Unit 1 Study Guide

Measurement
In science most values that we work with are the result of measuring something. To distinguish a measured
quantity from a number, it is critical that we tell anyone who is interested how the measurement was made.
This is most easily done by expressing the unit of measure. There can be many ways to measure the same
thing. The unit of measure is usually determined by the tool that we choose to use to make the measurement.
For example, we can measure the length of the line shown here:
In the English system of measurement, it would be 3.0 in. In the metric system it might be written as 7.62 cm,
or 76.2 mm or 0.076 m. Without inches, cm, mm or m you would have no idea how long the line is. So that we
can be consistent around the world, scientists have developed a standard system of measurement based on
the metric system. It is called the Systeme Internationale (SI). In physics we use a particular subset of the SI
which is known as the mks System of units.
mks represents three basic measurements we can make:
m represents the unit of measure for length --- it is the meter
k represents the unit of measure for mass --- it is the kilogram
s represents the unit of measure for intervals of time --- it is the second
Many other units of measure are derived from these three fundamental units. It is important that we know the
standard unit of measure and that we are able to convert non-standard measurements to the standard unit.
Most of the time, this simply involves converting metric prefixes to powers of ten. However, in the case of
time, because hours/minutes/seconds are not based on powers of ten, there is a little more work to do.
The metric system is based on using prefixes to
represent how many decimal places (powers of
10) we have in our number.
For example, 1.0 TB (one terabyte) means 1. 0 x
1012 bytes. We simply replace the prefix in our
unit with the appropriate power of ten from the
chart. So, 35.4 mL becomes 35.4 x 10-3 L (or 3.54
x 10-2 L in standard scientific notation). The
length of one single wave of red light is about 700 nm. This can be written as 700 x 10-9 m and then as 7.00 x 10-7
m in standard scientific notation. Most of the time, converting a metric prefix to a power of ten is a pretty
straightforward calculation. However, for mass measurements this may not be so. How can we convert 4.54 mg
(milligrams) to the standard unit of kg (kilograms). The base metric unit is grams. If we convert both our known
and unknown value to the base unit of grams, we can find the appropriate number of kilograms. Heres how it
goes.
Write the conversion as a question: How many kg is 4.54 mg?
Now, convert the question to an equation: X kg = 4.54 mg.
Now, substitute for the metric prefix on both sides of the equation: X * 103g = 4.54 x 10-3 g
Then, solve for X: X = 4.54 x 10-3 g / 10 3 g = 4.54 x 10-6.
So, our conversion is 4.54 x 10-6 kg = 4.54 mg

To convert time measurements, simply replace the time unit with the appropriate number of the new unit.
For example, to find out how many seconds are in one day you would do it as follows:
1 day = (1)*24 hours = (1*24)*60 minutes = (1*24*60)*60 seconds = 86,400 s.
In addition to specifying the unit of measure some quantities require us to also state the direction in which
they point. Forces are an example of something that has a direction pushing something to the left can have a
very different result than pushing it to the right, for example. So, we classify quantities based on whether or
not they have an inherent direction associated with them:
Vectors are those quantities with size (magnitude) & direction
while Scalars have no direction
We need to pay attention to how we add quantities when direction matters.
Traveling 3 m East, then 4 more meters East will result in something different
than traveling 3 m East, then 4 m West. Similarly, we could also imagine going
3 m East and then 4 meters North. The simplest way to deal with these three
problems is through pictures. When adding vectors draw a picture that
connects the vectors tip-to-tail. Then draw a vector from your starting point
(tail of first vector) to your ending point (tip of last vector). Find the length of
this resultant vector using the rules of geometry. If the vectors form a triangle,
you can use the Pythagorean theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse.

Result = 7 m
3m

4m

Result = 1 m 3 m
4m

Result = 5 m

4m

3m

How many digits should be written when calculating new values?

