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SANDSTONE
RESERVOIR
DESCRIPTION:
OVERVIEW OF THE ROLE OF GEOLOGY
MINERALOGY
A. H U R S T
AN
AND
AND J. S. A R C H E R *
Department of Reservoir Evaluation, Statoil, Forus, Posboks 300, N-4001 Stavanger, Norway, and *ER C
Energy Resource Consultants Ltd., 15 Welbeck Street, London W1M 7PF
(Received 17 April 1985; revised 25 July 1985)
792
AND MEASUREMENTS
Geological data
Although many types of geological analyses are employed to define reservoir properties
the 'standard' techniques are core description, thin-section petrography, X-ray diffraction
(XRD) analysis and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The quantitative determination
of volatile components (e.g. clays, carbonates, sulphides) may conveniently be performed
by thermal analysis (STA-EGA) (Milodowski & Morgan, 1980).
Petrophysical data
These data comprise routine measurements of porosity, permeability and grain density
from core plugs, and the interpretation of lithology, porosity and fluid saturation from
wireline log responses in open-hole conditions.
Some of the more common wireline logs run in boreholes are given in Table 1. The 'logs'
provide a continuous response record of the borehole environment from bottom to top and
can be interpreted to give quantitative petrophysical properties. Logging tools have
different resolution and radii of investigation and provide averaged measurements at given
depths.
Clay minerals affect all log measurements; thus all logs have some potential for
determining clay mineralogy. A primary aim of log evaluation is the evaluation of porosity.
However, the sensitivity of logs to mineralogy requires that log responses are calibrated for
mineralogical effects (Poupon et al., 1971; Patchett & Coalson, 1982; Suau & Spurlin,
1982). The necessity for evaluating the water saturation of hydrocarbon reservoirs, and the
relationship between the clay content of sandstones and formation conductivity (Waxman
& Smits, 1968), has generated interest in the definition of a petrophysical parameter gshal e
or Vclay,the volume of shale or clay present in a sandstone. Vshale may be evaluated from
most conventional logs (Fertl & Frost, 1980).
Routine core analysis utilizes small trimmed plugs cut from recovered core. The plugs
may be cut along, or perpendicular to, bedding planes. Analyses of plug porosity are made
on samples of generally <5 cm 3 rock volume taken at ~35 cm intervals from cores. The
core porosity is usually measured by compression of He gas in cleaned, dry core plugs, and
is reported without compaction correction to in situ stress conditions. Horizontal and
793
Open-hole wireline logs commonly used in the North Sea, and referred to in this paper.
Abbreviation
General name
Measurement
GR
PHIN
RHOB
DT
CAL
RXO 1
LLS1
LLD1
ILD 2
ILM2
SP
NGT
LDTr
Gamma
Neutron porosity
Formation density
Sonic
Caliper
Microlog, MSFLr
Laterologh shallow
Laterolog deep
Induction log deep
Induction log medium
Spontaneous potential
Natural gamma tool
Litho-density
Dipmeter
Dipmeter
Engineering data
Engineering data are derived from the integration of measurements from tests conducted
at reservoir conditions, drill stem tests (DST) and production tests, and fluid properties
measured in the laboratory on recovered core. Additional data from wireline logs m a y also
provide a significant input of engineering data, for example, repeat formation testing (RFT)
(Van Rijswijk et aL, 1980; Dake, 1982) and measurements while drilling (MWD)
(Gravely, 1983; Grosso et aL, 1983).
Permeability estimation from DST data is dependent on the definition of geological
parameters. Flow rates (mD ft -1) are obtained from tests which, if the height (h) of the
producing reservoir interval can be estimated, can be represented as a permeability.
Definition of 'h' is possible if clear lithological boundaries are present (Fig. 1A) but
becomes more complicated in formations with varied grain size (Fig. 1B). A useful
summary of DST data and limited geological applications of these data is found in Dickey
(1979).
