Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
CEU 224
Fire Protection
Systems
June 2015
ASPE.ORG/ReadLearnEarn
As the role of the plumbing engineer has evolved, many have become responsible for the engineering of fire protection
systems within the buildings they design. It is their responsibility to be knowledgeable about the applicable fire protection system types, design methods, relevant adopted codes, insurance regulatory requirements, and general installation
methods.
The two main purposes for fire protection systems within built environments are life safety and property protection.
Equal consideration must be given to attempt to contain a fire while protecting a buildings occupants during their evacuation. Absolute safety from fire is not attainable, but means must be provided to minimize the potential for fire and the
damage done by fire. The systems and methods used today are constantly changing and improving to meet the requirements of project variations and challenges. This chapter provides a basic outline for establishing the needed criteria to
ensure fire safety via fire suppression within a building environment.
Classes of Fires
A generally accepted method of classification separates combustible materials into five types:
Reprinted from Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 3 2011, American Society of Plumbing Engineers.
2 Read, Learn, Earn
June 2015
Classification of Occupancy
The criteria for occupancy classification is defined in NFPA 13: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems. The
categories are broken into five areas based on building use type:
Light hazard: Low quantity of combustibleswith low heat release (e.g., churches, hospitals, museums)
Ordinary hazard 1: Moderate quantity of combustibles with moderate heat release and 8-foot stockpiles (e.g.,
mechanical rooms, restaurant kitchens, laundry facilities)
Ordinary hazard 2: Moderate quantity of combustibles with moderate heat release and 12-foot stockpiles (e.g.,
stages, large library stack rooms, repair garages)
Extra hazard 1: High quantity of combustibles with high heat release and no flammable or combustible liquids
(e.g., aircraft hangers, saw mills)
Extra hazard 2: High quantity of combustibles with high heat release and flammable and combustible liquids
(e.g., plastics processing, flammable liquids spraying)
If the building includes storage, whether in stockpiles, racks, or pallets, the materials and methods of storage must
be known. NFPA 13 provides specific guidelines regarding stored goods within the building environment.
The different building uses and stored materials require different hydraulic demand requirements. It is imperative
to obtain this information during the information-gathering process.
WATER SOURCE
The primary agent for most fire-extinguishing systems is water. The
availability of municipal water supplies of sufficient pressure and
quantity to meet the design demands of the fire protection sprinkler
system must be addressed. The points to be considered for the water
supply include:
Quantity, static pressure at no flow and residual pressure at
design flow, and availability of water
Overall fire demand, including duration of flow
Makeup and reliability of the source
Size, material of construction, and age of mains
Figure 1-1 Time/Temperature Curve for Standard Fire Test
3 Read, Learn, Earn
June 2015
June 2015
where
Q = Flow discharge, gpm
c
= Coefficient of discharge
d = Diameter of outlet, inches
p = Pitot (velocity) pressure, psi
The flow available at any pressure along the established flow curve can be found using the following equation:
Equation 1-2
QA=(QT)((PS PA )/(PS PR ))0.54
where
QA = Flow available at some residual pressure (PA)
QT = Actual flow measured during the test
PS = Measured static pressure
PR = Measured residual pressure
PA = Pressure of interest
The results of a hydrant flow test can be plotted on a graph to develop the characteristic flow curve for the piping
network (water supply) for the test location. Either the formula method discussed above or the graph method can be used
to determine water availability.
Example 1-1
Determine the water demand at the desired residual pressure given the following flow test conditions:
Static pressure: 70 psi
Residual pressure: 50 psi
Pitot reading: 24 psi
Hydrant butt: 2 inches
Coefficient: 0.9
From Table 1-1, the theoretical flow can be found to be 914 gpm. By multiplying by the coefficient of 0.9, the actual
flow is found.
QF = 0.9914 gpm
QF = 822.6 gpm
QF = 823 gpm
By plotting this on the water supply graph, the characteristic flow curve can be established.