One of the nice things about standard scientific notation is that it makes it easy to see how many digits in a
number are significant. The number of digits we record in a calculation should reflect our ability to measure
the values that we used in the calculation and all calculated vales must be written as a decimal . It would not
be appropriate to treat 1 m / 3 s as 0. 3 m/s. By writing the line over the three we are saying that this value
never ends, when in fact, based on our measurements of length and time, this speed should be 0.3 m/s. Our
measured values have one digit, so our answer should have one digit. If we measured with a different set of
tools we might find the length to be 1.1 m and the time to be 3.3 s. In this case our speed would be 1.1m /3.3 s
or 0.33 m/s. We had two digits in our measurements so we keep two digits in our answer. Another set of tools
might yield a length of 1.11 m and a time of 3.33 sec. This time our speed would be reported as 0.333 m/s
(three digits in the measurements so three digits in the answer). A rule of thumb for rounding calculated
values is to make them look like the measurements on which they are based.
Measured values always carry some uncertainty. This arises because of the tools we use, the way we use the
tools and the fact that we must make some judgement about what to write down. The last digit in any
measured value is always an estimated value. This is because we must make a judgement about how to read
the scale of our measuring tool. The examples below show the same measurement with three different
measuring tools. In each case, the last digit is the one about which we are not certain.

Length = 3 cm

Length = 3.2 cm

Length = 3.25 cm

To show that our measurements really represent a range of values (based on our ability to estimate the last
digit) we report an uncertainty in our measurements that is generally the smallest unit available on our
measuring device. We write our estimated value +/- our uncertainty. For the millimeter ruler shown above, we
would report the length of the line as 3.25 +/- 0.10 cm. This uncertainty, because it is expressed in the same
unit as the measurement, is known as absolute uncertainty. There will be times when we want to express the
uncertainty as a fraction or percentage of the measured value. This is calculated as (x / x) and is known as the
percent uncertainty. Note that the uncertainty of the measurement may be affected by more than just the
tool used. For example, when timing with a stopwatch, the uncertainty of the watch is typically +/- 0.01 sec.
However our ability to start and stop the watch is much less precise than this. Human reaction is usually about
0.1 seconds so we would report our measurements with the larger value due to reaction and not the
hundredth of a second uncertainty of the watch.
When performing calculations with measurements that have uncertainty there will obviously be some
uncertainty in our result. For example, suppose we need to add the following lengths together:
length a = 2.5 +/- 0.1 m and length b = 3.3 +/- 0.1 m
The largest value of a+b would come from adding the largest possible a + the largest possible b: 2.6 + 3.4 = 6.0 m
The smallest value of a+b would come from the smallest a + the smallest b: 2.4 + 3.2 = 5.6 m
The estimated value of a+b would be: 2.5 + 3.3 = 5.8 m
The correct answer for the sum of a+b, including all possible answers, is then 5.8 +/- 0.2 m
Suppose instead that we want to find the difference between b and a, b a.
The largest difference would come from largest b smallest a: 3.4 2.4 = 1.0 m
The smallest difference would come from smallest b largest a: 3.2 2.6 = 0.6 m
The estimated difference would be: 3.3 2.5 = 0.8 m
The correct answer for the difference between b and a, including all possible answers, is then 0.8 +/- 0.2 m
It can be shown that if A = a +/- a and B = b +/- b, then for C = A + B or C = A B, c = a + b
Now suppose we want to multiply two measurements (maybe to find the area of a rectangle). Lets say
L = 2.0 +/- 0.2 m and W = 1.0 +/- 0.1 m.
The largest possible area would be largest L x largest W = 2.2 x 1.1 = 2.4 m2
The smallest possible area would be smallest L x smallest W = 1.8 x 0.9 = 1.6 m2
The estimated value would be 2.0 x 1.0 = 2.0 m2
The uncertainty in our product is +/- 0.4 m2. This is not the sum of the absolute uncertainties. However, if we
look at the percent uncertainties, we find something interesting. The percent uncertainty of L is 0.2/2 = 10%.
The percent uncertainty of W is 0.1/1 = 10%. The percent uncertainty of the result is 0.4/2 = 20%. Now were
onto something. It looks like when we multiply (or divide) we need to add the percent uncertainties of our
measurements.
It can be shown that if L = l +/- l and W = w +/- w, then for Z = L x W or Z = L/W, (z/z) = (l/l) + (w/w)