Log measurements m a y be used to define permeability (Timur, 1968; Coates &
Dumanoir, 1973) where values are generated to solve the empirical equation
O3
K=a--
$2
794
B
GR
0
t
GR
100
I
0
L
100
I
DST
h2=25m
h:27.5m
K=444mD
K(h 1) 9 3 8 m D o r K(h 2) 4 8 8 m D
FIG. 1. Evaluation of permeability from DST data by defining 'h" the height of the producing
interval. (A) Homogeneous sandstone interval with shale at top and base. (B) Sandstone overlain
and underlain by gradual grain-size variations; two possible values for h are given.
where K = permeability (mD), O = porosity, S = surface area per unit bulk volume, and
a = an empirical constant (Kozeny constant).
CORRELATION
OF LOG
AND
CORE
DATA
The gamma-ray (GR) curve from the same wireline log as the formation density (RHOB)
is used as the common base depth for any given section. All conventional logging tools
have a natural gamma-ray detector, so allowing the GR curve to be used as a reference
curve. In offshore operations, drillers' depths (core depths) rarely correspond to log depths;
they are matched with log depths, sometimes with the aid of a core gamma log, by
petrophysicists and/or geologists. Core-to-log correlation requires the recognition of log
signatures, which are characteristic of different lithologies.
Porosity ((~)
An essential task in reservoir description is the correlation of core-measured porosity
(DPOR) with porosity evaluated from 'porosity' logs (PHIN, RHOB, DT). Log-evaluated
porosity (PHIF) is representative of porosity at reservoir conditions and thus should
normally be lower than laboratory-measured porosity. A typical cored interval is shown in
Fig. 2 together with the logs commonly used to evaluate porosity, core-measured porosity
(DPOR) and a log-evaluated porosity (PHIF). Although the log-evaluated porosity is
normally represented as a continuous curve it is in reality a calculation made at ~0.25 m
intervals based on the average responses of the log(s) over a 1 to 2 m thick vertical section
(PHIFX, Fig. 2). With each successive 0.25 m increment of log depth a new 0.25 m
interval value is added to the average and an old 0.25 m value is excluded.
The neutron porosity (PHIN) log, which measures the hydrogen content of the
formation, is sensitive to the presence of clay minerals. Hydrogen is associated with clay
795
GRAIN$1ZE
~.~
RHI~B
l.i
oo |
AND
~
~
.
PHIFX
0.,
~EDHmENTARY
$TRUCTURES
.::::::::::::~:::::.
::::::~g::::::::::
:.:.:-:.:':':.:':':'
.:.:+:+:+:.:.:
:.:.:+:+:.:.:.:.
.:.:.: ........
............_ ...
jili!i!i!iiiiiiiiiil,
.............
~!i~i~i:~i~i~i'
'
'
!~;iiiiii!iiiii!iiiiii---------~
...................,
..,.........,......,
...............,.,,
iiii~i~iiiii!i~i
2660
I/
ij i
,I I 9
, ....................,
,.........,.....,..
."2"2"2"2,. ......
:.:+:+:.:+:.:.
'::..:e:+:.:+
~:::~::::::~::::'
;!:!:!:.............,
:+:':::+:+:
:+:.::.:.:+:.:
,.:!:!:~:i:i:i:i:i:i,
............
~:!:i:~:!:!~iiii
=======================
-: ...................r 1 6 2
41iii;~!iiii~iii~
2665
~!
f'~;
t"
LEGEND
Structures
~J ~J
t
Lithology
cross bedding
sand
shale
dish structures
pyrite
water-escape pipes
mica
I bioturbation
~;~
common I v vertical
h horizontal
.%
~
conglomeratic clasts
organic fragments
FIG. 2. A core interval correlated with porosity logs (PHIN, RHOB, DT), a log-evaluated
porosity (PHIF) curve, lab-measured porosity (DPOR), and the 'point' values used to calculate
PHIF (PHIFX).
minerals as hydroxyl groups in their structures (hydrogen index of Juhhsz, 1979) and as
surface-bound water, the electrolyte properties of which are interpreted to increase
formation conductivity (Waxman & Smits, 1968). A clay-rich sandstone is expected to
give a high hydrogen porosity response (interpreted as a low actual porosity) not
attributable to a lowering of porosity but to the presence of clay minerals.
