PERFORMANCE OF FLAT PLATE

SOLAR COLLECTORS
Hot fluid out

Cover

Header

Just a heat
exchanger

Risers

Absorber
plate
Insulation
Fluid in

Pg 139

Absorber plate and fluid passageways

HEADER RISER

Absorber plate with

pressed channels

Parallel riser tubes

Bond between absorber

and riser

Inflated Cu tube

Copper

Aluminium

SERPENTINE ABSORBER

Bonding or welding 2 pressed plates

FLOODED PLATE ABSORBER

Fluid passageways and

short fins

Bonding or welding 2 pressed plates

You Tube Videos

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6DKJ4AkxJr0
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N6QOZGgbj-g
(55s)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtzRAjW6KO0

Home made
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FktZEtC_NeM

ENERGY BALANCE

Cover reflection
rG

Heat loss
UL (Tp Ta)

Cover
(1-r)tG

Plate reflection
(1-r)rptG
Absorber plate
Energy absorbed
(1-r) tapG

Useful gain Qu

COLLECTOR COVERS
Reflection of radiation
Reflection can be specular (ie mirror like) or diffuse (reflected
radiation uniform in all directions. Some reflections are a complicated
combination of both types of reflection.

Reflection of beam radiation

Reflection of beam radiation from cover is approximately specular unless

the upper surface of the cover has a special non-reflecting coating.

SNELLS LAW
The incident and refraction angles
are related by Snells law

sin2 n1
sin1 n2

1
n1 refractive index
n2
2

REFLECTION AT A
SINGLE INTERFACE
If radiation passes from medium 1 with refractive index n1 to
medium 2 with refractive index n2 the ratio of the reflected,
GR, to incident, Go, intensity for non-polarised radiation is:
GR
r
Go

1
2

( r r )

1
2

sin 2 (2 - 1 ) tan 2 (2 - 1 )

2
sin

tan

(
)
(
)
2
1
2
1

Eq 102

1
n1 refractive index

n2
2

NORMAL INCIDENCE
REFLECTION
After some algebra equation 102 gives

n1 - n2
r

n
1 2

For glass n =1.5 to 1.54 (about 1.526 for solar wavelengths),

For Tedlar n = 1.45; polycarbonate n = 1.6; air n =1.0.
For normal incidence reflection at first interface is

r 1.526 - 1
1.526 1

= 0.0434

If incidence angle to normal = 45

2 =27.6

r 1 0.089 0.098 0.0539

2 0.91

10.18

Multiple Interfaces
o

Previous slide showed about 4% of light (or energy)

reflected normally at glass air interface.
What happens if you have a stack of say 30 such
interfaces?

REFLECTION FROM A SLAB OF MATERIAL

(like collector covers)
r

1-r

(1-r)2r

(1-r)2r3

(1-r)2r5

r(1-r)

(1-r)2

(1-r)2r2

(1-r)2r4

Ray path through an isolated slab of non-absorbing material

TOTAL RADIATION REFLECTED

r (1 - r ) r (1 - r )
2

r (1 - 2r ) r
r ...
2
1- r
3

For two polarisation components

r eff

1
2

( r

r )

1
2

r (1 - 2 r ) r
r (1 - 2r ) r

2
2
1
r
1
r

Hence for normal incidence on a slab of glass (ignoring absorption)

r eff = 0.083
r eff

at 45

= 0.102

Absorption and transmission of radiation

in partially transparent media
Ray path through a slab of partially absorbing material
r

aC(1-r)

(1-r)2(1-ac)2r

(1-r)2(1-a )4r3

Radiation
absorbed
and
converted
to heat

aC(1-r)(1-aC)r

(1-r)2(1-aC)