Representing uncertainty on a graph

To show that each measurement is a range of values we draw what is known as an error bar to represent
the range of values. Typically, we only worry about showing the error of the DV (the measured variable) on the
graph, so error bars are usually vertical lines at each point of the graph. The top of the bar is the maximum

value for the point (y + y) and the bottom of the bar is the minimum value (y - y). Once the points are
plotted (in a scatter plot) and error bars are added, we need to determine the shape of the graph that best
fits the data. To be a linear trend the line does not have to touch every point, but it should touch every
error bar.
If a linear trend is present, then we need to figure out how to report the slope of the line. Because we have
error bars, there are many lines that can be drawn that would fit the definition of a linear trend. We will focus
on two. The steepest line (max slope) will generally arise by connecting the bottom of the error bar for the first
point plotted to the top of the error bar for the last point plotted. The least steep line (min slope) will occur
when we connect the top of the error bar for the first point with the bottom of the error bar for the last point.
Then, max slope = [(y+y)last - - (y - y)first ] / [xlast xfirst] and min slope = [(y - y)last - (y +y)first ] / [xlast xfirst]
The graph shown here illustrates how this is done.
max
min

We define the precision of a measurement in terms of how repeatable the measurement is. In this example, if
we ask 10 different people to read each ruler, the estimated value might be different for some people.
However, because the ruler on the right has a smaller scale, the estimated value represents a smaller part of
our actual measurement. So, they are more likely to agree on the measurement for the ruler with more lines
than they would for the ruler with no lines. This means the ruler on the right provides a more precise value. In
general, we can equate precision with the number of decimal values we write down in our measurement.
Accuracy, on the other hand, is about getting the correct answer. It is easy to confuse accuracy and precision
but they are really about two different ideas. We almost never measure something one time. So, to determine
how accurate a set of measurements is, we need to think about the average of all the measured values. If the
average matches the target value, then we have made accurate measurements. This can happen even though
we may not have the greatest precision possible. It is also possible to have great precision in a series of
measurements, but because of some error in using the measuring tool our values dont represent an accurate
measurement. So, heres a quick way to remember the difference between accuracy and precision:
Precision tells us how similar our repeated measurements are (more decimal places = more precise).
Accuracy tells us how close our average measured value is to the actual value.
Each diagram shows a number line with several measurements and a target value.

C
actual value

actual value

B
actual value

D
A

actual value

Diagram A shows a situation where the measurements are very repeatable (high precision) but they miss the
target (poor accuracy). Diagram B shows measurements that vary quite a bit (low precision) but the average
value is close to the target (good accuracy). Diagram C shows values that vary (low precision) and miss the
target (poor accuracy). Diagram D is what we want: repeatable measurements that are very close to the target
value.

Error
Clearly, in the previous examples about accuracy and precision something went wrong in Diagram A. We made
our measurements with great precision but really didnt get very close to the target. This usually indicates a
problem with our method of making the measurement. When each measurement has the same error (as in
Diagram A) it is a systematic error. We wont be able to fix this problem by repeating the measurement. We
need to change our procedure for making the measurement. Maybe we forgot to zero (tare) the balance
before using it, or we forget to subtract the mass of the container when measuring the mass of water. We
could also have a situation where we must react by starting and stopping a timer, which adds our reaction time
to what we are trying to measure. Diagram C also shows a systematic error. Diagram B is different. Here, our
measurements were both too large and too small. It would be hard to predict whether the next measurement
might be too large or too small, so this situation is called random error. Usually, this type of error can be
reduced by making more measurements. The idea is that statistically, the more measurements we make the
closer our average should be to the actual value.
We can quantify the results of our measurements or calculations by determining the percentage of error. Here
we want to know how far we were from the actual value. We express it as a percentage of the actual value. So,
to calculate % error find the difference between our measured (or calculated) value and the actual value. This
should always be a positive number. To make it a percentage, divide the difference by the actual target value
and multiply by 100.
% =

