HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW

UNIVERSITY

A PROJECT REPORT ON
MEANING AND

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIOLOGY

SUBMITTED TO:
Dr. UTTAM KUMAR PANDA
(Faculty of Sociology)
Submitted By:
Ajay Lakra
Roll No. - 09
Semester- I

Acknowledgements
I, AJAY LAKRA, feel myself highly elated, as it gives me tremendous pleasure to come
out with work on the topic MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIOLOGY .
First and foremost, I take this opportunity to thank Dr. UTTAM KUMAR PANDA
Faculty, Sociology (Minor), Hidayatullah National Law University, Raipur for allotting me such
topic to work on. He has been very kind in providing inputs for this work, by way of his
suggestions.
I would also like to thank my dear colleagues and friends in the University, who have
helped me with ideas about this work. Last, but not the least I thank the University
Administration for equipping the University with such good library and I.T. facilities, without
which, no doubt this work would not have taken this shape in correct time.

AJAY LAKRA,
BATCH -XII,
B.A. LL.B. (HONS.).

Table of Content
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................

1. Introduction..............................................................
..............................
2. Objectives.................................................................
...............................
3. Research
Methodology..............................................................
.............
4. Meaning

and

Characteristics

of

sociology...........................................
4.1 Meaning.................................................................................................................
4.2 Definition..............................................................................................................

5. Defination

of

Sociology

by

different

Sociologist....................................
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

Iban Khaldum.........................................................................................
AugusteComte......................................................................................................
Karl Marx.......................................................................................................
Herbert Spencer

6. Three

Major

Perspective

of

Sociology..................................................
6.1 The Symbolic interactionist perspective........................................
6.2 The functionalist perspective.........................................................
6.3 The conflict perspective.................................................................

7. Major

concern

of

Sociology..................................................................
8. Conclusion
9. Bibliography

Introduction
According to Anthony Giddens

Sociology is the study of human social life, groups and societies. It is a dazzling and compelling
enterprise, having as its subject matter our own behaviour as social beings.
The scope of sociology is extremely wide, ranging from the analysis of passing encounters
between individuals in the street up to the investigation of world-wide social processes
In The Complete A-Z Sociology Handbook (1996) Tony Lawson and Joan Garrod - two
writers with recent experience of being am AQA Chief Examiner - provide the following
definition:
Sociology is the study of individuals in groups and social formations in a systematic way, which
grew out of the search for understanding associated with the industrial and scientific revolutions
of the 18th and 19th centuries. It is now an established discipline in post-16 education and has
offered generations of students insights into the social world they inhabit. Often accused by the
right of being left-wing, it includes individuals of every political opinion who are united by a
commitment to search for knowledge and understanding through providing evidence for the
theories and insights they offer.
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science (a term with which it is sometimes
synonymous) which uses various methods of empirical investigation. and critical analysis to
develop a body of knowledge about human social activity. For many sociologists the goal is to
conduct research which may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, while others focus
primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges
from the micro level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and the
social structure.
The traditional focuses of sociology have included social stratification, social class, culture,
social mobility, religion, secularization, law, and deviance. As all spheres of human activity are
affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency, sociology has gradually
expanded its focus to further subjects, such as health, medical, military and penal institutions, the
Internet, and the role of social activity in the development of scientific knowledge.
The range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety
of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth

century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches to the

analysis of society. Conversely, recent decades have seen the rise of new analytically,
mathematically and computationally rigorous techniques, such as agent-based modeling and
social network analysis. Sociology should not be confused with various general social studies
courses which bear little relation to sociological theory or social science research methodology.1

Objective

To study the meaning and character of Sociology,

To study the major perspectives of sociology,
To discus views on sociology given by the founding fathers of Sociology.