796
Formation density (RHOB) is often interpreted to reflect the 'total porosity' (Juh~isz,
1979), thus only requiring calibration with core data before being applied to the generation
of a continuous porosity curve. The reliablility of RHOB for use as a 'total porosity' curve
is uncertain. Authigenic chlorite in sandstones is commonly the iron-rich polymorph (e.g.
Hurst & Buller, 1984), which may have a density up to 3.3 g c m -3, and will, if present in
sufficient quantity, affect the formation density. Detrital heavy minerals commonly
influence the measurement of formation density, their presence being particularly difficult
to correct for using log responses when they occur as concentrations associated with
sedimentary structures, e.g. swash laminations or storm deposits. Authigenic pyrite and
siderite indicate low porosity if suitable corrections are not made (Clavier et al., 1976;
Suau & Spurlin, 1982).
E'valuation of sandstone porosity from logs is frequently made by combining the
responses of the three porosity logs (PHIN, RHOB and DT), so statistically reducing the
possible effects of any one mineral on the resultant porosity. Refinement of porosity
evaluation is possible by assigning 'cut-off' values which define net sandstone. The
histogram distribution of log-evaluated porosity in Fig. 3 is typical of a reservoir interval
which contains two sandstones, one of which is shaly or micaceous and considered to be of
insufficiently good reservoir quality to be included in the net sandstone. Cross-plotting core
porosity (DPOR) against log-evaluated porosity (PHIF) may help to enhance the
relationship between the two porosities (Fig. 4). In Fig. 4, shaly samples have low porosity
and a net sand cut-off is defined at ~9% O (DPOR). Sandstone lithologies may plot within
the cut-off area but they are considered not to be of significance to hydrocarbon
volumetrics. It should be noted that the curve defined in Fig. 4 does not pass through the
origin, as PHIF will generally be lower than DPOR. Two groups of data do not fit with the
curve defined in Fig. 4: (i) poorly consolidated samples which have partially disintegrated
during laboratory measurement give too low porosities (DPOR); (ii) micaceous samples
which give too high PHIF porosities because of the influence of mica on the density
cut-off
value
net
frequency
MIN.
~ J ~
net
i
value 0
MAX.
797
.30
s
x/~*
xx~ (x : x x)
.25
0
PHIF
x XXx Xx~xx
xXx
x xX fxx
XXx
.20
.15
samples
.10
X~x~
'
.05
poorly
consolidated
mlcaceous
samples
NET SAND
CUTOFF
I
.O5
.10
.15
.20
.25
.30
0 DPOR
FIG. 4. Cross plot of log-evaluated O (PHIF) against He porosity measured from core plugs
(DVOR),
(RHOB) and neutron porosity (PHIN) logs. Definition of porosity cut-offs to some extent
limits the effects of mineralogy on the log evaluation of porosity. The influence of clay
minerals and detrital heavy minerals on porosity logs cannot be fully assessed without
mineralogical data.
Permeability (K)
Permeability cannot be considered as a unique property as its value depends on the scale
of measurement. The quantitative interpretation of permeability from downhole testing and
laboratory measurements is dependent on both sample selection and geological factors (e.g.
Fig. 1).
