strength before and after water

Page | 25

conditioning can give some indication of moisture susceptibility. If the

water-conditioned tensile strength is relatively high compared to the dry
tensile strength then the HMA can be assumed reasonably moisture
resistant.

There are two tests typically used to measure HMA tensile

strength: [7]

Material

Resilient Modulus (MR)

MPa

psi

HMA at 0 C

14,000

2,000,000

HMA at 21 C

3,500

500,000

HMA at 49 C

150

20,000

Indirect Tension Test

The indirect tensile test uses the same testing device as the
diametral repeated load test and applies a constant rate of vertical
deformation until failure. It is quite similar to the splitting tension
test used for PCC.

Thermal Cracking Test

The thermal cracking test determines the tensile strength and
temperature at fracture of an HMA sample by measuring the tensile
load in a specimen which is cooled at a constant rate while being
restrained from contraction.

The test is terminated when the

sample fails by cracking.

1.5.4 STIFFNESS TESTS
Stiffness tests are used to determine a HMAs elastic or resilient modulus.
Although these values are fairly well-defined for many different mix types,
these tests are still used to verify values, determine values in forensic
testing or determine values for new mixtures or at different temperatures.
Many repeated load tests can be used to determine resilient modulus as
well.
Table 1.6 Typical Resilient Modulus Values for HMA Pavement Materials

Page | 26

Temperature has a profound effect on HMA stiffness. Table 1.6 shows

some typical HMA resilient modulus values at various temperatures. HMA
resilient modulus changes by a factor of about 100 for a 49C temperature
change for typical dense-graded HMA mixtures. This can affect HMA
performance parameters such as rutting and shoving. This is one reason
why the Superpave PG binder grading system accounts for expected
service temperatures when specifying an asphalt binder. [7]

1.5.5 MOISTURE SUSCEPTIBILITY

Numerous tests have been used to evaluate moisture susceptibility of
HMA; however, no test to date has attained any wide acceptance. In fact,
just about any performance test that can be conducted on a wet or
submerged sample can be used to evaluate the effect of moisture on HMA
by comparing wet and dry sample test results. Superpave recommends
the modified Lottman Test as the current most appropriate test and
therefore only this test is described.
The modified Lottman test basically compares the indirect tensile strength
test

results

of

dry

water/freezing/thawing.

sample

and

sample

exposed

to

The wet sample is subjected to vacuum

saturation, an optional freeze cycle, followed by a freeze and a warmwater cycle before being tested for indirect tensile strength. Test results
are reported as a tensile strength ratio:
TSR=

S2
S1

Where,

TSR

tensile strength ratio

S1

average dry sample tensile strength

S2

average conditioned sample tensile strength

Generally a minimum TSR of 0.70 is recommended for this method, which

should be applied to field-produced rather than laboratory-produced
samples. For laboratory samples produced in accordance with AASHTO TP
Page | 27

4 (Method for Preparing and Determining the Density of Hot-Mix Asphalt

(HMA) Specimens by Means of the Superpave Gyratory Compactor),
AASHTO MP 2 (Specification for Superpave Volumetric Mix Design)
specifies a minimum TSR of 0.80.
In addition to the modified Lottman test, some state agencies use the
Hamburg Wheel Tracking Device (HWTD) to test for moisture susceptibility
since the test can be carried out in a warm water bath.

1.6 LITEWRATURE

REVIEW

ON

THE

[7]

PERFORMANCE

CHARACTERISTICS OF BITUMINOUS MIX

1.6.1 PERMANENT DEFORMATION (RUTTING)
Rutting or permanent deformation, is one of the main distresses that affects pavement
performance. It is dened as the accumulation of small amounts of unrecoverable
strain resulting from applied loads to the pavement. This can be caused either by
consolidation or plastic ow. In recent years, the nations highways have experienced
an increase in rutting susceptibility due to higher traffic volumes, axle loads and truck
tire pressures (Brown & Cross) [8]
The creep test provides information to determine the instantaneous elastic
(recoverable) and plastic (irrecoverable) strain and the time-independent and timedependent material responses (Hamzah et al, 2009). [10]
Zhao (2002) dened the cumulative permanent strain curve in three zones: primary,
secondary and tertiary. In the primary zone, the permanent deformation or strain
accumulates rapidly. The incremental permanent deformation tends to decrease,
reaching a constant value in the secondary zone. Finally, the incremental permanent
deformation again increases and accumulates rapidly in the tertiary zone. [10]
In the eld, Parker and Brown (1992) suggested that the top 710 cm of the pavement
system is the portion which is most vulnerable to rutting. The rut rate depends on
factors such as axle load, number of axle repetitions, tyre ination pressure and
pavement temperature. [10]
Influence of Binder type and content
Mixtures prepared using polymer modied bitumen were found to exhibit less
accumulated strain at higher temperatures compared with conventional mixtures. [10]

Page | 28

 Stiffer bitumen in comparison with pure bitumen showed lower penetration degree
and ductility and also lower Penetration Index. Adding bentonite (BT) also increased
the softening point which gave better creep resistance. [11]
Marshall Quotient (MQ) as a measure of asphalt mixture rutting resistance was
measured and the result showed that a 20% bentonite (BT) content lead to a relatively
higher MQ. [11]
When the Marshall quotient (MQ), which is the ratio of stability to flow, was
considered the MQ values obtained were 5.08, 5.99, 6.13 and 6.23 for AC-5, AC-10,
AC-20 and SBS modified mixtures respectively. According to this test SBS modified
specimens exhibited higher MQ which signifies higher stiffness or higher resistance
to shear stresses, permanent deformation and hence rutting. [12]
The MR (Resilient Modulus) of mixtures prepared with modied BT bitumen was
higher than that of the control mixture. Also, the statistical analysis showed that the
BT had a signicant effect on the MR of mixtures. [11]
Using bentonite (BT) for the modication of bitumen can increase the viscosity which
contributes for increase in creep resistance. [11]
According to the dynamic creep test, the addition of bentonite (BT) could also
signicantly decrease the permanent deformation which results in better rutting
resistance of asphalt mixtures at high temperatures. [11]
According to the wheel tracking test, mixtures containing bentonite (BT) indicated
better rutting resistance compared with mixtures without BT. Also, the statistical
analysis showed that addition of bentonite (BT) had a signicant effect to reduce the
permanent deformation of mixtures which resulted in better rutting resistance.
Marshall Quotient (MQ) as a measure of asphalt mixture rutting resistance was
measured and the result showed that a 20% bentonite (BT) content lead to a relatively
higher MQ. [11]
WMA mixes can be produced in the range of 105C to 135C from technologies that
reduce mixture viscosity and improve workability. If the temperature is reduced, the
oxidative hardening of the binder will also be reduced, which may contribute to loss
of stability in hot weather and lead to increased rutting. [13]
Prowell et al. (1998) evaluated the rutting potential of WMA mixes under accelerated
loading. Laboratory and eld tests were conducted on WMA mixes placed as surface
courses on rehabilitated sections at the NCAT Test Track. The results indicated that
the rutting potential of WMA and HMA mixes as measured by the Asphalt Pavement
Analyzer (APA) compared well. Although the reduced aging of the binder in the
WMA sections might tend to increase rutting potential, the improved density of the
Page | 29

samples may tend to negate this to some extent. Field measured rut depths also
indicated similar performance for WMA and HMA sections. [14]
Xiao et al. (2010) conducted a laboratory investigation of rutting resistance in WMA
mixtures containing moist aggregates. Results from the Asphalt Pavement Analyzer
(APA) test indicated that mixtures containing WMA additives had lower or similar rut
depths than the control. Rutting resistance was primarily affected by aggregate source
regardless of WMA additive, lime content and moisture content. [14]
The test results of the creep stiffness for all the mixes represented that the SBS
modified specimens exhibited a significant increase on creep stiffness. An increase of
nearly 1.3 times was observed for AC-10 specimens modified with SBS compared to
AC-10 specimens without modification. The results could be different at high
temperature. However, at 40C the results indicated that modified specimens appeared
to be capable of withstanding to rutting. It was seen that the modified specimens have
the least accumulated strain so the highest creep stiffness. [12]
For 40C increase in test temperature, creep stiffness was observed to be nearly 1.3
times for AC-10 specimens modified with SBS compared to AC-10 specimens
without modification. The creep stiffness values were gradually increased with
increasing the hardness of binders. . [12]
1.6.2

FATIGUE LIFE
Influence of Binder type and content
Mixtures containing 10% and 15% BT had longer fatigue life than the control
mixture. Modication of the base bitumen with higher % of BT neither enhanced nor
improved the fatigue life of the mixtures. Also, the statistical analysis showed that the
microstrain level and BT content had a signicant effect on the fatigue life of
mixtures and the interaction between them had a signicant effect too. [11]
Fatigue resistance is the pavement's resistance to repeated bending under wheel loads
(traffic). Air voids (related to binder content) and binder viscosity has a significant
effect on fatigue resistance. As the percentage of air voids in the pavement increased,
either by design or lack of compaction, pavement fatigue life (the length of time
during which an in-service pavement is adequately fatigue-resistant) was drastically
shortened. Likewise, a pavement containing binder that had aged and hardened, had
significantly reduced resistance to fatigue. [15]

1.6.3

TENSILE STRENGTH
Influence of Binder type and content
Page | 30

 The static indirect tensile strength values for PMAC (Polymer Modified Asphalt
Concrete) mixes were higher in order of 49101% when compared to AC mixes in the
temperature range of 15C 40C. The percentage increase in strength of PMAC mix
was higher at higher temperature when compared to AC mix. PMAC mix performed
better than AC mix at higher temperature, which was a desirable characteristic of
PMAC mix. [16]
Influence of Compaction Temperature
Stability and splitting strength decreased with decrease in compaction temperature
and they followed a 4th power non-linear relationship with the compaction
temperature.
The strength decreased slowly when the compaction temperature dropped from 170C
to 150C or from 140C to 120C.
But the strength decreased fast when the temperature dropped from 150C to 140C.
1.6.4