Similarly, using Equation 1-2, the flow available at 20-psi residual pressure can be found:
QA =(QT)((PS PA )/(PS PR ))0.54
QT = 914 gpm
PS = 70 psi
PR = 50 psi
PA = 20 psi
QA = (823)((7020)/(7050))0.54
QA = (823)(50/20)0.54
QA = (823)(2.50.54)
5 Read, Learn, Earn
June 2015
QA = 1,350 gpm
Feet
2.31
4.61
6.92
9.23
11.54
13.84
16.15
18.46
20.76
23.07
25.38
27.68
29.99
32.30
34.61
36.91
39.22
41.53
43.83
46.14
50.75
55.37
59.98
64.60
69.21
73.82
78.44
83.05
87.67
92.28
96.89
101.51
106.12
110.74
115.35
Velocity
Discharge
(ft/sec)
12.20
17.25
21.13
24.39
27.26
29.87
32.26
34.49
36.58
38.56
40.45
42.24
43.97
45.63
47.22
48.78
50.28
51.73
53.15
54.54
57.19
59.74
62.18
64.52
66.79
68.98
71.10
73.16
75.17
77.11
79.03
80.88
82.70
84.48
86.22
2
119
169
207
239
267
292
316
338
358
377
396
413
430
447
462
477
492
506
520
534
560
585
609
632
654
675
696
716
736
755
774
792
810
827
844
2.25
151
214
262
302
338
370
400
427
453
478
501
523
545
565
585
604
623
641
658
676
709
740
770
799
827
855
881
906
931
955
979
1002
1025
1047
1068
2.375
168
238
292
337
376
412
445
476
505
532
558
583
607
630
652
673
694
714
734
753
789
825
858
891
922
952
981
1010
1038
1065
1091
1116
1142
1166
1190
2.5
187
264
323
373
417
457
493
528
560
590
619
646
672
698
722
746
769
791
813
834
875
914
951
987
1022
1055
1087
1119
1150
1180
1209
1237
1265
1292
1319
2.625
206
291
356
411
460
504
544
582
617
650
682
712
741
769
796
822
848
872
896
920
964
1007
1048
1088
1126
1163
1199
1234
1268
1300
1333
1364
1395
1425
1454
2.75
226
319
391
451
505
553
597
638
677
714
748
782
814
844
874
903
930
957
984
1009
1058
1106
1151
1194
1236
1277
1316
1354
1391
1427
1462
1497
1531
1563
1596
3
269
380
465
537
601
658
711
760
806
849
891
930
968
1005
1040
1074
1107
1139
1171
1201
1260
1316
1369
1421
1471
1519
1566
1611
1656
1699
1740
1781
1821
1861
1899
3.25
315
446
546
630
705
772
834
891
946
997
1045
1092
1136
1179
1221
1261
1300
1337
1374
1410
1478
1544
1607
1668
1726
1783
1838
1891
1943
1993
2043
2091
2138
2184
2229
3.5
366
517
633
731
817
895
967
1034
1097
1156
1212
1266
1318
1368
1416
1462
1507
1551
1593
1635
1715
1791
1864
1934
2002
2068
2131
2193
2253
2312
2369
2425
2479
2533
2585
3.75
420
593
727
839
938
1028
1110
1187
1259
1327
1392
1454
1513
1570
1625
1679
1730
1780
1829
1877
1968
2056
2140
2220
2298
2374
2447
2518
2587
2654
2719
2783
2846
2907
2967
4
477
675
827
955
1068
1169
1263
1350
1432
1510
1583
1654
1721
1786
1849
1910
1969
2026
2081
2135
2239
2339
2434
2526
2615
2701
2784
2865
2943
3020
3094
3167
3238
3308
3376
4.5
604
855
1047
1209
1351
1480
1599
1709
1813
1911
2004
2093
2179
2261
2340
2417
2491
2564
2634
2702
2834
2960
3081
3197
3310
3418
3523
3626
3725
3822
3916
4008
4098
4186
4273
June 2015
June 2015
June 2015
Accelerator
An accelerator is an accessory device used on large dry pipe systems to
hasten dry valve operation. NFPA 13 requires each standard dry valve controlling a system with a capacity of more than
500 gallons to be provided with an accelerator, with the following exception: the 60-second limit does not apply to dry
systems with a capacity of 750 gallons or less when equipped with a quick-opening device.
In a fire condition, the accelerator redirects air pressure from the system piping into the intermediate chamber of
the dry pipe valve. This air pressure assists the water pressure differential and opens the dry pipe valve more quickly.
Water Delivery
NFPA 13 requires dry sprinkler systems to deliver water in a prescribed time frame for different hazard applications.
For example, a dry system used in a residential application is required to deliver water to the most remote sprinkler
initially open in 15 seconds. This requirement was established to address the time interval between the operation of the
sprinklers and the heat release and growth of the fire.
Preaction Systems
Preaction sprinkler systems are specialized for use in locations where accidental activation is undesired, such as in museums, data centers, or electrical rooms. A preaction system is installed where there is a need to counteract the operational
delay of a conventional dry pipe system and to eliminate the danger of water discharge resulting from accidental damage
to automatic sprinklers or piping. In a preaction system, the water supply (deluge) valve is actuated independently of
the opening of sprinklers (i.e., the valve is opened by the operation of an automatic fire detection system and not by the
fusing of sprinklers).