Research Methodology
This work is descriptive and analytical in nature. Secondary and Electronic resources have been
largely used to gather information and data about the topic.
Books and other references as guided by Faculty of Sociology have been primarily helpful in
giving this project a firm structure. Websites and articles have also been referred.
Footnotes have been provided wherever needed, either to acknowledge the source or to point to a
particular provision of law.

1 http://books.google.co.in/books?
id=vbu2gis26C0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=books+for+sociology&source=bl&ots=
GYiMjlPNFm&sig=5HibHGCS6R-V-_VEPEOQ0k0W6E&hl=en&sa=X&ei=A01iUJqIHIvKrAeH9YCQDQ&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q=books%20for%20sociology&f=false

Meaning of Sociology
'Sociology' which had once been treated as social philosophy, or the philosophy of the history,
emerged as an independent social science in 19th century. Auguste Comte, a Frenchman, is
traditionally considered to be the father of sociology. Comte is accredited with the coining of the
term sociology (in 1839). "Sociology" is composed of two words : socius, meaning companion
or associate; and 'logos', meaning science or study. The etymological meaning of "sociology" is
thus the science of society. John Stuart Mill, another social thinker and philosopher of the 19th
century, proposed the word ethnology for this new science. Herbert Spencer developed his
systematic study of society and adopted the word "sociology" in his works. With the
contributions of Spencer and others it (sociology) became the permanent name of the new
science.
The question 'what is sociology' is indeed , a question pertaining to the definition of sociology.
No student can rightfully be expected to enter on a field of study which is totally undefined or
unbounded. At the same time, it is not an easy task to set some fixed limits to a field of study. It
is true in the case of sociology. Hence it is difficult to give a brief and a comprehensive definition
of sociology.
Sociology has been defined in a number of ways by different sociologists. No single definition
has yet been accepted as completely satisfactory. In fact, there are lot of definitions of sociology
as there are sociologists. For our purpose of study a few definitions may be cited here.
1. Auguste Comete, the founding father of sociology, defines sociology as the science of
social phenomena "subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the
object of investigation".
2. Kingsley Davis says that "Sociology is a general science of society".
3. Harry M. Johnson opines that "sociology is the science that deals with social groups".
4. Emile Durkheim: "Science of social institutions".
5. Park regards sociology as "the science of collective behavior".
6. Small defines sociology as "the science of social relationships".
7. Marshal Jones defines sociology as "the study of man-in-relationship-to-men".

8. Ogburn and Nimkoff : "Sociology is the scientific study of social life".

9. Franklin Henry Giddings defines sociology as "the science of social phenomena".
10. Henry Fairchild: "Sociology is the study of man and his human environment in their
relations to each other".
11. Max Weber defines sociology as " the science which attempts the interpretative
understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a casual explanation of its
course and effects".
12. Alex Inkeles says, "Sociology is the study of systems of social action and of their interrelations".
13. Kimball Young and Raymond W. Mack say, "Sociology is the scientific study of social
aspects of human life".
14. Morris Ginsberg: of the various definitions of sociology the one given by Morris
Ginsberg seems to be more satisfactory and comprehensive. He defines sociology in the
following way: "In the broadest sense, sociology is the study of human interactions and
inter-relations, their conditions and consequences".
A careful examination of various definitions cited above, makes it evident that sociologists differ
in their opinion about definition of sociology. Their divergent views about the definition of
sociology only reveal their distinct approaches to its study. However, the common idea
underlying all the definitions mentioned above is that sociology is concerned with man, his
social relations and his society. 2

2 http://sociology-4-all.blogspot.in/2009/03/definition-of-sociology.html

Definition of Sociology by Different

Sociologist
Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406)