STIFFNESS
Influence of Binder type and content
Stiffness modulus results for all the mixes prepared with different asphalts indicated
that the stiffness modulus value (average of three specimens) of the mixes prepared
with AC-5 was less than that of the mixes prepared with AC-10, AC-20 and SBS
modified AC-10. The stiffness modulus of the AC-10 specimens increased about 38%
compared with AC-5 specimens. Not significant differences were obtained between
the stiffness modulus of AC-10 and AC-20 specimens. On the other hand the
specimens including modified asphalt exhibited the highest stiffness. Stiffness of the
SBS modified the specimens increased 70% compared that of the specimens without
modification. [12]
Observing the recoverable strain values during 250 ms it was seen that the AC-5
specimens had the lower recoverable strain, and AC-10, AC-20 and SBS modified
AC-10 mixtures showed higher recoverable strain. Results also indicated that the
higher the recoverable strain the higher the stiffness modulus. [12]
For the test temperature of 25C the mixes prepared with AC-10 binder modified with
5% SBS had the highest stiffness modulus, as well as AC10 and AC-20 specimens
exhibited similar value. [12]
1.6.5

MOISTURE SUSCEPTIBILITY
Influence of Binder

Page | 31

 Tensile strength ratio test: TSR obtained for PMAC and AC mixes were 91.67 and
80.72%, respectively.
Resilient Modulus Ratio: Resilient modulus ratio obtained for PMAC and AC mixes
were 94.20 and 79.02% respectively.
From the results of tensile strength ratio and resilient modulus ratio, it was found that
PMAC mixes showed nearly 14% higher tensile strength ratio and 19% higher
resilient modulus ratio when compared to AC mixes. These results substantiated the
low moisture susceptibility of PMAC mix when compared to AC mix. [17]

2.1 BINDER TYPES

2.1.1 ASPHALT
Asphalt or asphalt cement, a composite material that is used for
construction purposes, is mainly used for the paving of road surfaces.
Asphalt is also increasingly being used as the core of embankment dams.
It is dark brown to black cementious material in which predominating
constituents are bitumens. It is a sticky and viscous material, which acts
as a binder for mineral aggregates such as sand and rocks, is sometimes
also referred to as blacktop. [18]
2.1.2 BITUMEN
It is a mixture of hydrocarbons of natural or pyrogenous origin, or a
combination of both; frequently accomplished by non-metallic derivatives
which may be gaseous, liquid, semi-solid or solid and which are
completely soluble in carbon disulfide.[18] Bitumen, also sometimes
referred to as asphalt, is a semi solid or a liquid form of petroleum that is
sticky black and highly viscous in nature. Bitumen is used as glue that
binds the aggregate particles together to create a solid base. While the
main use of bitumen is in road construction, it is also used for bituminous
waterproofing products, production of roofing felt and for sealing flat
roofs. [19]

Page | 32

Naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen is specified as crude bitumen and

most of the commercially used bitumen is obtained from petroleum.
However, deposits of bitumen also occur in the remains of ancient,
microscopic algae and places which had once contained life, usually
deposited in the mud at the bottom of lakes or the ocean where the
organisms had once lived. Under the pressure of deep burial and a
temperature above 50 C, the remains are usually transformed into
bitumen, petroleum or kerosene. One good example of this is La Brea Tar
Pits. [19]
However, we will be using both the two words Asphalt and
Bitumen invariably meaning the same thing binder.

2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN

Bitumen is available in variety of types and grades. To judge the suitability of bitumen
binders are most commonly characterized by their physical properties rather by their
chemical properties. For engineering and construction purposes, normally three physical
properties of bitumen are important.

2.2.1 CONSISTENCY
Consistency is the term used to measure its degree of stiffness or ability to flow. Bitumen is
thermoplastic material which means it liquefy when heated and solidify when cooled
and its state of solidness (stiffness) or liquidness (i.e. ability to flow) is very much
temperature sensitive. Consistency of bitumen can be judged by some empirical tests such as
penetration, softening point, ductility etc. and also by testing the fundamental property of
bitumen such as viscosity. [18]

2.2.2 PURITY
Pure bitumen is completely soluble in solvents like carbon disulphide and carbon
tetrachloride. Hence any impurity in bitumen in the form of inert minerals, carbon etc. could
be quantitatively analyzed by dissolving the samples of bitumen in any of the above
mentioned solvent. [18]
Page | 33

2.2.3 SAFETY
Bituminous materials leave out volatiles at temperatures depending upon their grade. These
volatiles catch fire causing a flash. The definition of flash and fire points are as follows:
The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the vapor of a substance
momentarily takes fire in the form of a flash under specified condition of test. The fire point
is the lowest temperature at which the material gets ignited and burns under specified
conditions of test. [18]
Thus, it can be concluded that there is no point to grade bitumen on purity and safety aspect.
It is the consistency property of bitumen by which it can be graded.

2.3 TESTS ON BINDER

2.3.1 CONSISTENCY TESTS
2.3.1.1 VISCOSITY TEST
The viscosity at 600 C employs a capillary tube viscometer. Two types are
in common use. One is the Asphalt institute vacuum viscometer and the
other is the Cannon-Manning vacuum viscometer. Each viscometer is
calibrated by use of standard calibrating oils. A calibration factor is thus
developed for each viscometer and is used. Normally, viscometers are
calibrated by the manufacturer and calibration factors are furnished by
them.
The viscometer is mounted in thermostatically controlled, constant
temperature bath. Water may be used as the liquid medium in the bath.
Preheated asphalt is then poured into the large side of the viscometer
until its level reaches the filling line. The filled viscometer is kept in the
bath for a prescribed period of time to allow the system to reach an
equilibrium temperature of 600 C.
Since, asphalt cement at 600C is too viscous to flow readily through
capillary tube viscometers; a partial vacuum is applied to the small side of

Page | 34

the viscometer to induce flow. A vacuum control device along with a

vacuum pump is also connected into the system.
After the bath, viscometer and asphalt have stabilized at 60 0 C, the
prescribed vacuum is applied and the time in seconds required for the
asphalt cement to flow between two timing marks is measured by a stop
watch. Multiplying this measured time by the calibration factor for the
viscometer gives the value for viscosity in poises, the standard unit for
measurement of viscosity.
Paving grade asphalt cements are sufficiently fluid at 135 0 C to flow
through capillary tubes under gravitational forces alone. Therefore, a
vacuum is not required but a different type of viscometer is used. The one
most commonly used is the Zeitfuchs cross arm viscometer. This
viscometer is also celebrated with standard calibrating oils.
Since, the kinematic viscosity test is conducted at 135 0 C; suitable clear
oil must be used as the bath medium. The viscometer is mounted in the
bath and asphalt is poured into the large opening until it reaches the
filling lined to reach equilibrium temperature as before. A slight pressure
is applied to the small opening to start the asphalt flowing over the siphon
section just above the filling line. The asphalt will then flow downward in
the vertical section of capillary tubing by gravitational forces. A timer is
started when the asphalt reaches the first timing mark and stopped when
it reaches the second. The time interval, multiplied by a calibration factor
for the viscometer, gives the kinematic viscosity in centistokes.
It should be noted that viscosity requirements at 135 0 C are expressed in
centistokes where those at 600 C are in poises. Gravity induces the flow in
the kinematic viscosity test, and the density of the material affects the
rate of flow through the capillary tube. In the viscosity test where the
results are expressed in centipoises, flow through the capillary test is
induced by a partial vacuum where gravitational effects are negligible.
The units of the two tests centipoise and centistoke are related by the
density of the asphalt cement.
Specifications for viscosity graded asphalt cements normally are based on
viscosity ranges at 600 C. A minimum viscosity at 135 0 C also is specified.
Page | 35

The purpose is to prescribe limiting values of consistency at these two

temperatures. The 600 C temperature was chosen as it approximates the
maximum temperature of asphalt pavement surfaces in service in USA
and elsewhere in the world where substantial road building activity is in
progress. The 1350 C temperature was chosen as one that approximates
mixing and lay down temperatures for hot asphalt pavements.
The viscosity measurements at two test temperatures are usually plotted
on a viscosity temperature graph and a line extended between the two
points. The slope of this line is an indication of the temperature
susceptibility. The steeper the slope for a specific asphalt cement the
more it is temperature susceptible. The plotting of this line is important in
determining the optimum temperature range for mixing and compacting
of hot mix asphalt. For mix design sample preparation, the Asphalt
Institute recommends mixing be done between 150 to 190 centistokes
and compaction be accomplished between 250 to 310 centistokes. The
mixing and compaction temperature ranges are hence found out from the
graph.