(1-r)2(1-aC)3r2

(1-r)2(1-a )6r5

(1-r)2(1-aC)5r4

aC= absorptance of cover material per pass

Re-emittance is at different wavelength so can be considered separate

TOTAL RADIATION REFLECTED

r eff

2
r (1 - 2r ) r (1 - a )2

1
2
r
r
(1
a
)
(
)
c
c
1


2
2
2
2
2
1 - r (1 - ac )
1 - r (1 - ac )

If aC= 0.05 (window glass) then for normal incidence

reff (with aC) = 0.081
reff (without aC) = 0.083
The effective reflectance is reduced due to less radiation
reaching the back face

TOTAL ENERGY ABSORBED

aeff

(1 - r )a c
(1 - r )a c
1

2 1 - (1 - a c ) r
1
(1
a
)
r
c

If

aC = 0.05 then

reff = 0.0539 and aeff = 0.0498 for a 45o incident angle

TOTAL TRANSMITTED ENERGY

2
2

(1
r
)
(1
a
)
(1
r
)
(1 - a c )
c
1
t

2
2
2 2
eff 2 1 - (1 - a c ) r
1 - (1 - a c ) r

For normal incidence on glass (soda iron)

teff = 0.85 for window glass
teff = 0.92 for low iron solar-glass

EVALUATION OF ABSORPTION
As radiation passes through an absorbing material the intensity
decreases as a function of distance traversed through the layer and
the fractional reduction of intensity is a function of the material
properties and the distance traversed.

dil Kl il dS
S = distance, i = intensity
Kl is the extinction coefficient, units of m-1 and is a function of
incident radiation wavelength, source temperature and material
composition.

ABSORPTANCE PER PASS

The previous equation can be integrated to give

IL
e - KL
Io

transmission

also

(1 - aC )

IL
Io

- KL

Hence

aC 1 - e

- KL

Values of extinction coefficient range between 4 m-1 for "water

white" glass to 15 to 18 m-1for window glass.

ABSORPTION OF
INCIDENT RADIATION
Aborption
aC

1 - e

- Kt /cos 2

Transmission

t e

- Kt /cos 2

2 L

TYPICAL TRANSMISSION

What is the point of all this?

Hot fluid out

Cover

Header
Risers

Absorber
plate
Insulation
Fluid in

ENERGY BALANCE

Cover reflection
rG

Heat loss
UL (Tp Ta)

Cover
(1-r)tG

Plate reflection
(1-r)rptG
Absorber plate
Energy absorbed
(1-r) tapG

Useful gain Qu

Note: Do not confuse plate with c!

USEFUL HEAT GAIN

Useful heat gain by a solar collector is

Qu A ta eff G - U L (Tp - Ta )

To eliminate the unknown plate temperature the above equation can be

transformed in terms of the mean fluid temperature.

Qu F A ta eff G - U L (T - Ta )

where F is the collector efficiency factor, a constant for a particular

collector.

The useful energy could also be expressed in terms of the inlet

temperature and a flow correction factor FR

Qu FR A ta eff G - U L (Ti - Ta )

The collector heat removal factor FR has strong dependence on mass

flow rate.

COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY

OR

Qu

FR ta - U L
AG

Qu

F'
AG

Ti - Ta
G

T -Ta
ta - U L G

INCIDENCE ANGLE MODIFIER

Qu

FR ta - U L
AG

Ti - Ta
G

where

ta t a normal 1 b
- 1
cos

ALTERNATIVE COLLECTOR
EFFICIENCY FUNCTIONS
Correlating of collector data in Australia is based on mean temp.:

T - Ta
A- B

This form of efficiency correlation has the advantage that the terms A
and B do not depend on the water flow rate, however T is flow
dependent.
The alternative correlation scheme is to relate the heat loss to Ti -Ta and
to introduce other correction factors to describe the flow rate
dependence of the correlation.
Ti - Ta

A - B

This function is only valid for the flow rate used during the testing

CONVERSION OF EFFICIENCY FUNCTION

FROM Tm TO Ti FUNCTION
Collector useful heat output

G m Cp (To - Ti )