Sociological reasoning predates the foundation of the discipline. Social analysis has origins in
the common stock of Western knowledge and philosophy, and has been carried out from as far
back as the time of Plato if not before. The origin of the survey, i.e., the collection of information
from a sample of individuals, can be traced back at least early as the Domesday Book in 1086,
while ancient philosophers such as Confucius wrote on the importance of social roles. There is
evidence of early sociology in medieval Islam. Some consider Ibn Khaldun, a 14th century Arab
Islamic scholar from North Africa, to have been the first sociologist; his Muqaddimah was
perhaps the first work to advance social-scientific reasoning on social cohesion and social
conflict
The word sociology (or "sociologie") is derived from both Latin and Greek origins. The Latin
word: socius, "companion"; -ology, "the study of", and in Greek ?????, lgos, "word",
"knowledge". It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieys (1748
1836) in an unpublished manuscript.[15] Sociology was later defined independently by the
French philosopher of science, Auguste Comte (17981857), in 1838.[16] Comte used this term
to describe a new way of looking at society.[17] Comte had earlier used the term "social
physics", but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian
statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavored to unify history, psychology and economics
through the scientific understanding of the social realm. Writing shortly after the malaise of the
French Revolution, he proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological
positivism, an epistemological approach outlined in The Course in Positive Philosophy [1830
1842] and A General View of Positivism (1848). Comte believed a positivist stage would mark

the final era, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, in the progression of human
understanding.[18] In observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in science,
and having classified the sciences, Comte may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in
the modern sense of the term.3

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus which bore fruit
in the later decades of the nineteenth century. To say this is certainly not to claim that French
sociologists such as Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. But by
insisting on the irreducibility of each of his basic sciences to the particular science of sciences
which it presupposed in the hierarchy and by emphasizing the nature of sociology as the
scientific study of social phenomena Comte put sociology on the map. To be sure, [its]
beginnings can be traced back well beyond Montesquieu, for example, and to Condorcet, not to
speak of Saint-Simon, Comte's immediate predecessor. But Comte's clear recognition of
sociology as a particular science, with a character of its own, justified Durkheim in regarding
him as the father or founder of this science, in spite of the fact that Durkheim did not accept the
idea of the three states and criticized Comte's approach to sociology.4

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Both Auguste Comte and Karl Marx set out to develop scientifically justified systems in the
wake of European industrialization and secularization, informed by various key movements in
the philosophies of history and science. Marx rejected Comtean positivism but in attempting to
develop a science of society nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the
word gained wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the "true father" of
modern sociology, "in so far as anyone can claim the title.

Frederick Copleston A History of Philosophy: IX Modern Philosophy 1974,

To have given clear and unified answers in familiar empirical terms to those theoretical
questions which most occupied men's minds at the time, and to have deduced from them clear
practical directives without creating obviously artificial links between the two, was the principle
achievement of Marx's theory. The sociological treatment of historical and moral problems,
which Comte and after him, Spencer and Taine, had discussed and mapped, became a precise and
concrete study only when the attack of militant Marxism made its conclusions a burning issue,
and so made the search for evidence more zealous and the attention to method more intense.5

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 8 December 1903) was one of the most popular and influential
19th century sociologists. It is estimated that he sold one million books in his lifetime, far more
than any other sociologist at the time. So strong was his influence that many other 19th century
thinkers, including mile Durkheim, defined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheims Division
of Labour in Society is to a large extent an extended debate with Spencer from whose sociology,
many commentators now agree, Durkheim borrowed extensively. Also a notable biologist,
Spencer coined the term "survival of the fittest". Whilst Marxian ideas defined one strand of
sociology, Spencer was a critic of socialism as well as strong advocate for a laissez-faire style of
government. His ideas were highly observed by conservative political circles, especially in the
United States and England.