[18]

2.3.1.2 SOFTENING POINT TEST

The softening point of bitumen or tar is the temperature at which the
substance attains a particular degree of softening. The temperature (in
C) at which a standard ball passes through a sample of bitumen in a
mould and falls through a distance of 2.5 cm, when heated under water or
glycerin at specified conditions of test is called the Softening Point of
bitumen. The binder should have sufficient fluidity before its application
inroad uses. The determination of softening point helps to know the
temperature above which a bituminous binder should be heated for
various road use applications. Softening point is determined by ring and
ball apparatus.
Softening point indicates the temperature at which binders possess the
same viscosity. Bituminous materials do not have a melting point. Rather,
the change of state from solid to liquid is gradual over a wide range of
temperature. Softening point has particular significance for materials to
Page | 36

be used as joint and crack fillers. Higher softening point ensures that they
will not flow during service. Higher the softening point, lesser the
temperature susceptibility. Bitumen with higher softening point is
preferred in warmer places.
2.3.1.3

[20]

PENETRATION TEST

Penetration is a measurement of hardness or consistency of bituminous material. It is the vertical

distance traversed or penetrated by the point of a standard needle in to the bituminous material
under specific condition of load, time and temperature. This distance is measured in one tenth of
a millimetre. This test is used for evaluating consistency of bituminous materials. It is not
regarded as suitable for use in connection with the testing of road tar because of the high surface
tension exhibited by these materials and the fact that they contain relatively large amount of free
carbon. A 80/100 grade bitumen indicates that its penetration value lies

between 80 & 100. Grading of bitumen helps to assess its suitability in

different climatic conditions and types of construction. For bituminous
macadam and penetration macadam, IRC suggests bitumen grades 30/40,
60/70, 80/100. In warmer regions, lower penetration grades are preferred
to avoid softening whereas higher penetration grades like 180/200 are
used in colder regions to prevent the occurrence of excessive brittleness.
High penetration grade is used in spray application works. [20]
2.3.1.4 DUCTILITY TEST
The ductility of the bitumen improves the physical inter-locking of the
aggregate bitumen mixes. The binder material of low ductility would crack
and thus provide pervious pavement surface. The test is believed to
measure the adhesive property of the bitumen and its ability to stretch.
This test method provides one measure of tensile properties of bituminous
materials and may be used to measure the ductility for specification
requirements.
In the ductility test, bitumen is heated to make it completely fluid and
poured into a briquette of standard size. It is allowed to cool to room
temperature. The minimum cross-sectional area of the bitumen filled in
the briquette is 1 sq.cm. The mould with the bitumen is fixed between two

Page | 37

jaws in a water bath at 270C. One side of the jaw is fixed and the other
end is allowed to stretch away in the horizontal direction at constant rate
of 5 cm per minute using a suitable mechanical pulling system. The length
of the bitumen thread just before breaking is measured on a scale and the
length in cm is reported as Ductility value.

[20]

2.3.1.5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST

The density of a bitumen binder is a fundamental property frequently used as an aid in
classifying the binders for use in paving jobs. In most applications, the bitumen is weighed,
but finally in use with aggregate system, the bitumen content is converted on volume basis.
Thus an accurate density value is required for conversion of weight to volume. The specific
gravity is greatly influenced by the chemical composition of binder. Increased amount of
aromatic type compounds cause an increase in specific gravity. The specific gravity is defined
as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the bituminous material to the mass of an equal
volume of water, the temperature of both being specified as 27C 0.1C
Knowledge of the correct specific gravity of bituminous material has mainly two
applications To convert the specified bitumen content by weight to volume basis when the binder
is measured by volume. Here it is necessary to the coefficient of expansion or the
specific gravity value at different temperatures.
Secondly, specific gravity is useful to identify the source of bituminous binder.
Pure bitumen has a specific gravity in the range of 0.97 to 1.02 (Higher penetration grade
bitumen and cut back bitumen have lower range of specific gravity value). In case the
bitumen contains mineral impurity, the specific gravity will be higher. Thus it is possible for a
qualitative estimation of mineral impurity in bitumen. The specific gravity of tars depends on
the type of carbonization process used for their production. [21]
2.3.2 PURITY TEST
2.3.2.1 SOLUBILITY TEST
The solubility test is a measure of the purity of the bitumen. The portion of
the asphalt cement that is soluble in carbon disulphide represents the
active cementing constituents. Only inert matter, such as salts, free
carbon or non-organic contaminants are insoluble.

Page | 38

Due to hazardous nature of carbon disulphide, trichloroethylene, which is

also an excellent solvent for asphalt cement, is employed in the solubility
test.
Determining solubility is simply a process of dissolving about 2g of Asphalt
in a 100 mL of solvent and filtering the solution through a glass fibre pad
placed in a porcelain crucible. The amount of material retained on the
filter is determined by weighing and is expressed as the percentage of the
original sample weight.

[18]

2.3.3 SAFETY TEST

2.3.3.1 FLASH AND FIRE POINT TEST
This test is done to determine the flash point and the fire point of
asphaltic bitumen and fluxed native asphalt, cutback bitumen and blown
type bitumen. The principles behind these tests are given as follows

Flash Point The flash point of a material is the lowest

temperature at which the application of test flame causes the
vapours from the material to momentarily catch fire in the form of a

flash under specified conditions of the test.

Fire Point The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the
application of test flame causes the material to ignite and burn at
least for 5 seconds under specified conditions of the test.

[18]

2.4 GRADING SYSTEM OF BITUMEN

Bituminous binders are most commonly characterized by their physical properties. The
challenge in physical property characterization is to develop physical tests that can
satisfactorily characterize key asphalt binder parameters and how these parameters change
throughout the life of an HMA pavement.
Rather than referring to an extensive list of its physical properties, asphalt binders are
typically categorized by one or more shorthand grading systems. These systems range from
simple penetration grading to complex Superpave performance grading and represent an
evolution in the ability to characterize asphalt binder.

Page | 39

2.4.1 PENETRATION GRADING

The penetration grading system was developed in the early 1900s to characterize the
consistency of semi-solid asphalts. Grading of bitumen by penetration test at 25C was
adopted by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Committee D04 on Road
and Paving Materials in 1903. To quantify the Penetration grading the following asphalt
cement characteristics are to be evaluated as per the standard IS: 73-1992;

Penetration depth of a 100 g needle, 25 C

Flash point, C
Softening point, C
Penetration ratio
Ductility at 25 C
Paraffin wax content
Fraass breaking point
Solubility in trichloroethylene
Loss on heating (TFOT)
Retained penetration after Thin Film Oven Test (TFTO)
Viscosity at 60 C and 135 C
Water content
Specific gravity at 27 C

Penetration grading basic assumption is that the less viscous the asphalt, the deeper the
needle will penetrate. This penetration depth is empirically correlated with asphalt binder
performance. Therefore, asphalt binders with high penetration numbers (called "soft") are
used for cold climates while asphalt binders with low penetration numbers (called "hard") are
used for warm climates.
In figure 1, there are three, bitumen A, B & C whose penetration at 25oC is same
i.e., 65. But these bitumen are having different stiffness values at higher (say 600C)
temperature and at lower (say 40 C) temperature.
The slope of the stiffness vs. temperature curve is called temperature susceptibility. Steeper is
the slope, more will be the temperature susceptibility of the bitumen. In fig 1, bitumen C is
most temperature susceptible, in other words more prone to rutting at high temperature and

Page | 40

more prone to cracking at low temperatures (due to higher stiffness) compared to bitumen B
and A. [22]

Figure 2.1 Three 60-70 penetration grade bitumens with different stiffnesss at high and
low service temperatures
2.4.2 VISCOSITY GRADING
The existing penetration grading system of bitumen has been replaced by viscosity grading
system in India based on improvement in the durability and serviceability condition of the
desired extent.
In the early 1960s an improved asphalt grading system was developed that incorporated
a rational scientific viscosity test. This scientific test replaced the empirical penetration test
as the key asphalt binder characterization. To quantify the Viscosity grading the following
cement characteristics are evaluated based on the as per IS: 73 - 2006;

Absolute viscosity at 60 C, poises

Kinematic viscosity at 135 C, cSt
Flash point
Solubility in trichloroethylene
Penetration depth of a 100 g needle; 25 C
Softening point
Tests on residue from thin film oven tests/RTFOT;
Viscosity ratio at 60 C and Ductility at 25 C, cm

Viscosity is defined as inverse of fluidity. Viscosity thus defines the fluid property of
bituminous material. Viscosity is the general term for consistency and it is measure of
resistance to flow. Many researchers believe that grading of bitumen should be by absolute
viscosity instead of the conventional penetration units.
Page | 41

By measuring consistency at three different penetrations, the range (minimum and maximum
temperatures and specifying the ranges, values) for absolute viscosity at 60oC and the slope
of temperatures vs stiffness curve i.e., the temperature susceptibility of bitumen can be bound
in a specified range which is the key for better performances. Minimum value for kinematic
viscosity at 135oC has been specified.

[22]

Figure 2.2 Graphical representation of viscosity-graded AC-30 (VG-30) bitumen

Defining the range (minimum and maximum values) for penetration at 250C, minimum value
for absolute viscosity at 600C, and minimum value for kinematic viscosity at 1350C, the
temperature susceptibility of bitumen can be controlled in a better way towards better
performance.
In the fourth revision IS: 73-2013, increased emphasis was given to the
viscosity measurement at 60C and hence viscosity ranges were provided
for all the grades. Also, instead of a range for penetration as specified in
the third revision, minimum value of penetration at 25C was stipulated. It
also rationalized the binder selection process by categorizing the binder
grade based on design maximum air temperature. Hence, the choice of
the grade depends upon the design maximum air temperature of the
location where the binder has to be used. For each grade of bitumen, the
range of viscosity values and minimum penetration value at 25 C are
specified. Ductility test was no longer mandatory for specification
compliance. [22]
2.4.3 SUPERPAVE GRADING
Page | 42

Temperature is an important parameter which affects the modulus as well as the aging of
binder. Superpave specifications suggest that these acceptability tests are to be carried out at
the prevalent field temperatures, not in a laboratory specified temperature. This is an
important consideration because, binder from two different sources may show same physical
properties at a particular temperature, but their performances may vary drastically at other
temperatures. In Superpave specifications, therefore, only the acceptable test values are
recommended, and not the test temperatures. The temperature values are found out from the
most prevalent maximum and minimum temperatures at the field at a given probability level.
Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFO), Pressurized Aging Vessel (PAV), Dynamic Shear
Rheometer, Rotational Viscometer, Bending Beam Rheometer, Direct Tension Tester are
some of the tests recommended in Superpave binder selection. [6]