T - Ta
A- B

G
To Ti To - Ti
Ti
T

Ti
2mC p
2
2
Hence

A- B
Ti - Ta / G
2mC p

B
1
A - B (Ti - Ta ) / G
2
mC
p

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALTERNATIVE

EFFICIENCY FUNCTION COEFFICIENTS

B
1
A - B (Ti - Ta ) / G

2mC p

Also

FR ta - U L

Ti - Ta
G

Hence

m Cp
FR ta A
m Cp B / 2

m Cp
FRU L B
mC p B / 2

CPCs for Methanol Reforming

Portable charging for

electronics

No tracking

1.75 x concentration

70% efficiency at
250oC

Whadya Reckn?

http://www.sciencedirect.com.wwwproxy0.library.unsw.edu.au/science/article/pii/S030626191400052X#

BREAK

SOLAR COLLECTOR TESTING

Outlet temperature
sensor

Ambient conditions
wind,
radiation,
ambient temperature

Air
vent

Closed circuit

r
to
c
lle

r
la
o
S

co

Wind generator
Inlet temperature
Flow mixer before
temperature transducer

Heater/cooler for primary

temperature control

Secondary temperature
regulator

Bypass valve

Flow meter

Safety
valve

Filter

Flow control
valve

pump
Expansion
tank

COLLECTOR TESTING
(Steady state performance)
The environmental conditions and collector operation must be as steady
as possible during the test.
For clear dry locations such as in Australia the required steady
conditions are readily satisfied and outdoor characterization of
collectors typically requires only a few days of testing.

For some locations steady state outdoor conditions may be difficult to

achieve and testing may only be possible during summer.

PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENTS
Steady State glazed collect
(AS2535 and ISO9806-1)

Global solar irradiance in the collector plane, G

Diffuse solar irradiance at the collector aperture, Gd
Angle of incidence of direct solar radiation,
Air speed above the collector aperture (very important for
unglazed collectors ), u
Air temperature, Ta
Heat transfer fluid temperature at the collector inlet, Ti
Temperature rise of the fluid between the inlet and outlet of the
collector (To Tin )
Fluid flow rate, m
Gross Area and aperture Area, Ag

COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY
energy out mCp (T0 -Ti )

energy in
Ag Gn

Maximum deviation of measured parameters for steady-state glazed

collector testing

TEST CONDITIONS (ISO9806-2)

Solar irradiation greater than 800 W/m2.
Angle of incidence of direct radiation within range in which the
incidence angle modifier is within 2 % of the normal incidence
value. For flat-plate collectors this requires the angle of incidence
to be less than 30.
Wind speed greater than 2 m/s, if the natural wind is less than 2
m/s an artificial wind generator must be used.
Fluid flow rate set at 0.02 kg/s m2 (unless other value specified by
the manufacturer). The flow rate should be stable to within 1 %
during each test but may vary by up to 10 % between different
tests.
Temperature rise greater than 1.5K to minimise measurement error.

TYPICAL TEST RESULTS

Instantaneuos efficiency (%)

100

80

60

40

20

0
0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

(tm - ta)/G (m2K/W)

0.06

0.07

0.08

CORRELATION OF TEST RESULTS

Linear

0 - a0

(T - T )
a

Nonlinear (not second order polynominal)

(T - T ) - a (T - T )

0 - a0

NONLINEAR COLLECTOR CHARACTERISTIC

0.9
0.8
0.7

Efficiency

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
G = 600 W/m

0.2
G = 800 W/m

0.1
G = 1000 W/m

0.0
0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08
0.10
(tm-ta)/G

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

QUALITY TEST PROCEDURES

Solar collectors must be able to withstand cyclic thermal operation
between one to ten times per day, as well extreme operating
conditions such as internal and external thermal shocks, stagnation,
freezing and mechanical impact due to hail and pressure pulsations.
Sequence
Test
Collector
1
Internal pressure
A
2
High temperature resistance
A
3
Exposure
A, B & C
4
External thermal shock
A
5
Internal thermal shock
A
6
Rain penetration
A
7
Freeze resistance
A
8
Internal pressure (retest)
A
9
Thermal performance
A
10
Impact resistance
A or B
11
Final inspection
A, B & C