Isaiah Berlin Karl Marx: His Life and Environment 1937

Three Major Perspective of Sociology

Sociologists analyze social phenomena at different levels and from different perspectives. From
concrete interpretations to sweeping generalizations of society and social behavior, sociologists
study everything from specific events (the micro level of analysis of small social patterns) to the
big picture (the macro level of analysis of large social patterns). The pioneering European
sociologists, however, also offered a broad conceptualization of the fundamentals of society and
its workings. Their views form the basis for today's theoretical perspectives, or paradigms,
which provide sociologists with an orienting frameworka philosophical positionfor asking
certain kinds of questions about society and its people.
Sociologists today employ three primary theoretical perspectives: the symbolic interactionist
perspective, the functionalist perspective, and the conflict perspective. These perspectives offer
sociologists theoretical paradigms for explaining how society influences people, and vice versa.
Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes society, social forces, and human behavior.6

TABLE 1

Sociological Perspectives

Sociological
Perspective

Level of
Analysis

Focus

1. Symbolic
Interactionism

Micro

Use of symbols; Face-to-face interactions

6 www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Three-Major-Perspectives-inSociology.topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26837.html

Sociological
Perspective

Level of
Analysis

2. Functionalism

Macro

Relationship between the parts of society; How aspects of

society are functional (adaptive)

3. Conflict Theory

Macro

Competition for scarce resources; How the elite control the

poor and weak

Focus

The symbolic interactionist perspective

The symbolic interactionist perspective, also known as symbolic interactionism, directs
sociologists to consider the symbols and details of everyday life, what these symbols mean, and
how people interact with each other. Although symbolic interactionism traces its origins to Max
Weber's assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of the meaning of their
world, the American philosopher George H. Mead (18631931) introduced this perspective to
American sociology in the 1920s.
According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, people attach meanings to symbols, and
then they act according to their subjective interpretation of these symbols. Verbal conversations,
in which spoken words serve as the predominant symbols, make this subjective interpretation
especially evident. The words have a certain meaning for the sender, and, during effective
communication, they hopefully have the same meaning for the receiver. In other terms, words
are not static things; they require intention and interpretation. Conversation is an interaction of
symbols between individuals who constantly interpret the world around them. Of course,
anything can serve as a symbol as long as it refers to something beyond itself. Written music
serves as an example. The black dots and lines become more than mere marks on the page; they
refer to notes organized in such a way as to make musical sense. Thus, symbolic interactionists
give serious thought to how people act, and then seek to determine what meanings individuals
assign to their own actions and symbols, as well as to those of others.
Consider applying symbolic interactionism to the American institution of marriage. Symbols
may include wedding bands, vows of life-long commitment, a white bridal dress, a wedding

cake, a Church ceremony, and flowers and music. American society attaches general meanings to
these symbols, but individuals also maintain their own perceptions of what these and other
symbols mean. For example, one of the spouses may see their circular wedding rings as
symbolizing never ending love, while the other may see them as a mere financial expense.
Much faulty communication can result from differences in the perception of the same events and
symbols.
Critics claim that symbolic interactionism neglects the macro level of social interpretationthe
big picture. In other words, symbolic interactionists may miss the larger issues of society by
focusing too closely on the trees (for example, the size of the diamond in the wedding ring)
rather than the forest (for example, the quality of the marriage). The perspective also receives
criticism for slighting the influence of social forces and institutions on individual interactions.7

The functionalist perspective

According to the functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, each aspect of society is
interdependent and contributes to society's functioning as a whole. The government, or state,
provides education for the children of the family, which in turn pays taxes on which the state
depends to keep itself running. That is, the family is dependent upon the school to help children
grow up to have good jobs so that they can raise and support their own families. In the process,
the children become law-abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn support the state. If all goes
well, the parts of society produce order, stability, and productivity. If all does not go well, the
parts of society then must adapt to recapture a new order, stability, and productivity. For
example, during a financial recession with its high rates of unemployment and inflation, social
programs are trimmed or cut. Schools offer fewer programs. Families tighten their budgets. And
a new social order, stability, and productivity occur.
Functionalists believe that society is held together by social consensus, or cohesion, in which
members of the society agree upon, and work together to achieve, what is best for society as a
whole. Emile Durkheim suggested that social consensus takes one of two forms:

Mechanical solidarity is a form of social cohesion that arises when people in a society
maintain similar values and beliefs and engage in similar types of work. Mechanical
solidarity most commonly occurs in traditional, simple societies such as those in which
everyone herds cattle or farms. Amish society exemplifies mechanical solidarity.