2.5 POLYMER MODIFICATION OF BITUMEN

Polymer modification of bitumen is an old yet burgeoning trend in the field
of bitumen modification. Polymer modified bitumen (PMB) is generally
capable of fetching bona fide remuneration to the highway construction or
maintenance, typically in terms of enduring pavements savings in total
road life costing. The fundamental properties of bitumen can also be
enhanced heftily by incorporating polymer into the neat bitumen. The
modification of bitumen with polymer is carried out mainly to boost the
stiffness, cracking resistance, fatigue resistance, abrasion resistance, to
reduce the structural thickness of the bituminous layers in pavement. The
task of selecting and incorporating those polymer modifiers into the neat
bitumen may not be a herculean one but it insists proper concerns at
before, during and even after the incorporation process gets finished.
2.5.1 TYPES OF POLYMERS
The term polymer does not routinely imply a synthetic material. It
essentially means amalgamation of a large number of analogous small
molecules or monomers into large molecules or polymers. The
properties of the polymer largely fluctuate from those of the parent
monomers. Synthetic polymers are commonly manufactured in a chemical

Page | 43

process to coalesce particular molecules in a way that would not occur

naturally whereas natural polymers include chiefly natural rubber.
Since 1970 many synthetic polymers have been investigated. Some of the scrutinized
polymers include plastomers (e.g. Polyethylene (PE), Polypropylene (PP), Ethylene-Vinyl
Acetate (EVA), Ethylene-Butyl Acrylate (EBA)) and thermoplastic elastomers (e.g. StyreneButadiene-Styrene (SBS), Styrene-Isoprene-Styrene (SIS), and Styreneethylene/ ButyleneStyrene (SEBS)). These polymers were reported to lead to some improved properties of
bitumen, such as higher stiffness at high temperatures, higher cracking resistance at low
temperatures, better moisture resistance or longer fatigue life. An effectual polymer
modification results in a thermodynamically unstable but kinetically stable system in which
the polymer is partially swollen by the light components of bitumen. [23]
The reasons to modify bitumen with polymers are mainly to obtain softer
blends at low service temperatures and reduce cracking, to reach stiffer
blends at high temperatures and reduce rutting, to increase the stability
and the strength of mixtures, to improve the abrasion resistance of
blends, to improve fatigue resistance of blends, to reduce structural
thickness of pavements and to reduce life costs of pavements.

[24]

2.5.2 PROBLEMS IN MODIFATION OF BITUMEN

Even though these polymers improve many of the fundamental properties
of bitumen, but the entire process of modification and incorporation of the
modified bitumen in HMA have many shortcomings viz.

low ageing resistance

poor storage stability
high temperature sensitivity
phase inversion problems in some PMBs

2.5.3 BINDER CHEMISTRY (CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN)

Molecular weight wise, bitumen is a mixture of about 300 - 2000 chemical
components, with an average of around 500 - 700. Elementally, it is
around 95% carbon and hydrogen (87% carbon and 8% hydrogen), and up
to 5% sulfur, 1% nitrogen, 1% oxygen and 2000ppm metals. Bitumens are
composed mainly of highly condensed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
They also contain several elements, a number of which are toxic.
Page | 44

According to their chemical affinity, Saturates, Asphaltenes, Resins and

Aromatics are the four fractions of the mixture of hydrocarbons which
consists Bitumen. Asphaltenes have higher moleculer weight components
and remain in solid state at ambient temperature. Bitumen has a colloidal
structure in which asphaltenes are dispersed in a continuous matrix
formed by the remaining components, called maltenes. The proportion
and nature of asphaltenes and maltenes can change the properties of
Bitumen.

[25]

Fig. 2.3

Schematic

illustration

of the colloidal

structure of

bitumen and

the effect of

polymer

modification

(A)Base

bitumen. (B) The corresponding PMB with increased asphaltenes content

in the matrix. (C) Asphaltenes micelles [25]
As polymers act as solid or semi-solid particles in modified bitumen, so in
order to reach complete homogeneity they also need some dispersion
agents like maltenes. In pure bitumen, maltene molecules (especially
polar aromatics) disperse asphaltene particles perfectly. However, in the
modified bitumen the amount of maltene are not sufficient for both
asphaltene and polymer particles. So, polymers would separate from the
mixture gradually, and make a polymer rich layer on top of the mixture.
This process is known as instability and must be prevented as much as
possible.

[26]

Page | 45

With the increase in polymer content in bitumen, phase inversion may

occur in some PMBs. The dominant phase which is bitumen generally may
become polymer. In case of an ideal microstructure of PMB, there are two
interlocked continuous phases, which eventually determines the optimum
polymer content for bitumen modification. Since there are two interlocked
continuous phases in PMB, it usually shows better overall performance
with respect to mechanical properties, storage stability and costeffectiveness.

[23]

The relation between performance of pavements and rheological behaviour of bitumenpolymer bond is very close. A small amount of addition polymer can change the rheological
properties of the bitumen considerably. The polymers by virtue of their higher molecular
weight add furthermore difficulty to the bitumen complexity. Incompatibility problems arise
since the formation of a homogeneous system is not an easy task. There are generally three
different cases of modified systems owing to two distinct phases of the system. They are
discussed below: [24]
Polymer content less than 4%: Here, the bitumen is in continuous phase and the polymer
remains in dispersed phase. Owing to lower oil content, the bitumen phase possesses a higher
asphaltene proportion leading to enhancement of both cohesion and elasticity of the bitumen.
Here, the polymer phase is dispersed though bitumen matrix and at higher temperatures
(around 60C), the stiffness modulus of the polymer phase is higher than that of the matrix.
These properties of the polymer phase perk up the mechanical performance of the binder.
Also at lower temperatures, the stiffness modulus of the dispersed phase is lower than that of
the matrix reducing its brittleness. Briefly, the dispersed polymer phase enhances the
properties of the binder both at low and at high service temperatures provided the choice of
bitumen is proper.
Polymer content around 5%: In this case both the two phases are continuous and
interlocked posing stability problems and becomes difficult to control. In such cases, the
micromorphology and properties often depend on temperature history.
Polymer content more than 7%: Here, the polymer phase is the matrix of the structure. In
fact, the structure cant be even considered bitumen rather it is considered as a polymer which
is plastified by the oils in bitumen. Hence, the polymer becomes the continuous phase and the
bitumen therefore is in dispersed phase. This phenomenon is known as phase inversion and
Page | 46

once it happens all the fundamental properties of the system varies from the bitumen and
depend essentially on those of the polymer i.e. the resultant product behaves more likely as a
polymer than as bitumen and can rather be called as thermoplastic adhesive. [24]
Table 2.1 Change of phase of Bitumen and Polymer as the polymer content increases
Polymer Content

Bitumen

Polymer

less than 4%

Continuous

Dispersed

around 5%:

Continuous

Continuous

more than 7%:

Dispersed

Continuous

The combination of bitumen oxidation and polymer degradation is the main cause of PMBs
ageing proclivity. [23]
Poor compatibility between polymer modifiers and the bitumen, which is
controlled by different properties of polymer and bitumen such as density,
polarity, solubility, molecular weight etc. result in poor storage stability of
some PMBs.

[23]

2.5.4 Methods used to overcome the shortcomings of modification

In order to remove the above mentioned shortcomings of PMBs,
researchers have attempted different measures viz. sulfur vulcanization,
adding oil based materials, adding antioxidants, using hydrophobic clay
minerals and functionalization (including application of reactive polymers).
2.5.4.1 SULFUR VULCANIZATION
Sulfur vulcanization is a chemical process which is widely used in rubber industry these days
and it is found that the process can be able to improve the storage stability of some PMBs
with unsaturated polymer modifiers e.g. Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene (SBS). It is accepted as
true that in Sulfur vulcanization, sulfur works in two ways- 1) Chemically cross-linking the
polymer molecules and 2) Chemically coupling polymer and bitumen through sulfide and/or
polysulfide bonds. It is also fact that these chemical interactions do not vanish at high
temperature which is eventually beneficial in improving the storage stability of the PMB. The
cross-linking of polymer molecules leads to the configuration of a stable polymer network in
Page | 47

bitumen; while the coupling between polymer and bitumen directly cuts down the possibility
of separation. [23]
2.5.4.2 ADDITION OF B-OIL
One alternative method to improve storage stability is to add some
amounts of maltene-like molecules to the mixture. Therefore, addition of
different oil based materials such as oleic acid, aromatic oil, base oil (BOil) and vacuum bottom (VB) to the mixture can improve storage stability.
If kerosene is added to the mixtures, it cant act as a dispersing agent not
only because of its non- aromatic structure but also, as most of it was
vaporized during mixing period. Actually, it only adjusts the viscosity of
the bituminous phase.

[26]

2.5.4.3 ADDITION OF ANTI-OXIDANTS

Some PMBs e.g. which are modified from Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene (SBS)
are sensitive to oxidation and hence anti-oxidants can be really helpful to
retard the process of oxidation of the PMB. Anti-oxidants such as
phosphites, hindered phenols and organic zinc compounds have been
tested by introducing in PMB. Phosphite Antioxidants perform as peroxide
decomposers and are known as secondary AOs, protecting the polymer
during processing. Hindered phenols are primary antioxidants that
function by scavenging peroxy radical intermediates in the oxidation
process. They are effective over a wide range of temperatures and provide
protection during end use and long-term storage. During end use at
elevated temperatures, hindered phenols can also improve the retention
of useful properties of the PMB.
Although in Laboratory, anti-oxidants are proven to retard oxidation of the
PMB to some extent, but the real service conditions of a road are quite
different with the laboratory conditions. Inadequate mobility of the antioxidants in the viscous medium at the service temperature may lead to
anti-oxidants encountering problems in service. The high cost of antioxidants is also one of the factors limiting their application.