AUSTRALIAN DESIGN AND

CONSTRUCTION STANDARD (AS/NZS 2712)
Glazing material quality: The collector external glazing material
must be glass or rigid transparent plastic that must meet the following
criteria after 2000 hours of accelerated weathering in a weather
simulation chamber.

No evidence of cracking or crazing.

Optical transmission loss no greater than 10%.

Tensile strength of plastic glazing shall not decrease by more

than 20%.
Resistance to stagnation conditions: A 10 day high temperature
test sequence is defined to assess the ability of a collector to survive
stagnation conditions.

AS/NZS 2712 DESIGN TESTS

Hail resistance: An impact test is defined to determine the ability
of a collector to withstand impact forces due to hailstones or flying
objects.
Protection against ingress of water: A high flow rate rain test is
defined to assess seals and vents under storm conditions.
Freeze protection: A two level test of freeze resistance is defined.
Collectors that meet the lower specification level are only suitable
for use near the coast or in Northern Australia.
Structural strength: The collector must be able to withstand a
static load of 30% of its dry mass applied at one corner while the
other corners rigidly fastened.

AS/NZS 2712 DESIGN TESTS

Stagnation resistance: Solar collector should be able to with
stand dry stagnation under extreme summer conditions.

Water dumping: Complete solar water heating system must be able

to withstand operation in summer when there is no hot water use
(i.e. owners on holidays), without dumping large volumes of
boiling water.

SOLAR COLLECTOR PERFORMANCE

MAP
Roof integrated
swimming pool collector
1.0

Swimming pool
collector

Optical
efficiency
o

Flat plate
selective

0.75

Flat plate
black surface

Evacuated
tubes

0.5
1

10

Heat loss coefficient FrUl

SOLAR SIMULATORS (Point Source)

SOLAR SIMULATORS (Multi-Lamp)

Solar Furnaces

DLR

Quality?
Match power,
spectrum, or
both? ($-$$$$)

SOLAR SIMULATOR CHARACTERISTICS

Spectra of source radiation is important for testing selective surface
collectors that have peak and dips in their absorption characteristic.
Care must be taken to achieve uniform flux over the collector surface limited size of collector.
To simulate the sky temperature in an enclosed test room a refrigerated
ceiling is required.
Fans required to simulate convective heat loss from the collector.
Concentrators cannot be tested due to non-parallel nature of radiation
from a solar simulator.

SIMULATOR OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS

Spectral distribution between 0.3 and 3 mm should be equivalent to air
mass 1.5, ISO9845-1.
In multi-lamp simulators the spectrum of the lamp array changes with
time and as the lamps are replaced. The spectral characteristics of the
lamp array must be determined on a regular basis.
Long wave length thermal irradiance must be less than +50 W/m2
(typically -100 W/m2 outdoors). The thermal irradiance will change if
the simulator or test rig are reconfigured, hence the thermal irradiation
should be measured for each test.

Mid-Session Test
Next Week, During Lecture

2 Questions
- Tilted/Diffuse Irradiance
- Stagnation Temperature

2012 Test

2012 Test

Do one more for fun

Other Solar Collectors

Stagnation Temperatures
Avg. Temps (distance)
Mercury
167oC (0.4 AU)
Venus
464oC (0.7 AU)
Earth
15oC (1 AU)
Mars
-63oC (1.5 AU)
Jupiter
-108oC (5.2 AU)
Saturn
-139oC (9.5 AU)
Uranus
-215oC (19.2 AU)
Neptune
-201oC (30.1 AU)