In contrast, organic solidarity is a form of social cohesion that arises when the people in
a society are interdependent, but hold to varying values and beliefs and engage in varying

7 www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Three-Major-Perspectives-inSociology.topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26837.html

types of work. Organic solidarity most commonly occurs in industrialized, complex

societies such those in large American cities like New York in the 2000s.
The functionalist perspective achieved its greatest popularity among American sociologists in the
1940s and 1950s. While European functionalists originally focused on explaining the inner
workings of social order, American functionalists focused on discovering the functions of human
behavior. Among these American functionalist sociologists is Robert Merton (b. 1910), who
divides human functions into two types: manifest functions are intentional and obvious, while
latent functions are unintentional and not obvious. The manifest function of attending a church
or synagogue, for instance, is to worship as part of a religious community, but its latent function
may be to help members learn to discern personal from institutional values. With common sense,
manifest functions become easily apparent. Yet this is not necessarily the case for latent
functions, which often demand a sociological approach to be revealed. A sociological approach
in functionalism is the consideration of the relationship between the functions of smaller parts
and the functions of the whole.
Functionalism has received criticism for neglecting the negative functions of an event such as
divorce. Critics also claim that the perspective justifies the status quo and complacency on the
part of society's members. Functionalism does not encourage people to take an active role in
changing their social environment, even when such change may benefit them. Instead,
functionalism sees active social change as undesirable because the various parts of society will
compensate naturally for any problems that may arise.

The conflict perspective

The conflict perspective, which originated primarily out of Karl Marx's writings on class
struggles, presents society in a different light than do the functionalist and symbolic interactionist
perspectives. While these latter perspectives focus on the positive aspects of society that
contribute to its stability, the conflict perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted, and everchanging nature of society. Unlike functionalists who defend the status quo, avoid social change,
and believe people cooperate to effect social order, conflict theorists challenge the status quo,
encourage social change (even when this means social revolution), and believe rich and powerful
people force social order on the poor and the weak. Conflict theorists, for example, may interpret
an elite board of regents raising tuition to pay for esoteric new programs that raise the prestige
of a local college as self-serving rather than as beneficial for students.
Whereas American sociologists in the 1940s and 1950s generally ignored the conflict perspective
in favor of the functionalist, the tumultuous 1960s saw American sociologists gain considerable

interest in conflict theory. They also expanded Marx's idea that the key conflict in society was
strictly economic. Today, conflict theorists find social conflict between any groups in which the
potential for inequality exists: racial, gender, religious, political, economic, and so on. Conflict
theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing them to
compete against one another. This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the
ever-changing nature of society.
Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overly negative view of society. The theory
ultimately attributes humanitarian efforts, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other positive
aspects of society to capitalistic designs to control the masses, not to inherent interests in
preserving society and social order.8

Major Concerns of Sociology

(Subject-Matter of Sociology)
Ever science the beginning of sociology, sociologists have shown a great concern in man and the
dynamic of society. The emphasis has been oscillating between man and society. "Sometimes the
emphasis was on man in society, at other times, it was on man in society. But at no stage of its
development, man as an individual was its focus of attention. On the contrary, sociology
concentrated heavily on society and its major units and their dynamics. It has been striving to
analyse the dynamics of the society in terms of organised patterns of social relations. It may be
said that sociology seeks to find explanations for three basic questions: How and and why
societies emerge? How and why societies persist? How and why societies change?
An all-embracive and expanding science like sociology is growing at a fast rate no doubt. It is
quite natural that sociologists have developed different approaches from the time to time in their
attempts to enrich its study. Still it is possible to identify some which constitute the subject
matter of sociology on which there is little disagreement among the sociologists. Such topics and
areas broadly constitute the field of sociology. A general outline of the fields of sociology on
which there is considerable agreement among sociologists could be given here.
8 www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Three-Major-Perspectives-inSociology.topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26837.html