[23]

2.5.4.4 ADDITION OF HYDROPHILIC CLAY MINERALS

Page | 48

Hydrophilic clay minerals can also be used in base bitumen and PMB
mainly with intentions to improve the ageing resistance of PMB with
barrier properties of the dispersed clay platelets and to enhance the
storage stability of PMB by reducing the difference in density of the
polymer modifiers and bitumen.

[23]

2.5.4.5 FUNCTIONALIZATION
Functionalization can also be one of the alternatives in order to improve
storage stability and other some characteristics of PMBs. Functionalization
is nothing but chemical addition of specific functional groups to the
polymer for obtaining specific functions of PMB. The specific functions
mainly include good storage stability, excellent ageing resistance, strong
adhesion with aggregates, and high stiffness at high temperatures and
good cracking resistance at low temperatures. So, it is actually a possible
way to overcome the drawbacks of the used polymer modifiers and
enhance the pinnacle of bitumen polymer modification in future. By
functionalization, various new functions of currently available PMBs may
be obtained and even some new-type polymer modifiers (other than the
currently used ones) could be developed, for instance reactive polymers.
[23]

Specific interactions between asphalt and the polymers such as hydrogen

bonding can take place while adding a functionalized polymer. Some
chemical reactions could take place between the functional groups of the
components of the blends. Formation of in-situ co-polymers due to the
chemical reaction takes place when functionalized polymers are blended
because of occurrence of reactive or chemical compatibilization.

[24]

Four conditions to be met for reactive compatibilization to occur in blends

of polymers Adequately sturdy mixing to guarantee dispersion of one component in
other
The existence of reactive functional groups competent of reacting in the
interface of the polymers
Page | 49

 The reaction should occur within the residence time of the polymers in
the extruder, and
The bonds formed should be stable to any further processing.

[24]

2.5.4.6 COMPARISON OF ALL THE METHODS

Table 2.2: Comparison of attempted measures for removing PMBs

drawbacks [23]
Attempted
measures
Sulfur
Vulcanization

Advantages
Improved storage stability
Good high-temperature

Disadvantages
Only applicable for unsaturated
polymer modifiers, like SBS
Hydrogen sulfide released

properties

Antioxidants

Reduced oxidation

Hydrophobic

Improved storage stability

clay

Good rutting resistance

minerals

Increased ageing resistance

Poor recyclability
High cost

Limited improvement in lowtemperature properties,

ductility

Functionalizatio

Improved compatibility

and elastic recovery

Uncontrollability in some cases

More functions not attempted

High cost

Page | 50

3.1 AGGREGATE TYPES

3.1.1. IGNEOUS ROCKS
These rocks are primarily crystalline and are formed by the cooling of molten rock material
beneath the earths crust (magma). [27]
3.1.2 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
These rocks are formed from deposited insoluble material (e.g., the remains of existing rock
deposited on the bottom of an ocean or lake). This material is transformed to rock by heat and
pressure. Sedimentary rocks are layered in appearance and are further classified based on
their predominant mineral as calcareous (limestone, chalk, etc.), siliceous (chert, sandstone,
etc.) or argillaceous (shale, etc.).[27]
3.1.3 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
These are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to heat and/or pressure great
enough to change their mineral structure so as to be different from the original rock. [27]
3.1.4 MANUFACTURED ROCKS
Manufactured rock typically consists of industrial byproducts such as slag (byproduct of the
metallurgical processing typically produced from processing steel, tin and copper) or
specialty rock that is produced to have a particular physical characteristic not found in natural
rock (such as the low density of lightweight aggregate). [27]
3.2 SELECTION OF AGGREGATE MATERIALS
Page | 51

Selecting an aggregate material for use in an asphalt pavement depends

upon the availability, cost and construction that are intended. The
suitability of aggregates for use in asphalt construction is determined by
evaluating the material in terms of the following-[18]

Size and Grading

Cleanliness
Toughness
Surface Texture
Particle shape
Absorption
Affinity for asphalt

Page | 52

Rock Type

Hardness, Resistance to
Toughness
Stripping

Surface
Texture

Crushed
Shape

Igneous
Granite

Fair

Fair

Fair

Fair

Syenite

Good

Fair

Fair

Fair

Diorite

Good

Fair

Fair

Good

Basalt

Good

Good

Good

Good

Diabase

Good

Good

Good

Good

Gabbro

Good

Good

Good

Good

Sedimentary
Limestone

Poor

Good

Good

Fair

Sandstone

Fair

Good

Good

Good

Chert

Good

Fair

Poor

Good

Shale

Poor

Poor

Fair

Fair

Metamorphic
Gneiss

Fair

Fair

Good

Good

Schist

Fair

Fair

Good

Fair

Slate

Good

Fair

Fair

Fair

Quartzite

Good

Fair

Good

Good

Marble

Poor

Good

Fair

Fair

Serpentine

Good

Fair

Fair

Fair

Page | 53

Table 3.1 Desirable Properties of Rocks for HMA (from Cordon, 1979 as
referenced in Roberts et al., 1996)

[27]

3.2.1 CLEANLINESS
Some aggregates contain certain foreign or deleterious substances that
make them undesirable for asphalt paving mixtures unless the amount of
foreign matter is reduced. Typical objectionable materials are vegetation,
shale, soft particles, lay lumps and clay-coating on coarse-aggregate
particles.
Aggregate cleanliness can often be determined by visual inspection, but a
washed sieve analysis generally provides positive proof.

[18]

3.2.1.1 TESTS FOR DUST AND PLASTIC FINES IN AGGREGATE

Three tests are generally used to determine the plastic fines and dust in
aggregate. These tests are:

Sand Equivalent Test

Plasticity Index Test
Methylene Blue test

3.2.1.1.1 SAND EQUIVALENT TEST

The Sand Equivalent Test (ASTM D2419) is a method of determining the
relative proportion of detrimental fine dust or clay-like materials in the
portion of the aggregate passing the 4.75 mm sieve.
In the sand equivalent test, a sample of aggregate passing the No. 4 (4.75
mm) sieve and a small amount of flocculating solution are poured into a
graduated cylinder and are agitated to loosen the clay-like coatings from
the sand particles. The sample is then irrigated with additional flocculation
solution forcing the clay-like material into suspension above the sand.
After a prescribed sedimentation period, the height of flocculated clay and
height of sand are determined and the sand equivalent is expressed as a
ratio of the height of sand over the height of clay. Higher sand equivalent
values indicate cleaner (less fine dust or clay-like materials) aggregate.
Page | 54

3.2.1.1.2 PLASTICITY INDEX TEST

Plasticity Index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and the
plastic limit of the material passing No. 40 (0.425 mm) sieve. The PI can
indirectly indicate the type and amount of plastic fines.
Therefore, some specifications (ASTM D 1073, Standard specification for
Fine Aggregate in Bituminous Paving Mixtures, and ASTM D 242, Standard
Specification for Mineral Filler for Bituminous Paving Mixtures) limit the PI
of the aggregate fraction passing the No. 40 (0.425 mm) sieve to a value
of 4 or less. Kandhal, Lynn and Parkers (1998) review of literature
indicated

no

reported

correlation

between

the

PI

and

the

field

performance of HMA.
The liquid limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a
percentage of the weight of the oven-dried soil, at the boundary between
the liquid and plastic states of consistency. The moisture content at this
boundary is arbitrarily defined as the water content at which two halves of
a soil cake will flow together, for a distance of in. (12.7 mm) along the
bottom of a groove of standard dimensions separating the two halves,
when the cup of a standard liquid limit apparatus is dropped 25 times
from a height of 0.3937 in. (10 mm) at the rate of two drops/second
The plastic limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a
percentage of the weight of the oven-dry soil, at the boundary between
the plastic and semisolid states of consistency. It is the moisture content
at which a soil will just begin to crumble when rolled into a thread in. (3
mm) in diameter using a ground glass plate or other acceptable surface.
3.2.1.1.3 METHYLENE BLUE TEST
The methylene blue test determines the capacity of clay to absorb cations
from a solution, and thereby predict how the clay will react. It aims at
determining the extent of clay present in filler by knowing the amount of
methylene blue adsorbed per gram in filler. Clay may be a component of a
drilling fluid, a binder in foundry sand, or a component in another
application. Presence of clay will attract more water which is responsible
Page | 55

for most of the undesirable properties of the aggregate. Methylene Blue

value should be as low as possible as higher value would mean increase in
clay content.
The methylene blue adsorption index (MBI) is determined through a laboratory procedure in
which a solution of methylene blue made with de-ionized water is titrated in 1 mL increments
into an aqueous solution in which the sample being assessed has been well dispersed.
Titration continues until a permanent blue halo indicates the presence of the methylene blue
cation. The Methylene Blue (MB) cation displaces Na+, Ca2+, K +, and Mg2+ cations located
on the surfaces of clay particles allowing estimation of the specific surface area of clay
minerals present.

Calculation for the methylene blue index is done as follows:

MBI =

C V
W

Where,
MBI =methylene blue index for the clay in meq/100 g clay,
C =milliequivalents of methylene blue per millilitre
V =millilitres of methylene blue solution required for the titration,
W = grams of dry material

3.2.2 TOUGHNESS AND HARDNESS

Aggregates are subjected to additional crushing abrasive wear during
manufacture,

placing

and

compaction

of

asphalt

paving

mixes.

Aggregates are also subjected to abrasion under traffic loads. They must
exhibit, to a certain degree, an ability to resist crushing, degradation and
disintegration. Aggregates at or near the pavement surface require
greater toughness than aggregate in the lower layers where loads have
dissipated or are not as concentrated.