9 Read, Learn, Earn
June 2015
Deluge Systems
The purpose of a deluge system is to deliver sprinkler water coverage
to the entire area of a fire in the least amount of time possible. It
accomplishes this by admitting water to sprinklers or spray nozzles
that are open at all times. By using automatic fire detection devices of
the type used in preaction systems or controls designed for individual
hazards, a deluge system can apply water to a fire more quickly than
a system whose operation depends on the opening of sprinklers as the
fire spreads. Deluge systems are suitable for extra hazard occupancies
Figure 1-11 Typical Deluge Valve Riser
in which flammable liquids are handled or stored and where a fireSource: Tyco Fire
may flash ahead of the operation of ordinary automatic sprinklers.
Water is not present in the piping until the system operates. Because the sprinkler orifices are open, the piping is at
ambient air pressure. To prevent the water supply pressure from forcing water into the piping, a deluge valve, which is a
mechanically latched valve, is used in the water supply connection. It is a non-resetting valve and stays open once tripped.
Because the sprinklers are of the open type, the deluge valve must be opened as signaled by a specialized fire alarm
system. The type of fire alarm-initiating device (e.g., smoke detectors, heat detectors, or optical flame detection) is selected
mainly based on the hazard. The initiation device signals the fire alarm panel, which in turn signals the deluge valve
to open. Activation can also be manual, depending on the system goals. Manual activation is usually via an electric or
pneumatic fire alarm pull station.
Activation of a fire alarm-initiating device or a manual pull station signals the fire alarm panel, which in turn signals
the deluge valve to open, allowing water to enter the piping system. Water flows from all sprinklers simultaneously.
Where high values of discharge are involved or where spray nozzles, foam water sprinklers, or other foam applicators
are used, the system should be supervised.
Deluge systems are used for fast, total application of water in extra-hazardous areas and in water-spray systems.
Deluge valves are essentially check valves with a clapper latched in the closed position (see Figure 1-11). The actuating
10 Read, Learn, Earn
June 2015
Antifreeze Systems
Antifreeze systems are typically used as subsystems to wet-based
sprinkler systems. These systems are intended to protect small
areas that could be exposed to freezing temperatures. Typically,
antifreeze systems are used for rooftop cooling tower equipment or,
Figure 1-13 Deluge Valve with Outlet Pressure Regulator
most commonly, residential construction. The sprinkler distribution piping in an antifreeze system (see Figure 1-14) is filled with
a mixed antifreeze solution prepared with a freezing point below
the expected minimum temperature for the locality.
Note: Confer with your local AHJ and insurer for the allowed
use of antifreeze systems.
June 2015
Source: NFPA 13
Remote area
Sprinkler coverage area
Example 1-2
If the remote area in an ordinary group 1 hazard application is 1,500 square feet, how many sprinklers should be calculated?
Calculated sprinklers = 1,500 ft2/130 ft2 = 11.5 sprinklers = 12 sprinklers
The required size of the remote area varies among occupancy classifications. NFPA 13 allows some flexibility in the
sizing of the design area, usually permitting an area between 1,500 and 5,000 square feet. Other authorities have different ranges. In many cases, the insurance industry or government authorities require a specific design area based on a
specific hazard classification. Otherwise, any area within the acceptable range can be chosen. It must be noted that the
required minimum design density will vary with the hazard classification and the size of the design area.
The design area is to be located in the most hydraulically remote part of the fire area. In essence, the design area
must be composed of the most demanding portion of the sprinkler system. If the calculations prove that the water supply
available is adequate for the most demanding part of the system, then it logically follows that the water supply will be
adequate for any part of the system. The most hydraulically remote area is not always easy to identify. In a non-loop and
non-grid system (i.e., a conventional tree system), the hydraulically most remote area is usually the area most physically
remote from the water supply source. However, it is important to understand that physical remoteness is not a fail-safe
criterion for hydraulic remoteness, particularly when dealing with looped or gridded piping systems.
System Size
The total square footage covered by a single fire zone is restricted, normally to 52,000 square feet for light and ordinary
hazard occupancies and 40,000 square feet for extra hazard and storage occupancies.
June 2015
June 2015
Q=KP
5. Size the sprinkler piping system. The hydraulic pipe schedule is a table of standard sprinkler system pipe sizes
with associated flows that will produce the averTable 1-3 Equivalent Pipe Lengths for Fittings
age friction loss per foot allowed in the system
Fittings and Valves
Fittings and Valves Expressed in Equivalent Feet of Pipe
0.5 0.75 1
1.25 1.5 2
2.5 3
3.5 4
under consideration.
x
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
4
6. Calculate the average pressure loss 45 elbow
1
2
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
per foot of piping and fittings. This is the unit 90 standard elbow
0.5 1
2
2
2
3
4
5
5
6
pressure loss that may be expended in friction 90 long-turn elbow
4
5
6
8
10
12
15
17
20
losses as the water travels through the sprinkler Tee or cross (flow turned 90) 3
Butterfly valve
x
x
x
x
x
6
7
10
x
12
piping and sprinklers. It is determined by dividGate valve
x
x
x
x
x
1
1
1
1
2
ing the pressure available for the system by the
Swing check*
x
x
5
7
9
11
14
16
19
22
system equivalent pipe length. (Refer to Table *Due to the variation in design of swing check valves, the pipe equivalents indicated in this table are considered average.