Calibration of test data made at in situ reservoir conditions with laboratory
measurements is of high priority in reservoir description. In situ permeability (DST and
production data) is a measure of effective permeability, Ke, of a given fluid, e.g. oil, in the
presence of other fluids, e.g. interstitial water. In contrast, permeability measured under
laboratory conditions is the absolute permeability K s, to a single fluid. The relationship
between K e and K s is described as
Ke(s) = K a 9 Kr(s)
798
Resistivity measurements in wells drilled with water-based fluids are used to define the
presence of hydrocarbons and the contacts between fluids of different composition, e.g. oil
and water. In hydrocarbon-saturated zones, some formation water remains bound to the
surfaces of minerals. Effective porosity (Oe) can be described as
Oe = O t - ~[CBW
where O t = total porosity and Oc. w = porosity occupied by clay-bound water. Various
petrophysical models for evaluating the water saturation of shaly sandstones are available
(Wyllie & Southwick, 1954; Waxman & Smits, 1968; Bussian, 1983; Clavier et al., 1984)
Clay minerals are assumed to be the main sources of surface-bound water (OCBW) in
sandstones, and therefore, the volume of clay minerals (Vshale) is commonly used to
evaluate S w (irreducible water saturation). Vsh,l~may be evaluated by many methods (Fertl
& Frost, 1980; Worthington, 1985); in the North Sea fields, GR, RHOB and PHIN logs
are commonly used.
S w in the region above a transition zone for any given 'lithology' can be compared with
in situ log-derived saturation measurements, and from drainage capillary pressure
measurements in representative core samples.
RESERVOIR
MODELLING
799
(Johnson & Stewart, 1985), and detailed sedimentological analysis has been most
important in successful reservoir management (Richardson et al., 1978, Weber et aL, 1978,
Hearn et aL, 1984).
Mineral analyses, including thin-section analysis and various methods of clay mineral
analysis, are (in the authors' experience) rarely conducted on a sampling interval
comparable to log and core-plug sampling intervals (every 0.25 m). In practice it is more
productive to make mineralogical analyses on tightly-spaced samples from restricted
intervals rather than from samples taken routinely at metre intervals. Correlation between
mineralogical data and petrophysical data, both logs and core plugs, is best achieved by
investigation of specific intervals of interest (Everett, 1984; Hurst & Buller, 1984). These
intervals may be defined by variations of reservoir characteristics as shown by log
responses and porosity and permeability measurements. Two examples of the value of clay
mineralogy in reservoir description are given by Hurst & Archer (1986).
Geological descriptions for reservoir simulation are presented as maps which define the
volume and characteristics of the reservoir. Isochore maps (drilled thicknesses of given
stratigraphic units) of reservoir zones, often based on sedimentary facies analysis, together
with maps of porosity, permeability, saturation and net:gross sand distributions are
required. If a sedimentological or diagenetic zonation defines zones only a few metres thick,
most of those zones will be grouped together and given an 'average' value in the final
reservoir zonation (Fig. 5). This should not detract from the value of small-scale zonation
(Fig. 5A) which allows coarser average characteristics (Fig. 5B) to be defined. The known
relations between sedimentary structures and permeability (Potter & Mast, 1963; Pryor,
GR
1.7
100
'
0.6
RHOB
2.7
*
PHIN
(metres)
olj
J/TS -~iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiil
III
2610
grain size
FIG. 5. (A) Zonation of a cored interval using geological and petrophysical characteristics. (B)
Coarser zonation probably used in the final reservoir zonation.
80,0
1973; Richardson et al., 1978; Weber, 1982), sedimentary structures and cementation
(Glennie et aL, 1978; Hurst & Buller, 1984), and cement distribution and log responses
(Hurst, 1984; Hurst & Archer, 1986), emphasize the importance of obtaining detailed
geological data in reservoir characterization.
Geology from wireline logs
Wireline logs are commonly used to generate geological information both by integration
of the information from conventional logs (e.g. GR, CAL, RHOB, PHIN, DT, MSFL,
Table 1), and by developing logging tools (geological logs) capable of measuring geological
parametres in the reservoir environment. The processing of log data into 'geological'
information is commonly known as 'electro facies'. Although many examples of integrated
electro facies analysis exist (Serra & Sulpice, 1975; Mayer & Sibbit, 1980; Wolff &
Pelissier-Combescure, 1982) few are rigorously correlated with mineralogical data (Van
der Wel & Langeland, 1984).