[18]

3.2.2.1 LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST

Page | 56

The Los Angeles Abrasion test measures wear or abrasion resistance of

mineral aggregate. The aggregate used in surface course of the highway
pavements are subjected to wearing due to movement of traffic. When
vehicles move on the road, the soil particles present between the
pneumatic tyres and road surface cause abrasion of road aggregates. The
steel reamed wheels of animal driven vehicles also cause considerable
abrasion of the road surface. Therefore, the road aggregates should be
hard enough to resist abrasion. Resistance to abrasion of aggregate is
determined in laboratory by Los Angeles test machine.
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to produce abrasive action by
use of standard steel balls which when mixed with aggregates and rotated
in a drum for specific number of revolutions also causes impact on
aggregates. The percentage wear of the aggregates due to rubbing with
steel balls is determined and is known as Los Angeles Abrasion Value.
Relatively high resistance to wear, as indicated by a low percent of
abrasion loss, is a desirable characteristic of aggregates to be used in
asphalt pavement surface layers. Aggregates having higher abrasion
losses, within limits, may generally be used in lower pavement layers
where they will not be subjected to the high stresses caused by traffic.
3.2.2.2 AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE TEST
The Aggregate Impact Value Test measures the toughness of the
aggregate. The property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness. Due to
movement of vehicles on the road the aggregates are subjected to impact resulting in their
breaking into smaller pieces. The aggregates should therefore have sufficient toughness to
resist their disintegration due to impact. This characteristic is measured by impact value
test. The aggregate impact value is a measure of resistance to sudden impact or shock,
which may differ from its resistance to gradually applied compressive load.
The aggregate impact value of coarse aggregate provides a relative
measure of the resistance of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact. The
oven dried and accurately weighed aggregates are subjected to a total of
15 blows of specified weight and fall and percentage of fines (finer than
Page | 57

2.36 mm) formed in terms of the total weight of the sample is expressed
as the aggregate impact value.
3.2.3 PARTICLE SHAPE
Particle shape changes the workability of the paving mix as well as the
compactive effort necessary to obtain the required density. Particle shape
also has an effect on the strength of the asphalt mix. Irregular or angular
particles, such as crushed stone and gravels, and some natural gravels
and sands, tend to interlock when compacted and resist displacement.
Best interlock is generally obtained with sharp-cornered cubical-shaped
particles; it is generally least for round particles.
Rounded particles such as most natural gravels and sands from stream
beds are used successfully in asphalt paving mixes. However, since a
higher density is possible with round particles, the amount of asphalt in
the mix is usually a more critical factor in dense-graded mixes.
Many asphalt mixes contain both angular and rounded aggregate
particles. The coarse aggregate fraction is usually crushed stone or
crushed gravel, and the fine aggregate is usually a natural sand (rounded
particles) or stone screenings. Such mixes rely principally on crushed
aggregates for strength and rounded sand particles for workability and
ease of compaction. [18]

3.2.3.1 FLAKINESS TEST

It is undesirable to use flaky particles in road construction especially in
surface course. Because, when the load acts along the thin axis (along
the axis of minimum moment of inertia) of the Flaky flat particles it
may get broken easily. In order to avoid that the particles have to be
tested for their flakiness indices values to check their suitability in using
as road construction materials.
In order to calculate the flakiness index of the entire sample of
aggregates, first the weight of each fraction of aggregate passing and

Page | 58

retained on the specified set of sieves is noted. Each piece of these are
tried to be passed through the slot of the specified thickness of the
thickness gauge are found and weighed. Then the flakiness index is the
total weight of the material passing through the various thickness gauges,
expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample gauged.

3.2.3.2 ELONGATION TEST

The elongated shape of aggregates in road construction especially in
surface course is undesirable because, they cause inherent weaknesses
in road and also there are possibilities of breaking of these aggregates
due to the heavy loads imposed by vehicular traffic or at the time of
compaction. In order to avoid the above mentioned situation the particles
have to be tasted for their elongation indices values to check their
suitability in using as road construction materials.
In order to calculate the elongation index of the entire sample of
aggregates, first the weight of each fraction of aggregate passing and
retained on the specified set of sieves is noted. Each piece of these are
tried to be passed through specified length of the gauge length with its
longest side and those elongated pieces which do not pass the gauge are
separated and then the elongated index is the total weight of the material
retained on the various length gauges, expressed as a percentage of the
total weight of the sample gauged.
3.2.3.3 ANGULARITY NUMBER TEST
Round aggregates cause a severe problem in road construction; because of their round shape
and smooth surface which tends to slide away at the interface contact points on loading a
compacted layer of aggregate mix does not possess the required capacity to retain loads.
Angular shape whereas ensures good interlocking of aggregates in the
mix enhancing the strength. Therefore, it is important to determine the angularity
index for using aggregates in mixes. A single sized aggregate generally has solid volume of
67%, so, angularity number measures voids in excess of 33% only.

The normal aggregate which are suitable for making concrete may have angularity
Page | 59

number anything from 0 to 11.

Angularity number 0 represents the most practicable rounded aggregate
Angularity number 11 indicates the most angular aggregate that could be used for
making concrete.

Angularity number test gives an idea of how angular the aggregate is. This
is based on the percentage of voids in the aggregate after compaction in a
specified manner. In angularity number test, a quantity of single sized
aggregate is filled into a metal cylinder of 3 litre capacity. Then the
aggregate is compacted in a standard manner and the percentage of void
found out. If the void content of the aggregate is 33%, the angularity of
such aggregate is considered 0. If the void is 44%, the angularity number
of such aggregate is considered 11.
3.2.4 SURFACE TEXTURE
Like particle shape, the surface texture also influences the workability and
strength of asphalt paving mixtures. Surface texture has often been
considered more important than the shape of the aggregate particles. A
rough, sandpaper like surface texture as opposed to a smooth surface
tends to increase the strength of the paving mix and requires additional
asphalt to overcome the loss of workability. Voids in the compacted
mineral aggregates are also usually greater, which provide additional
space for the required increase of asphalt.
Natural gravels, such as river gravels often have a smooth surface texture
as well as round shaped particles. Crushing, however, often produces a
rough surface texture (especially along the fractured face) and changes
the particle shape. Smooth-surfaced aggregates may be easier to coat
with an asphalt film but the film will more readily adhere to rough
surfaces.
There is not an established method measuring surface texture but, this
characteristic is reflected in strength tests and workability of many asphalt
mixes. [18]
3.2.5 ABSORPTION
Page | 60

The porosity of an aggregate is generally indicated by the amount of

water it absorbs when soaked in water. A porous aggregate will also
absorb asphalt which will tend to make an asphalt mixture dry or less
cohesive.
An extra amount of asphalt must be incorporated into the paving mix to
compensate for the absorption of asphalt by the aggregate. Moreover,
aggregates that are very porous tend to require a significant amount of
extra asphalt to make up for the high absorption rate. Highly porous
aggregates normally are not used unless they possess certain other
qualities or properties that make them desirable in spite of the high
absorption rate. Blast furnace slag and many synthetic or manufactured
aggregates are lightweight materials that are highly porous. Their
lightness and wear resistant properties frequently outweigh the high
absorption rate consideration for use in pavement construction. [18]
3.2.6 AFFINITY FOR ASPHALT
Stripping-separation of the asphalt film from the aggregate through the
action of water-may make an aggregate material unsuitable for asphalt
paving mixes. Such material is referred to as hydrophilic (water loving).
Siliceous Aggregates such as quartzite and some granites are examples of
aggregates that may require attention from the stripping viewpoint.
Aggregates that exhibit a high degree of resistance to film stripping in the
presence of water are usually suitable for asphalt paving mixes. Such
aggregates are referred to as hydrophobic (water hating) aggregates.
Limestone, dolomite and traprock are usually highly resistant to asphalt
film stripping. A number of liquid antistrip additives are available to
improve water resistance. In addition, hydrated lime can be used for this
purpose. [18]
3.2.6.1 STRIPPING TEST
In some aggregate, silica content has more affinity towards water. If both bitumen and
aggregate are of same electric charge (+ve/-ve) then aggregate attracts water instead of

Page | 61

bitumen that remains electrically neutral. Therefore bitumen strips out from surface of
aggregate.
As in bituminous pavement, the adhesion of bitumen with aggregate is most important for
proper binding. During construction, surface of aggregate may not be coated fully with
bitumen because of mixing is not done at standard temperature, thin film of water present on
aggregate or dust/mud on surface of aggregate. Because of this compacted pavement surface
may not have proper adhesion or interlocking of bond between bitumen coated aggregate.
Under traffic loading, pavement surface fails and results into potholes.
The Stripping Test covers the static immersion method for determining
stripping value of aggregates used in road construction. Here the stripping
value is measured by visual inspection. In this test, about 200g of
aggregates passing 20 mm sieve and retained on 12.5 mm sieve are
taken and about 5 % by weight of the aggregate bitumen is taken. The
bitumen and aggregate is preheated separately. Then they are mixed
thoroughly and the mixture is transferred to a beaker and allowed to cool
to room temperature for 2 hours. It is then kept in water bath at a
temperature of 400C for 24 hours. Afterwards, the beaker is taken out and
allowed to cool at room temperature. The extent of the stripping is
estimated by visual examination when the mixture is immersed in water.

3.3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AGGREGATE

Several different types of specific gravity are commonly used depending
upon how the volume of water permeable voids (or pores) within the
aggregate are addressed.

