© 50000 20000 110000 8000 The diagram applies to atmo- sphene pressure of 1000 mbar oe 2500 Nee we ‘SYMBOLS fs specile nally, H/tg arya oh og. = absolute humidity, kar water/kg dry air iry bulb temperature of air, °C vel bullb temperature of air °C re of water vapour, mbar Aw ae go ial pres 8 g quantity of dry air, Ry of dry aim? most ait | 10 Aivbx = process direction [ % ZZ so $ we | 5 0,005 0,010at ‘oye yetour 10 wrexBerp-x'y “pt Bid 101 ‘The diagram applies to exno- spheric pressure of 1000 mbar SYMBOLS ho = specific enthalpy, kJ/kg dry air X = absolute humidity, kg water/kg cry air Gry bulb temperature of a, °C wet bulb temperature of ai, °C @ = relative humidity, % pattie] pressure of water vapour mbar quantity of dry air, kg dry ait/m’ moist air Ab/Ax = process direction, ee 50 60 10 80 90 T T 100 110 120 130 —» Py vel 0.04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08 0,09 PX 0,10 000 100 200 > ahiax 2800 240008 g cove 4 ‘20000 10000 7000 6900 5000 er 0,20 ‘The diagram applies to atmo- 0,05 EXSX Foe ® S SSS Ss RRA oR QL VO hheric pressure of 1000 mbar. sl s a ay absolute humidity, kg water/kg dry air specific enthalpy, kJ/kg dry air SYMBOLS ¥y bulb tomperature of ain, °C wet bulb temperature of air, °C an lative humidity, % partial prassure of water vapour, mbar quantity of dry air, re kg dry air/m? moist air process direction 300 —™ Py —>x 0,30 0.25 0,20 2200 —» ahiAx 2100 1500 7 Fig. 15. h,x-diagram for moist air.Physical state of air at high temperature If the dry and wet bulb temperatures (1 and t,) are known, the other values relating to the physical state in question can be obtained direct- ly from the h.x diagram. If necessary, it is also possible to use the tem- peratures to calculate the absolute humidity (x) and specific enthalpy (h) by using the following equations: Pp, 6.47-107-(p, — py): (1+ty-10~)-( — t) mbar ® x = 0622 5B ka/kg dry air © he = cyt x-(Cpu't + 2500) KI/kg dry alr @ Py is atmospheric pressure, mbar Py is partial pressure of water vapour, mbar yg is saturation pressure of water vapour at ty °C, mbar Cy: is average specific heat of air between 0°C and (°C, kI/(kg-K) Cyy is average specific heat of water vapour between 0°C and 1°C, KJ/kg-K) , and ¢,, can be obtained from Fig. 16. ‘The dependence of air density on temperature and absolute humidity is shown in the diagram and equation below. P. ks/me 700 | 1.060 | 2.06 600 | 1.048 | 2.02 500 | 1.037 | 1:98 400 | 1.027 | 1.945 300 | 1019 | 1.915 200 | 1.0126 | 1.892 100_| 1.0077 | 1.872 tee | Cy | ow Fig. 16. Mean values for cp and Cpy from 0°C to t' lex py ol Pa igs °= dear TR T is thermodynamic te perature, K R, is gas constant of wa vapour = 461.5 J/(kg:K) ‘The diagram gives the alr density @ kq/m?. The quant ty of dry air contained in moist air is obtained as fol ee = oe, HES Tex! im moist a ‘The diagram applies to the atmospheric pressure Py = 1013 mbar. If the pressure changes, the density ‘ill change in the same proportion 100 150 200 250 300-350 400 Fig. 17. Air density at high temperatures. 500 600 | 700 °CPhysical state of air at high temperature If the dry and wet bulb temperatures (t and t,) are known, the other values relating to the physical state in question can be obtained direct- ly from the hx diagram. If necessary, it is also possible to use the tem- peratures to calculate the absolute humidity (x) and specific enthalpy (b) by using the following equations: By = Pus ~ 647-10 -y ~ Pyg) (+t, 10)-(t ~ ty) mbar © 0.622 — Ps — kg/kg di 6) x Bony Kok ary air (3) b= ey:t4x-(py"t + 2500) KI/kg dry air @ P, is atmospheric pressure, mbar Py is partial pressure of water vapour, mbar ys 1S saturation pressure of water vapour at ty °C, mbar Cp. is average specific heat of air between 0°C and t°C, kJ/kg: K) Cpr is average specific heat of water vapour between 0°C and t°C, K/kg-&) Cy and ¢,, can be obtained from Fig. 16. ‘The dependence of air density on temperature and absolute humidity is shown in the diagram and equation below. Pi ka/me 1.0- 700 ] 1.060 | 2.06 600 | 1.048 | 2.02 500 1.037 1.98 400 1.027 1.945 300 | 1.019 | 1.918 200 | 1.0126 | 1.892 100 1.0077 | 1.872 te | Ca | ow Fig. 16. ‘Mean values for , Cpy from 0°C to t°C. _ _ltx O* We2a+x T T is thermodynamic tem- P, and ee kg/m? perature, K R, is gas constant of water vapour = 461.5 J/(kg-K) ‘The diagram gives the air density @ kg/m. The quanti ty of dry air contained in moist air is obtained as fol los: 09. + a= 2, ayer Tre’ mi? most a ‘The diagram applies to the atmospheric pressure a = 1013 mbar. If the pressure changes, the density ‘wil change in the same proportion 0.8 7. 06. 05: 4: 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Fig. 17. Air density at high temperatures. 