( )
100

Scientific Experiments
The goal of a scientific experiment is to understand the relationship between two quantities (the variables).
We manipulate one quantity (the independent variable) in a systematic way and try to determine the effect
this has on the other quantity (the dependent variable). Just as we hope that our measurements are
repeatable, we would also like our experiments to be repeatable. This means we need a standard way of
reporting what we have done so that others can attempt to duplicate it. We also need to be explicit in our
analysis so that others can understand why we reached the conclusion that we did.
E very lab report should contain the following labeled sections:
Question usually in the form of What is the effect of IV on DV?
Variables a list of the IV, DV and any relevant constants
Method/Procedure a numbered list of instructions on how to set up the apparatus (with a diagram if
possible) and manipulate the variables. It should be explicit and specific --- it should state the value of any
constants, specify the values that the IV will have, and specify how many times (at least 5) each DV value will
be measured.

Data this should be a neat and organized table with labels for each column that include what is being
measured and the unit of measure. The body of the table contains only the values for the variables.
Analysis at a minimum this section will include a graph that has a title and each axis is labeled with quantity
and unit of measure. The graph will have a trend line (it may not be a straight line, but it will reflect the pattern
shown in the data) and an equation for the trend line. This section may also contain sample calculations for
each calculation that was done to prepare the graph (if any were done). It should also include a percent error
calculation (if appropriate).
Conclusion the conclusion will have three parts.
1. An answer to the research question. This section will explain the relationship between the variables as
shown in the graph. It will state the equation for the trend of the graph using the variables from the
experiment. It will also refer to the data, showing how the relationship works.
2. An analysis of how the data was collected. What errors were present? Were they random or
systematic? Did they affect the accuracy or precision of the data?
3. Suggestions on how to improve the experiment. Specifically, how can the errors identified in part 2 be
reduced or eliminated.

Interpreting Trends on Graphs

DV (unit of measure)

After making a scatter-plot of the two variables involved in the experiment we want to figure out how they are
related. This involves trying to identify patterns in the data. Do they form a straight line? Does the trend
include the origin? There is a sequence we can follow when trying to identify the pattern of the data. The first
question to ask is: Does the data look like it forms a straight line? If the answer is yes, the go ahead and draw
the line that best represents the data. There are a couple of possibilities for the type of relationship based on
the line you draw.
The most basic linear relationship is the one shown here.
A Direct Relationship:
This is called a direct relationship because an increase in
DV = slope*IV + constant
the IV will cause an increase in the DV. To be direct, the
relationship must be a straight line. An increasing curve
15
(like a parabola) does not show variables that are directly
10
related. If the line passes through the origin, then the
5
direct relationship is also a direct proportion because
0
doubling the IV will cause the DV to double. This only
0
2
4
6
8
happens if the line passes through the origin.
IV (unit of measure)

Another Direct Relationship:

DV = slope*IV + constant
DV (unit of measure)

A second graph that will produce a straight line is shown

to the right. This one shows an increase in the IV
producing a decrease in the DV. It is a straight line (and
straight line means direct). So, we still call this a direct
relationship. A feature of this graph is that the slope will
be negative.

15
10
5
0
0

IV (unit of measure)

6
4
2
0
0

The third straight line graph may seem trivial, but it is

important. This straight line says that changing the
value of the IV has no effect on the value of the DV.
There is no relationship between the two variables.
Specifically, the DV does not depend on the IV. For
this reason, this is called an Independent
relationship.

IV (unit of measure)

If you see a pattern that shows one variable increasing and

the other decreasing in a non-linear way, it could be the
curve shown here. This curve shows an inverse
relationship. The data follow a specific pattern where
doubling the IV reduces the DV to half of its original value.
This inverse proportion is where the name comes from.
There are other possibilities, but the ones shown here
occur frequently in nature and are a good starting point for
determining the relationship between variables

DV (unit of measure)

DV (unit of measure)

Independent Relationship:
DV = constant

An Inverse Relationship:
DV = constant/IV
10
5
0
0

IV (unit of measure)