1-3 for equivalent pipe lengths for fittings.)
7. Calculate the system headandpressure loss associated with the vertical distance traveled.
Equation 1-9
Pressure=(HeadSpecific gravity)/2.31
Head =(Pressure2.31)/Specific gravity
The specific gravity for water in this case is 1.00.
8. Calculate the total pressure loss associated with the system
for the single most remote sprinkler. This is an estimating exercise.
Full remote area design calculations should be developed when available pressure is a factor or when sizing a fire pump.
Equation 1-10
Total pressure=Sprinkler pressure requirement + Average piping
pressure loss + Head loss + 10% safety factor
USE OF SPRINKLERS
Automatic fire sprinklers operate at a predetermined temperature.
These sprinklers utilize a fusible link, a portion of which melts, or a
frangible glass bulb containing liquid that breaks, allowing the plug in
the sprinkler orifice to be pushed out by the water pressure in the fire
sprinkler piping, resulting in water flow. The water stream impacts a
14 Read, Learn, Earn
June 2015
Source: NFPA 13
Residential Sprinklers
Residential sprinklers, listed by Underwriters Laboratories (UL), are now available. They are designed to respond to
a fire much faster than currently available standard commercial and industrial sprinkler systems. Typical residential
sprinkler systems are installed in accordance with NFPA 13D: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in
One- and Two-Family Dwellings and Manufactured Homes and NFPA 13R: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler
Systems in Residential Occupancies Up to and Including Four Stories in Height. Residential fire sprinkler systems provide
coverage throughout the entire home, excluding small bathrooms (less than 55 square feet), small closets (less than 24
square feet), attics, and garages.
STANDPIPE SYSTEMS
The purpose of installing a standpipe system is to provide a readily accessible water supply for use by fire department
personnel and/or trained occupants during fire situations. A standpipe is a type of rigid water pipe to which firehoses can
be connected that is built into multistory buildings in a vertical position. Standpipe systems can be classified into three
system types as defined by NFPA 14: Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems.
Class I system: A system that provides 2-inch hose connections to supply water for use by fire departments and
those trained in handling heavy fire streams
Class II system: A system that provides 1-inch hose connections to supply water for use by trained building
personnel or fire departments during initial response
Class III system: A system that provides 1-inch hose connections to supply water for use by trained personnel
and 2-inch hose connections to supply a larger volume of water for use by fire departments and those trained
in handling heavy fire streams
Standpipes may be either wet type or dry type, depending on the application. The subtypes of each are as follows:
An automatic wet standpipe contains water at all times, is attached to a water supply capable of providing the
system demand (flow and pressure), and requires no action other than opening a hose valve to provide water at
hose connections.
A manual wet standpipe contains water at all times but relies exclusively on the fire department connection to
supply the system demand.
An automatic dry standpipe contains air or nitrogen at pressure but is attached to a water supply capable of providing the system demand. The water supply is held at a dry pipe valve until a hose valve is opened, releasing
the air or nitrogen and allowing water to flow into the standpipe system.
A semiautomatic dry standpipe is an empty, non-pressurized system attached to a water supply capable of providing the system demand. The water supply is held at a deluge valve and requires activation of a remote control
device to provide water flow into the standpipe system.
A manual dry standpipe has no attached water supply and relies exclusively on the fire department connection
to supply the system demand.
June 2015
June 2015
Suction
(inches)
3
4
4
5
5
6
8
8
8
10
Source: NFPA 20
June 2015
Number of
Size of
Hose Header
Hose Valves Hose Valves
Suppy
(inches)
(inches)
(inches)
1
2
3
1
2
3
2
2
4
2
2
4
2
2
4
3
2
6
4
2
6
6
2
8
6
2
8
6
2
8
You may submit your answers to the following questions online at aspe.org/readlearnearn. If you score 90 percent or higher on the test,
you will be notified that you have earned 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward CPD renewal or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept
on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Notice for North Carolina Professional Engineers: State regulations for registered PEs in North Carolina now require you to complete ASPEs
online CEU validation form to be eligible for continuing education credits. After successfully completing this quiz, just visit ASPEs CEU Validation Center at aspe.org/CEUValidationCenter.
Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given for this examination through June 30, 2016.
9. A _______ standpipe system provides 1-inch hose connections to supply water for use by trained building personnel or fire
departments during initial response.
a. Class I
b. Class II
c. Class III
d. Class IV