600 tc 7001.3.2 PROCESS LINES The following brief examples show how the h,xdia- gram can be used in connection with various air handling processes Air heating (Fig. 18) In this process the absolute humidity remains constant, so that the process line will be a vertical ine starting at point A and ending at point B The necessary heating power (P) is obtained from the following equation P= bh-gy-ex = (he ~ ha) ve @ Example: § m/s air, t = 13°C and @ & 90 %, is heated to +22°C: What is the relative humidity in final state and how great is the heating power needed for this process? ws & 7% (Fig. 18, point B) a, = 138 kg dry air/m? Fig. 3b) 3 ha = ~10 kI/kg (Fig. 18, point A) hy = 25 kI/kg (Fig. 18, point B) B = (25 ~ (-10))-5-1.38 = 236 KW (Eq. 9 Coil cooling (Fig. 19) The process line essentially depends on whether or not water vapour will condense on the surface of the coll, If the surface temperature of the coil is, even in some part of the coll,lower than the dew- point temperature of the incoming air, then some water will be condensed onto the coll, 1. Water does not condense ‘The process is the reverse of heating. If point A, on the diagram represents the initial point of the process and surface temperature is 7°C, water will not condense because the dew- point is lower, 2.3 °C (point C,), The process line is represented by A\B, 2. Water condenses H the physical state of air at the beginning of the ptocess Is represented by point aud the sur face temperature is 7C, water will condense on the surface of the coil because the dewpaint 1s higher, 1e 147°C. The process line curves towards the surface temperature on the saturation curve (point D), ‘The shape of this process line depends partly on the construction of the cooling coil. In practice it becomes necessary to censult the manufacturers’ information on the cooling effect in various cases. Although in above examples the temperatures at the initial and final state of the process are equal the cooling effect of the coil, Le the decrease of the specific enthalpy of air, is considerably greater in case 2 than in case |. In case 2 the latent heat of, vaporization of the condensing water is taken out of the air case | Ah 30.6 - 28.3 55.0 - 360 143 kJ/kg 19.0 ki/kg case 2: Ah 20 X= 90063 Xe 0018 * J Age t= 48% oe 7536 reer hn 2 Fig, 18. Heating of air. Teg 3 P= 18% To 28te : © X + eo04s Fes hts * tye 386 “ ( By, oe g ~ X= @,0045 é ieee . € & Fig. 19. Cooling of air with a cooling coil. 19Humidification using water or steam (Fig. 20) In this method of humidification the relative hu- midity of the air is increased by the injection of steam or finely atomised water, which is then evaporated completely. 1. Humidification using water The heat necessary for the vaporization of the water is extracted from the aim which is thus cooled. f process line may be ob- t follows — -AD/AX = (U-cpdyater: in this example ah/ax = AB 25 The relative humidity in the initial state is approxi- mately 12 %, in the final state 40 %. 2. Humidification using steam When using steam, the direction of the process line is as follows Ah/Ax = h"| where his the specific enthalpy of ‘steam; in the example the direction AB, Example: Steam at a pressure of 3 bars is injected into the air at the rate of 5 g/kg dry air. ‘The intial state of the air ist, = 22°C xX, = 2 g/kg, what is the final tempera ture and relative humidity of the air? The specific enthalpy of steam h” 2725 kJ/kg €ig. 1) aes le an/ax = 2728 =Atvep SF Fp 21,006 Ksfuy ue Xgq = Xq + AX = 24 8 = 7 g/kg dry air ti = 23°C B2 = 40% Humidification in an air washer (Fig. 21) In an air washer, air is brought into contact with water, which is either sprayed in fine droplets or made to flow along a tumidification mat or cell The process line depends on whether the water is fresh or recirculated. 1. Circulating water; adiabatic humidification When circulating water is used, and there are no heat losses, the temperature of the water will soon ce mual_ the adiabatic saturation temperatu je process line will be the straight line ty. Xe= constant, passing through point A. ‘The measure for the effectiveness of the air wash- Bt appears as the humidification ratio, 16 the fatio AB/AD = Gig — ¥5)/(%p — Xn Example: Air with an initial state ta = 28°C, x, 0.002 kg/kg, is adiabatically humidified in an air washer with the humidification ratio 0.89. What is the final state of the air? wt, = I7°C | Gag. 21, point Dy 0.0086 kg/kg (002) 0.00887 kg/kg dry air Xp = Xa + 0.00887 = 0.00787 kg/kg dry air tax 134°C ope 8l % | ig. 21, point B) 20 “o> Solan 22129 Fig, 20. Humidification of air with water of steam, oe on gysdt 0.005 oF aie010 —» x Sone PA 10. Fig. 21. Humidification of air in air washer.Humidification using water or steam (Fig. 20) In this method of humidification the relative hu- midity of the air is increased by the injection of steam or finely atomised water, which is then evaporated completely. 