Page | 62

Fig. 3.1 Schematic of aggregate showing its various parts

3.3.1 Apparent Specific Gravity, Gsa: The volume measurement only
includes the volume of the aggregate particle; it does not include
the volume of any water permeable voids. The mass measurement
only includes the aggregate particle. Apparent specific gravity is
intended to only measure the specific gravity of the solid volume,
therefore it will be the highest of the aggregate specific gravities. It
is formally defined as the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of the
impermeable portion of aggregate (does not include the permeable
pores in aggregate) to the mass of an equal volume of gas-free
distilled water at the stated temperature.[28]
3.3.2 Bulk Specific Gravity (Bulk Dry Specific Gravity), G sb: The
volume measurement includes the overall volume of the aggregate
particle as well as the volume of the water permeable voids. The
mass measurement only includes the aggregate particle. Since it
includes the water permeable void volume, bulk specific gravity will
be less than apparent specific gravity. It is formally defined as the
ratio of the mass of a unit volume of aggregate, including the water
permeable voids, at a stated temperature to the mass of an equal
volume of gas-free distilled water at the stated temperature.

[28]

Page | 63

3.3.3 Bulk Saturated Surface Dry (SSD) Specific Gravity: Volume

measurement includes the overall volume of the aggregate particle
as well as the volume of the water permeable voids. The mass
measurement includes the aggregate particle as well as the water
within the water permeable voids. It is formally defined as the ratio
of the mass of a unit volume of aggregate, including the weight of
water within the voids filled to the extent achieved by submerging in
water for approximately 15 hours, to the mass of an equal volume of
gas-free distilled water at the stated temperature. [28]
3.3.4 Effective Specific Gravity, Gse: Volume measurement includes the
volume of the aggregate particle plus the void volume that becomes
filled with water during the test soak period minus the volume of the
voids that absorb asphalt. Effective specific gravity lies between
apparent and bulk specific gravity. It is formally defined as the ratio
of the mass in air of a unit volume of a permeable material
(excluding voids permeable to asphalt) at a stated temperature to
the mass in air (of equal density) of an equal volume of gas-free
distilled water at a stated temperature. Effective specific gravity is
determined by a different procedure and is not covered in this
section.

[28]

3.4 AGGREGATE GRADATION

The particle size distribution, or gradation, of an aggregate is one of the
most influential aggregate characteristics in determining how it will
perform as a pavement material. In HMA, gradation helps to determine
almost

every

important

property

including stiffness,stability, durability, permeability, workability, fatigue

resistance, frictional

resistance and moisture

susceptibility.

In

PCC,

gradation helps to determine durability, porosity, workability, cement and

water requirements, strength, and shrinkage. Because of this, gradation is
a primary concern in HMA and PCC mix design and thus most agencies
specify allowable aggregate gradations for both.

Page | 64

The maximum size of an aggregate designates the smallest sieve through

which 100 percent of the material will pass. The nominal maximum size is
the largest sieve size upon which any of the aggregate material is
retained.

[29]

Maximum size and aggregate grading are invariably controlled by

specifications which prescribe the distribution of particle sizes to be used
for a particular aggregate material. The minimum lift thickness of a hot
mix asphalt course is directly related to the maximum aggregate size.
Aggregate are sometimes described on the basis of their gradation. Some
examples are

Dense or Well graded

Open graded
Gap graded
Uniformly Graded
Coarse graded
Fine graded

3.4.1 DESIRED GRADATION

Gradation has a profound effect on material performance. But the answer
to the question like what is the best gradation? will vary depending upon
the

material

(HMA

or

PCC),

its

desired

characteristics,

loading,

environmental, material, structural and mix property inputs.[30]

It might be reasonable to believe that the best gradation is one that
produces the maximum density. This would involve a particle arrangement
where smaller particles are packed between the larger particles, which
reduce the void space between particles. This creates more particle-toparticle contact, which in HMA would increase stability and reduce water
infiltration. In PCC, this reduced void space reduces the amount of cement
paste required. However, some minimum amount of void space is
necessary to:

Provide adequate volume for the binder to occupy.

Page | 65

Promote rapid drainage and resistance to frost action for base and
subbase courses.

Therefore, although it may not be the best aggregate gradation, a

maximum density gradation does provide a common reference. A widely
used equation to describe a maximum density gradation was developed
by Fuller and Thompson in 1907. Their basic equation is:
P=

d
D

( )

Where, P = % finer than the sieve

d= aggregate size being considered
D= maximum aggregate size to be used
n= parameter which adjusts curve for fineness or coarseness (for
maximum particle density n ~0.45 according to FHWA)
3.4.2 DENSE OR WELL-GRADED AGGREGATE
It refers to a gradation that is near the FHWAs 0.45 power curve for
maximum density. The most common HMA mix designs tend to use dense
graded aggregate. Typical gradations are near the 0.45 power curve but
not right on it. Generally, a true maximum density gradation (exactly on
the 0.45 power curve) would result in unacceptably low VMA.

[31]

Wide range of sizes

Grain-to-grain contact
Low void content
Low permeability
High stability
Difficult to compact

3.4.3 OPEN GRADED AGGREGATE

It refers to a gradation that contains only a small percentage of aggregate
particles in the small range. This results in more air voids because there
Page | 66

are not enough small particles to fill in the voids between the larger
particles. The curve is near vertical in the mid-size range, and flat and
near-zero in the small-size range. [31]

Few fine particles

Grain-to-grain contact
High void content
High permeability
High stability
Difficult to compact

3.4.4 GAP GRADED AGGREGATE

It refers to a gradation that misses a percentage of aggregate particles in
the mid-size range. The curve is flat in the mid-size range. Some PCC mix
designs use gap graded aggregate to provide a more economical mix
since less sand can be used for a given workability. HMA gap graded mixes
can be prone to segregation during placement. [31]

Missing middle sizes

No grain-to-grain contact
Moderate void content
Moderate permeability
Low stability
Easy to compact

3.4.5 UNIFORMLY GRADED AGGREGATE

It refers to a gradation that contains most of the particles in a very narrow
size range. In essence, all the particles are the same size. The curve is
steep and only occupies the narrow size range specified.

[31]

Narrow range of sizes

Grain-to-grain contact
High void content
High permeability
Low stability
Difficult to compact

3.4.6 COARSE GRADATION

Page | 67

It is the gradation that, when plotted on the 0.45 power gradation graph,
falls mostly below the 0.45 power maximum density line. The term
generally applies to dense graded aggregate.

3.4.7 FINE GRADATION

It is the gradation that, when plotted on the 0.45 power gradation graph,
falls mostly above the 0.45 power maximum density line. The term
generally applies to dense graded aggregate.
3.4.8 SUPERPAVE GRADATION OF AGGREGATE
Numbers of tests are recommended in the specifications to judge the properties of the
aggregates, e.g. strength, hardness, toughness, durability, angularity, shape factors, clay
content, adhesion to binder etc. Angularity ensures adequate shear strength due to aggregate
interlocking, and limiting flakiness ensures that aggregates will not break during compaction
and handling. Theoretically, it is difficult to predict the aggregate volumetric parameters,
even the resultant void ratio, when the gradation curve is known. The Fullers experimental
study for minimum void distribution still forms the basis of these exercises. Strategic
Highway Research Program (SHRP), USA formed a 14 member Expert Task Group for
evolution of appropriate aggregate gradation to be used for Superpave. The group, after
several rounds of discussions decided to use 0.45 power Fullers gradation as the reference
gradation, with certain restricted zones and control points. The restricted zone and control
points are incorporated in order to ensure certain proportion of fines [6]

for proper interlocking of aggregates

to avoid the fall in shear strength of mix due to excess of fines and
to maintain requisite Voids in Mineral Aggregates (VMA).

These control points and restriction zones are more as guidelines for
selecting a gradation than a compulsion to be followed.
A large number of researches have been reported which have studied performances of various
alternative gradations. In India also some studies [Das et al. 2004] have been carried out on
various non-standard gradations to see whether the resultant mixes show better performance
than the standard mixes.
3.4.9 RESTRICTED ZONE
Page | 68

The restricted zone refers to a particular area of the FHWAs 0.45 power
gradation graph associated with Superpave mix designs. It was originally
observed that mixes closely following the 0.45 power maximum density
line in the finer gradations sometimes had unacceptably low VMA.
Therefore, in an attempt to minimize this problem, Superpave included a
restricted zone through which a typical gradation should not pass as a
recommended guideline. However, since the restricted zones original
inception, NCHRP Report 464 The Restricted Zone in the Superpave
Aggregate Gradation Specification has concluded that Gradations that
violated the restricted zone performed similarly to or better than the
mixes having gradations passing outside the restricted zone; therefore,
the restricted zone requirement is redundant for mixes meeting all
Superpave volumetric parameters. It has been recommended to delete
references to the restricted zone as either a requirement or a guideline
from the AASHTO specification (AASHTO MP 2) and practice (AASHTO PP
28) for Superpave volumetric mix design.

3.5

EFFECT

OF

AGGREGATE

[32]

GRADATION

ON

HMA

PROPERTIES
Gradation is perhaps the most important property of an aggregate. The
link between aggregate gradation and asphalt mixture performance was
recognised early in the development of mix design methods. Gradation
affects almost all the important properties of HMA, including stiffness,
stability, durability, permeability, workability, fatigue resistance, frictional
resistance and resistance to moisture damage. The mixture volumetric
properties including asphalt content, VMA and VFA have been identified as
important parameters for durability and performance. However, the VMA
is considered the most important parameter and is used in the superpave
mixture design specifications to eliminate use of potentially poor
performing mixtures.

