Concepts in quantum mechanics:

For students: CHEM F213

Why do we need a new mechanics?

Consider the concept of size: In classical theory the concept of big and small are
relative concepts. Large objects are explained in terms of smaller constituents.
Small objects are describes in terms of even smaller ones. In principle, there is no
end to this procedure in theory. An object is large or small is defined only in
comparison to some other objects.
Example: An elephant is big compared to a dog, but a dog is eventually big when
compared to an ant. Hence, size is relative in classical theory.
Science deals with observables:
Observation of an object is only possible by letting it interact with outside
influence. This is common concept in day-to-day life. In general, an object is big if
the disturbance accompanying an observation can be neglected. An object can be
considered to be small if the disturbance accompanying the mode of observation
cannot be neglected.
Examine a stone wall by throwing cricket balls at it. Vibrations of the particles at
the vicinity of the interaction might be increased which may lead to slight
increase in the local temperature. But as a whole there wouldnt be any visible
change in the physical state of the stone wall. Hence, the act of throwing cricket
ball at a stone wall is going to cause negligible disturbance. Examine the same
stone wall by a bullet which is going to cause a non-negligible disturbance.
Comment: Size of an object is related to the disturbance associated with the
observation of the object.
Question: Low intensity light irradiated on the wall. Would it be a negligible or
non-negligible disturbance?
Newtonian Mechanics Consider motion of a particle:
Initial position is known at t=0,
i)
Initial momentum is know at t=0,
ii)
iii) Force acting on the particle is taken into account.
In classical theory of motion it is possible to predict the trajectory of the particle
with aforementioned initial information.
Figure 1: Trajectory of a classical particle

= > Point of observation

Prepared by Shamik Chakraborty, Chemistry Department, BITS-Pilani. August, 2016.

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Concepts in quantum mechanics:

For students: CHEM F213

Classical theory predicts a precise trajectory for particles which means precise
specified locations and momenta at each point.
Then one can perform some experiment at certain time intervals (o points) to
locate actual position of the particle to validate the proposition. In principle,
match between the predicted and observed trajectory would be close to 100%.
*Everyday experience:
Classical theory allows translational, rotational, and vibrational modes of
motions to adopt any energy there is no restriction.
What is the size of the disturbance caused by observing an object?
In classical theory size is a relative concept. Hence, it is assumed that the
magnitude of the disturbance can be reduced to be as small as desired. There is
no limit for the size of the disturbance depending on the size of the matter
under observation. It is always possible to find an experimental method that will
cause a negligible disturbance. Hence, size is only relative.
Size, of an object depends on the dimension of the object and the magnitude of
the disturbance, i.e. adopted experimental technique. There is nothing
fundamental/inherent about the size of the an object. Any object can be
considered to be large by observing it with an experimental method that causes a
negligible disturbance.
Absolute sense of the size of an object:
Dirac proposed the concept of absolute size. He said that there is a limit to the
fineness of our power of observation and the smallness of accompanying
disturbance - a limit which is inherent in the nature and can never be surpassed
by improved technique or increased skill on the part of the observer. There is
an inherent limit to the magnitude of the disturbance to be used during an
observation. This is the fundamental assumption/fact that provides the absolute
meaning to size.
If an object is such that the unavoidable limiting disturbance accompanying a
measurement is negligible then the object is said to be big. On the contrary, if the
limiting disturbance is non-negligible then the object is said to be small in an
absolute sense.
Classical mechanics does not provide the idea to describe objects to be small in
absolute sense.
Causality:
One of the major features of classical mechanics that appears to be very
straightforward, causality, is lost in quantum mechanics.
Causality: In classical mechanics there is a causal relation between events.
Newton's second law of motion states that force acting on a body is the cause and
Prepared by Shamik Chakraborty, Chemistry Department, BITS-Pilani. August, 2016.
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Concepts in quantum mechanics:

For students: CHEM F213

the corresponding effect is the acceleration. Causality only applies to undisturbed

systems.
Trajectory of rock: The trajectory of a rock can be determined and location at
any later time can be predicted. The prediction can be tested by direct
observation. The rock is going to follow the predicted trajectory, as long as the
rock is not disturbed. Assume, a bird flies into the rock. First of all, consider that
the disturbance created because of the collision is non-negligible. Hence, this
non-negligible disturbance will result into some error in subsequent
observations, i.e., subsequent observations are not going to agree with the
predicted trajectory. Any observation of small objects will cause a non-negligible
disturbance because this is "inherent" in nature - specially for absolutely small
objects.
The act of observation of a small quantum mechanical system, i.e., a small object
by definition, causes a non-negligible disturbance. Therefore the results of one
observation will not allow a causal prediction of the result of a subsequent
observation.
This is not at all surprising from the definition of a small quantum mechanical
system. One can tell what a system is doing as long as it is not being observed.
Indeterminacy comes in the precise calculation of observables. While the precise
outcome of a series of observation cannot be predicted for an absolutely small
object, quantum theory provides a method for calculating the probability that a
particular outcome of an observation will occur.

Prepared by Shamik Chakraborty, Chemistry Department, BITS-Pilani. August, 2016.

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