Firstly, the major concern of sociology is sociological analysis. It means the sociologist seeks to
provide an analysis of human society and culture with a sociological perspective. He evinces his
interest in the evolution of society and tries to reconstruct the major stages in the evolutionary
process. An attempt is also made "to analyse the factors and forces underlying historical
transformations of society". Due importance is given to the scientific method that is adopted in
the sociological analysis.
Secondly, sociology has given sufficient attention to the study of primary units of social life. In
this area, it is concerned with social acts and social relationships, individual personalty, groups of
all varieties, communities (urban, rural, and tribal), associations, organisations and populations.
Thirdly, sociology has been concerned with the development, structure and function of a wide
variety of basic social institutions such as the family and kinship, property and religion,
economic, political, legal, educational and scientific, recreational and welfare, aesthetic and
expressive institutions.
Fourthly, no sociologist can afford to ignore the fundamental social processes that play a vital
role. The social process such as co-operation and competition, accommodation and assimilation,
social conflict including war and revolution; communication including opinion formation
expression and change; social differentiation and stratification, socialisation and indoctrination,
social control and deviance including crime, suicide, social integration and social change assume
prominence in sociological studies.
Fifthly, sociology has placed high premium on the method of research also. Contemporary
sociology has tended to become more and more rational and empirical rather than philosophical
and idealistic. Sociologists have sought the application of scientific method in social researches.
Like a natural scientist, a sociologist senses a problem for investigation. He then tries to
formulate it into a researchable proposition. After collecting the data he tries to establish
connections between them. He finally arrives at meaningful concepts, propositions and
generalisations
Sixthly, sociologists are concerned with a task of "formulating concepts, propositions and
theories". "Concepts are abstract from concrete experience to represent a class of phenomena".
For example, terms such as social stratification, differentiation, conformity, deviance etc.,
represent concepts. A proposition "seeks to to reflect a relationship between different categories
of data or concepts". For example "lower-class youths are more likely to commit crimes than
middle-class youths". This preposition is debatable. It may be proved to be false. To take another
example, it could be said that "taking advantage of opportunities of higher education and
occupational mobility leads to the weakening of the ties of kinship and territorial loyalties".
Though this preposition sounds debatable, it has been established after careful observations,
inquiry and collection of relevant data. Theories go beyond concepts and propositions. "Theories

represent systematically related propositions that explain social phenomena". Sociological

theories are mostly rooted in factual than philosophical. The sociological perspective becomes
more meaningful and fruitful when one tries to derive insight from concepts, propositions and
theories.
Finally, in the present era of explosion of knowledge sociologists have ventured to make
specialisations also.Thus, today good number of specialised fields of inquiry are emerging out.
Sociology of knowledge, sociology of history, sociology of literature, sociology of culture,
sociology of religion, sociology of family etc., represent such specialised fields., The field of
sociological inquiry is so vast that any student of sociology equipped with genius and rich
sociological imagination can add new dimensions to the discipline of sociology as a whole. 9

Conclusion
With the above projects I can conclude that Meaning and the characteristics is very wide and
have a great scope in it. It deals with the small aspect of society to big aspects of life it deals with
the man standing on the street to the great deals around the world.

Bibliography
Giddens, Anthony, 2010, Sociology (6th ed.), New Delhi, Willey India Pvt. Ltd

Webliography

9 http://sociology-4-all.blogspot.in/search/label/DEFINITION%20-%20SCOPE%20AND
%20USES%20OF%20SOCIOLOGY

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2. http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Sociology/Sociological_Theory
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4. http://sociology-4-all.blogspot.in/2009/03/nature-of-sociology.html