[33]

3.5.1 METHODS FOR ANALYSING GRADATIONS

Page | 69

Prior to the establishment of formal mixture design methods, gradation

was evaluated to determine and asphalt requirements were calculated to
provide satisfactory durability with minimum amount of asphalt binder. By
the 1920s, the Hubbard Field method of mix design recognized the
importance of air voids as a key parameter controlling field performance
of mixtures. The Hubbard-Field mix design is based on the need for air
voids and for a minimum amount of asphalt binder. Voids in total mix and
voids and voids in aggregate mass were specified. Early mixture design
methods were based on a belief that a gradation law existed that
controlled asphalt mixture properties. Considerable research effort was
expanded to discover this law was the belief that an ideal gradation
existed that would provide adequate space for minimum amount of
asphalt and air voids and adequate stability under traffic.
Today, aggregate gradations are commonly evaluated using the 0.45
power chart. Despite the charts usefulness, some confusion exists
regarding its practical application. One use of the 0.45 power chart is to
estimate available VMA of compacted mixtures. Increased VMA is obtained
by moving further from the maximum density lines.
The packing characteristics of coated aggregate particles in an asphalt
mixture are related to aggregate surface characteristics and gradation.
Aggregate surface characteristics of the particles include angularity and
surface texture. Gradation is the size distribution of the particles. When
selecting aggregate for a project, surface characteristics may not be
selected to obtain VMA. Conversely, VMA of a mixture is essentially
obtained by default. If additional VMA is required, changes are usually
made to the aggregate gradation. In some cases, natural sands, which are
predominantly -600 micron sieve material, are added.
Natural sands have been identified as a cause of decreased resistance to
permanent deformation and of tender mix problems during construction.
As a result, limits have been placed on sand content and increases in VMA
must be achieved by overall adjustment of gradation. Unlike natural sand
addition, gradation adjustment can sometimes produce confusing results.

Page | 70

Moving away from the maximum density line sometimes causes

decreases rather than increases in VMA.
In the recent years, the Bailey method was developed to select aggregate
gradations for HMA mixture design. The Bailey method was originally
developed by the Illinois DOT and has become a systematic approach to
aggregate blending that is applicable to all dense graded asphalt
mixtures, regardless of the maximum size aggregate in the mixture. The
Bailey method uses two principles that are the basis of the relationship
between aggregate gradation and mixture volumetric: aggregate packing
and definition of coarse and fine aggregate.
In the Bailey method, aggregate interlock is selected as a design input.
Gradation selection considers the packing characteristics of aggregates.
The parameters in the method are related directly to VMA, air voids and
compaction properties. The definition of coarse and fine is more
specific in order to determine the packing and aggregates in various sized
mixtures:

Coarse Aggregate: Large aggregate particles that when placed in a

unit volume creates voids.

Fine Aggregate: Aggregate particles that can fill the voids created by
the coarse aggregate in the mixture.

The primary steps in the bailey method are (1) comparison of aggregates
by volume and (2) analysing the combined blend. Aggregate is blended by
volume. The combined blend is broken down into three distinct portions:
coarse aggregate, coarse portion of fine aggregate and fine portion of fine
aggregate. Each portion is evaluated individually. The design and analysis
of an aggregate blend using the Bailey method of gradation selection is
built on four parameters:
1

Chosen unit weight, which describes the interlock of the coarse

aggregate;
CA Ratio: Coarse Aggregate Ratio, which describes gradation of

coarse aggregate;
FAc Ratio: fine aggregate coarse ratio, which describes gradation of
coarse portion of fine aggregate; and

Page | 71

FAf Ratio: fine aggregate fine ratio, which describes gradation of fine
portion of fine aggregate;

Changes to any of these parameters will affect the air voids, VMA,
constructability and performance of the resulting asphalt mixture. These
changes are the same whether the change is made in the laboratory
during design or in the field during construction. [33]
3.5.2 EFFECT OF AGGREGATE FINES AND FILLERS ON HMA
PERFORMANCE
Mineral fillers were originally added to dense graded HMA paving mixtures
to fill the voids in the aggregate skeleton and to reduce the voids in the
mixture. When asphalt binder is mixed with aggregate, the fines mix with
the asphalt binder to form a fines-asphalt mortar. The additions of fines to
the asphalt binder can have three main effects: extend the asphalt binder
or stiffen the asphalt binder or both. This modification to the binder that
may take place because of the addition of fines could, in turn, affect HMA
properties.
Extensive research efforts on mineral filler and baghouse fines have been
made by many researchers. Kandhal and Parker summarized the
influences mineral fillers can have on the performance of HMA mixtures as
follows:

Depending on the particle size, fines can act as filler or an extender

of asphalt cement binder. In this later case, an over-rich HMA mix
can lead to flushing and rutting. In many cases, the amount of
asphalt cement used must be reduced to prevent a loss of stability

or pavement bleeding.
Some fines have a considerable effect on the asphalt cement,
making it act as a much stiffer grade of asphalt cement compared
with the neat asphalt cement grade and thus, affecting the HMA
pavement performance including its fracture behaviour.

[33]

REFERENCES

Page | 72

[1] nptel.ac.in/courses/105101087/downloads/Lec-24.pdf
[2]

http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/hma-mix-design-

fundamentals
[3] Brian J. Coree, Ph.D., The Difficult Nature of Minimum VMA: A Historical
Perspective, P.E., November, 1998
[4] www.state.in.us/indot/files/chapter_04.pdf
[5] http://www.engineeringcivil.com/what-is-the-importance-of-air-voidcontent-in-bituminous-pavements.html
[6] On Bituminous Mix Design, Animesh Das,
home.iitk.ac.in/~adas/article06.pdf
[7] http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/hma-performance-tests
[8] Elton R. Brown, Stephen A. Cross, A National Study of Rutting in Hot
Mix Asphalt (HMA) Pavements, NCAT Report, Annual Meeting of the
Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, February 1992
[9] Mohseni and Haleh Azari, Effective Temperature for Permanent
Deformation Testing of Asphalt Mixtures, Alaeddin Pavement Systems Inc.,
USA; AASHTO Materials Reference Laboratory, National Institute of
Standards and Technology, USA
[10] Meor Othman Hamzah, Ramadhansyah Putra Jaya, Joewono Prasetijo,
Khairun Azizi M.A., Effects of Temperature and Binder Type on the
Dynamic Creep of Asphaltic Concrete Incorporating Geometrically Cubical
Aggregates Subjected to Ageing, Modern Applied Science, Volume 3, Issue
7, 2009
[11] Hasan Ziari, Rezvan Babagoli and Ali Akbari, Investigation of fatigue and
rutting performance of hot mix asphalt mixtures prepared by bentonite-modified bitumen,
Road Materials and Pavement Design, 2014
[12] Baha Vural KOK and Necati KULOGLU, The Effects of Different Binders on
Mechanical Properties of Hot Mix Asphalt, International Journal of Science & Technology,
Volume 2, Issue 1, 41-48, 2007
Page | 73

[13] Adriana Vargas-Nordcbeck and David H. Timm, Rutting characterization of warm mix
asphalt and high RAP mixtures, Road Materials and Pavement Design, Vol. 13, Issue. S1, 1
20, 2012
[14] Adriana Vargas-Nordcbeck, David H. Timm, Physical and Structural Characterization
of Sustainable Asphalt Pavement Sections at the NCAT Test Track, NCAT Report 13-02, P.E.,
National Center for Asphalt Technology-Auburn University, 2013
[15] www.virginiadot.org/business/resources/bu-mat-chapt2ap.pdf
[16] S. S. Awanti, M. S. Amarnath and A. Veeraragavan, Laboratory
Evaluation of SBS Modified Bituminous Paving Mix, Journal of Materials in
Civil Engineering, ASCE, 327-330, 2008
[17] Ali Al-Hadidy, Ayman Talib Hameed, Minimizing the Moisture Damage
and Drain down of Iraqi SMA Mixtures Using Waste Additives, Tikrit Journal
of Engineering Sciences, Vol.18, Issue 3, 68-80, 2011
[18] The Asphalt Handbook, Asphalt institute, Manual Series No. 4 (MS-4),
1989 Edition
[19] http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-tarmac-andvs-asphalt-and-vs-bitumen
[20] http://theconstructor.org/practical-guide
[21] nptel.ac.in/courses/105101087/downloads/Lec-23.pdf
[22] Apparao G, Rajesh G, Gopala Raju S.S.S.V, Grading System in Paving
Bitumen An Indian Scenario, International Journal of Civil Engineering
and Technology (IJCIET), Volume 4, Issue 2, 208-214, 2013
[23] Zhu J., Birgisson B., Kringos N, Polymer modification of bitumen:
Advances and challenges, European Polymer Journal, 54: 18-57, 2014
[24] Yvonne Becker, Maryro P. Mndez, Yajaira Rodrguez, Polymer
Modified Asphalt, Vision Tecnologica, 9, 39-49, 2001
[25] Juan Camilo Munera, Mnica Alvarez Lainez, Alex Ossa, Effect of
polymer modification on the microstructure of bitumen. 5th Eurasphalt &
Eurobitume Congress, Istanbul, 13-15th June 2012
Page | 74

[26] S. Hassan Firoozifar, Yashar Azimi Alamdary, Orang Farzaneh,

Investigation of novel methods to improve the storage stability and low
temperature susceptivity of polyethylene modified bitumens. Petroleum
and Coal, 52(2), 123-128, 2010
[27] http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/aggregate
[28] http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/aggregate-specific-gravity
[29] Specifications for Road and Bridge Works Ministry of Shipping, Road
Transport & Highways (Fifth Revision), Published by IRC
[30] http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/gradation-and-size
[31] http://www.memphis.edu/libraries/resources/index.php
[32] http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/gradation-and-size
[33] NCHRP REPORT 539, National Co-operative Highway Research
Program, Aggregate Properties and the performance of superpave
designed Hot Mix Asphalt, Transportation Research Board of the National
Academics

Page | 75