1. Humidification using water The heat necessary for the vaporization of the water is extracted from the ait, which is thus cooled. cess line may be ob- tained as follows: BNI = (case this example ab/ax = RB] = The relative humidity in the initial state is approxi- mately 12 %, in the final state 40 %. 2. Humidification using steam When using steam, the direction of the process line is as follows: ‘h/ax = h" where h” is the specific enthalpy of “Seam: in the example the direction AB, Example: Steam at a pressure of 3 bars is injected into the air at the rate of 8 g/kg dry air. ‘The initial state of the air is tg = 22°C. x, = 2 9/kg, what is the final tempera- tute and relative humidity of the air? The specific enthalpy of steam h" = 2725 kJ/kg (Fig. 10) an/ax = 2728 =Ateep SF 2°? 1,006 Ksfuy Xpz = Xq + AX = 245 = 7Q/kg dry air is Humidification in an air washer (Fig. 21) In an air washer, air is brought into contact with water, which is either sprayed in fine droplets or made to flow along a humidification mat or cell. The process line depends on whether the water is fresh or recirculated. 1. Circulating water; adiabatic humidification When circulating water is used, and there are no heat losses, the temperature of the water wil soon equal the adiabatic i on je process line will be the straight line t, f= constant, passing through point A. ‘The measure for the effectiveness of the air wash- the humidification ratio. 1 = Gig — XA Vip =X Example: Air with an initial state t, = 28°C, xp 0.002 kg/kg, is adiabatically humidified in an air washer with the humidification ratio 0.89. What is the final state of the air? het = TPC) rig, 21, point D) Xp = 0.0086 kg/kg J Xo Xs 0.89 (iy — x es tte 0,002) 0.00887 kg/kg dry air Xp = Xq+0.00§87 = 0.00787 kg/kg dry air tee EC | (Fig. 21, point B) op % 81 % 20 270 Fig. 20. Humidification of air with water of steam. ee ayebt oF Seer —» x ’ Fig. 21. Humidification of air in air washer.Point B is also achieved by measuring the lenath of the line AD and subtracting the part correspond- ing to the humidification ratio, 2. Fresh water The process line depends on the initial tempera- UTS OF Wale, fy, Iris the SAME AR Tye Bly The process is as'in case | If tg > ty OF tyq < ty, the temperature of water dur- ing the jowar The process line is always directed towards the water temperature at that moment. If air and water meet each other flowing parallel, the process lines, will curve towards the acliabatic line (Fig. 21), but when counter flowing they will curve away from that line ‘Mixing of two air flows (Fig. 22) If two dry masses of air m, and m, with physical states corresponding to points Ay and A, are mixed, then the mixing point (B) will be located on the straight line connecting the original points. Its actual position may be determined graphically by dividing the line Ajj into_1wo lengths so that “Ay = ingly ThE samme Tesull May be Calcul ed by the use of absolute humidities.as follows, myx) + my:%: oe 0) EyaMpIe” What wilt be the temperature of a mix ing of the following mass flows? dint = 18 ka/s: ty = 25°C, x, = 0.008 Ga = 10 ka/s; ty = O°C, x, = 0.002 15-0.009 + 10-0.002 i 15+ 10 . point B) = 0.0062 ka/ka (eq.10) ‘The mixing of two unsaturated air masses can sometimes result in a mist. This would be the result iftwo equal masses m; and m, (points Ay and A. in Fig. 22) are mixed. The mixing point B will fall below the saturation line, ie. into the mist area 14 AIR FLOW IN DUCT SYSTEMS 14.1 PRESSURES OF MOVING AIR When differential pressures are small, we may as- sume that air is an incompressible gas. In the case of moving air, we may also generally disregard the effect of gravity due to differences in altitude. Ad- ditionally, if frictionless flow is assumed, we arrive at the simplest form of Bernoulli's equation: Ps 41. y2 = constant ay @2 In other words, where no losses oceur in flow, the sum of pressure energy and kinetic energy is constant, By multiplying with air density (@) we get the familiar equation ps+£-v? = ps+Pg = P; = constant a2) Fig. 22. Mixing of two air flows. STATIC DYNAMIC. TOTAL PRESSURE PRESSURE, PRESSURE, Fig. 23. Duct pressures and their measuring principle. Bernoulli's equation mathematically expresses the phenomenon where an increase in the velocity of flow means a decrease in static pressure, and simi- larly a decrease in velocity an increase in static pressure. The effect of different pressures can be seen in Fig. 23, which shows schematically the measuring principles of duct pressures. In this