Geological logs have been developed in order to obtain mineralogical information from
the reservoir environment. Natural gamma-ray spectrocopy logs (NGT) measure
concentrations of the common radioactive isotopes 4~ 232Th and 236U (Serra et al., 1980;
Fertl, 1983). Gamma spectroscopy logs (GST) have the ultimate goal of determining
elemental concentrations (Hertzog, 1980; Schweitzer et al., 1984). Lithodensity logs
(LDT) measure formation density and photoelectric absorption index, and are of value for
identifying clay and mica intervals (Suau & Spurlin, 1982). Dipmeter microresistivity logs
provide highly focussed measurements of formation resistivity and may be applied
routinely to reservoir description (Serra & Abbott, 1982), giving information about internal
structures, sorting and permeability anisotropy. The highly focused nature of the dipmeter
log allows lam{nated sandstones and shales to be distinguished from sandstones with a high
proportion of interstitial clay minerals (Sallee & Wood, 1984). Dipmeter logs undoubtedly
contribute much additional information to traditional geological descriptions. Independent
field applications of the other geological (NGT, GST, LDT) logs are few and it remains
unproven how useful they will be after further development, of if they are economic to run
(Willey & Zittel, 1982; Peveraro & Russell, 1984).
Geological logs and electro facies techniques are developed to reduce coring costs,
especially after production is established. Many geological logs are developed primarily not
to provide geological or mineralogical information but to provide data to define saturation
and porosity in the reservoir environment.
Construction of the simulation model
A reservoir zonation is generated from the combination of geological and petrophysical parameters which define the volume and characteristics of a reservoir as
a series of layers (Harris, 1975; Weber et al., 1978). Application of geological data
to a reservoir simulation requires that reservoir cells are defined (Fig. 6A) and given
numerical values for their reservoir characteristics (porosity, permeability, saturation,
net:gross sand). Construction of the reservoir model with cells is analogous to
assembling building blocks (Fig. 6B), where typical cell sizes may be 200 m x 100 m x
20 m in a field development study. Although cells of 4 x 104 m 3 volume are unlikely
to represent realistic geological units, for simulation it is necessary to model the
behaviour of heterogeneous regions as equivalent homogeneous cells (Fig. 7). The
801
SINGLE CELL
A
AX
UNIFORM POROSITY
UNIFORM PRESSURE7
POTENTIAL
UNIFORM SATURATION
UNIFORM PERMEABILITY
A GIVEN DIRECTION
AZ
IN
B
m
I2om
FIG. 6. (A) Single cell defined for reservoir simulation. (B) Typical composite of homogeneous
cells representing a volume of heterogeneous reservoir.
802
200m
HETEROGENEOUS
RESERVOIR
CELLS
200m
SINGLE
EQUIVALENT
CELL
B
FIG. 7. (A) A unit of heterogeneous reservoir cells defined by geological description which for
the purposes of simulation might be described as (B), a single equivalent cell.
I \\
~-~
I CELL
I CELL
I
I
"" ..,
~'~.
~'.~
_1,,
"~ -~
I
'~.
Tx (-X-direction
~.~
U ~ / I
transmissibility)=
TM
--
--
~" ,..
...... STREAM
- - -
21~H 9 k r A
(L 1 2 )
~J
803
extent, provides information about porosity distribution (both primary and secondary), by
examining the relationships between sedimentary facies, lithology and diagenesis.
Clay mineralogy in sandstones has often been the focus of interest concerning formation
damage, both during primary production and during reservoir stimulation (Almon &
Davies, 1979; Thomas, 1979). Stimulation of reservoirs often involves the injection of
corrosive fluids into a reservoir to enhance permeability. Fluid injection programmes must
take into account the possible interactions between minerals and injected fluids. For
example, acid injection may cause dissolution of one phase and reprecipitation of another,
less-dense, phase which lowers rather than increases permeability. The main contribution
of mineralogy in reservoir description, however, is to reservoir volumetrics and production
strategy, although the same data may later contribute to stimulation planning.
Use of any specific log to evaluate porosity or water saturation may result in generation
of too low or high values, and produce unrealistic trends of these values, because that log is
particularly sensitive to the presence of a clay mineral (example 2 in Hurst & Archer,
1986). Uncritical application of shaly sand models in North Sea reservoirs may give an
overestimation of formation conductivity and therefore an overestimation of hydrocarbon
saturation (/~,bo, 1984). Overestimation of conductivity is common in sandstones where
authigenic kaolinite is the only common clay mineral. The electrolytic properties of water
bound to the surface of kaolinite are thus interpreted to be poor.
Clay mineralogy
Kaolinite, illite, chlorite, smeetite and mixed-layer illite-smectite are the most commonly
described and volumetrically significant clay minerals in reservoir sandstones. Distribution
of clay minerals in sandstones can be achieved by integrating log and mineral data
(examples 1 and 2, Hurst & Archer, 1986). Various log-detectable characteristics of clay
minerals are listed in Table 2. A major problem with log identification of clay mineralogy is
that textural variations of individual clay minerals change some characteristics. For
example, hydrogen index and natural gamma radiation remain unchanged whereas cation
exchange capacity (CEC) varies with texture.
Descriptions of clay mineral distributions in sandstones are commonly made in terms of
laminated, dispersed or structural types (Frost & Fertl, 1981), and are described in Fig. 9.
If a clay mineral is 'dispersed' (e.g. most authigenic clays) it has a higher surface area:mass
TABLE 2. Characteristics of common clay minerals of significance in reservoir description. Data from
Fertl & Frost (1980).
Clay
mineral
Structural
formula
Density Hydrogen
CEC
Naturalgamma radioactivity
(gcm -3)
index (mEq/100g) K (%) Th (ppm) U (ppm)
Kaolinite AI4[Si4010](OH)8
2.60-2.68
Chlorite (Mg,AI,Fe)I~[(SI,Al)sO2o] 2.60-2.96
(OH)s
Smectite (89 a, Na)0.7(Al,Mg,Fe)4
2.20--2.70
[Si,A1)8020](OH)4.nH20
Illite K1_I.sAI4[SiT_6.sAIl_l.sO20] 2.64-2.69
(OH),
0-36
0.34
3-15
10-40
0.42
--
6-19
--
1.5-3.0
--
0.13
80-150
0.16
1 4 - 2 4 2.0-5.0
0.12
10-40
4.5
<2.0
1.5
804
E
FIG. 9. Texturalstyles of clay minerals in sandstones: (A) authigenicgrain-coatingcement; (B)
detrital clasts; (C) authigenic pore-fillingcement; (D) clay-richlamina; (E) micaceouslamina.
(A) and (C) are dispersedclays, (B) are structural clays, (D) and (E) are laminated clays.
ratio and a higher CEC than if it occurs as a structural clay. High CEC values imply good
electrolytic characteristics for the clay-bound water and thus the potential for lowering
formation resistivity as measured by logs. Illite occurring in shale clasts (Fig. 9B) has much
lower surface properties than illite occurring as a grain-coating cement (Fig. 9A), despite
that both illites may have the same composition. Indeed, structural clay (shale clasts) may
be considerably more abundant than dispersed clay (authigenic) but nevertheless have less
effect on reservoir characteristics (Fig. 10). In Fig. 10 permeability reduction in intervals
containing shale clasts is interpreted as being caused by differential compaction of the
shale. Grain-coating cement is of the type described by Pallett et al. (1984) where a
permeability reduction of between one and two orders of magnitude occurs. In Fig. 10 it is
assumed that the clay mineral present has a detectable gamma radioactivity.
Authigenic clay minerals are known to have very varied textures (Wilson & Pittmann,
1978; Welton, 1984) and consequently wide ranges of surface properties (Table 2). It is
emphasized that the characteristics of clay minerals listed in Table 2, which are routinely
used in petrophysical analysis, are largely derived from measurements made on standard
clays--mineral samples from clay deposits or generally coarse-crystalline minerals--and
not clay minerals from sandstone reservoirs. CECs of standard clays are known to vary
with increased surface area (Patchett, 1975); therefore the use of such laboratory-measured
CEC values (Table 2) to evaluate clay characteristics in sandstones is perhaps unwise.
805
GR
1,7
I
1OO
I
PHIN
RHOB
o
!
2.7
RXO
1
10
I
KH:16OOmD
:~:i!B.'ii:i:i~:OB]
KH=2OOOmD
~.~
0 o t~
shale
clasts
KH:horizontal
~ clay
KH=8OOD
grain-coating
permeability
FIG. 10. Effect of dispersed clays (grain-coating cement) and structural clays (shale clasts) on
log responses and permeability.
806
B
50-
50
40
40
30-
30
20
20
10
10
0.1
0.2
0,3
0.4
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
D
50
50
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0,5
l o g (K)
0.1
!
0.2
0.3
0.4
FIG. 11. (A) Normal 0 distribution typical of a homogeneous reservoir zone. (B) Slightly
skewed bimodal 0 distribution associated with a reservoir zone containing two distinct
lithologies. (C) Skewed log normal K distribution typical of a reservoir zone containing grain-size
gradation. (D) Skewed broad normal 0 distribution from a heterogeneous (varied grain-size
sorting) reservoir zone.
0.5
807
homogeneous porosity characteristics will give a normal distribution (Fig. 11A), whereas if
porosity heterogeneities are present, e.g. finer grained or micaceous intervals (cf. Fig. 3), a
bimodal distribution will be more typical (Fig. 11 B). If a reservoir zone contains distinct
grain-size variations, e.g. a coarsening-upward sequence from very-fine micaceous
sandstones to medium sandstones, a log-normal distribution for permeability (Fig. 11C)
and a broad normal distribution of porosity (Fig. 11D) are expected.
Bimodal distribution of characteristics, or anomalous data points on cross-plots (Fig. 4)
must be evaluated with respect to possible mineralogical controls. The significance of
mineral effects on porosity must in turn be evaluated with respect to their influence on
permeability and water saturation. Anomalous porosity distribution need not represent
permeability heterogeneity. Statistical tests can be applied to data sets to determine whether
log and core data belong to the same reservoir zone (Archer, 1985).
Bimodality (Fig. l i B ) of reservoir characteristics does not mean that the existing
reservoir zonation is incorrect, although pronounced bimodal distributions m a y indicate
the need for defining further sub-zones. Bimodality is also typical of interbedded sandstone
facies, e.g. fine micaceous sandstones interbedded with coarse quartzose sandstones. The
heterogeneity of a particular zone is readily shown by histograms: Figs. 11D and 11A have
similar average porosities but the former is more heterogeneous than the latter.
Sedimentological reservoir zonations lack the necessary numerical definition for
reservoir simulation. The average porosity, permeability and saturation values derived from
plots of zones (as in Fig. 11) are typical of the values used in simulation. It is therefore
critical that heterogeneity of reservoir characteristics and geology are appreciated for input
to the reservoir simulation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A. T. Buller is acknowledged for encouraging the compilation and writing of this paper and for criticism of an
early draft of the manuscript. Tone Lien is thanked for patiently re-writing several drafts of notes which
eventually formed the basis of the text. Den norske stats oljeselskap (Statoil) are acknowledged for supporting
and encouraging publication of the paper.
REFERENCES
ALMONW.R. & DAVIESD.K. (1979) Formation damage and the crystal chemistry of clays. Pp. 81-103 in:
Clays and the Resource Geologist (F. J. Longstaffe, editor). Min. Soc. Canada Short Course Handbook 7.
ARCHER J.S. (1985) Reservoir volumetrics and recovery factors. In: Developments in Petroleum
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