Nobes Research Group

Gamma Stirling Engine

Progress Report 1
Gamma Type Stirling Engine
Dr. David Nobes
David Miller
Sam Tseung
Connor Speer
Anders Carlstad
Yanwei Zhang
7/21/2015

Table of Contents
1

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1

Solar Energy Conversion System ................................................................................................... 4

1.2

The Stirling Cycle ........................................................................................................................... 4

Project Scope ........................................................................................................................................ 6

Original Design ...................................................................................................................................... 7

3.1

Design Description ........................................................................................................................ 7

3.2

Shortcomings of the Original Design ............................................................................................ 8

3.3

Redesign Goals .............................................................................................................................. 8

Design Changes ..................................................................................................................................... 8

4.1

Crankcase ...................................................................................................................................... 8

4.1.1

Removal of Aesthetic Features ............................................................................................. 8

4.1.2

Crankcase Instrument Ports .................................................................................................. 8

4.2

Crankshaft Assembly ..................................................................................................................... 8

4.2.1

Combined Crank Web and Counterweight ........................................................................... 8

4.2.2

Crankshaft Length Increase ................................................................................................. 10

4.2.3

Crankshaft Material Change ............................................................................................... 10

4.3

Bearing Cartridge Assembly ........................................................................................................ 10

4.3.1

Accommodation of Flanged Rotary Seal ............................................................................. 10

4.4

Connecting Rods ......................................................................................................................... 11

4.5

Flywheel Assembly ...................................................................................................................... 12

4.6

Power Cylinder Assembly............................................................................................................ 14

4.6.1

Coolant Path Changes ......................................................................................................... 14

4.6.2

Sealing Improvements ........................................................................................................ 15

4.6.3

Introduction of welds .......................................................................................................... 15

4.7

Power Piston ............................................................................................................................... 15

4.7.1

Power Piston Sealing Rings ................................................................................................. 15

4.7.2

Power Piston Wear Rings .................................................................................................... 16

4.8

Connecting Pipe, Displacer Mount, and Cylinder Head .............................................................. 17

4.8.1

Sealing Improvements ........................................................................................................ 17

4.8.2

Connecting Pipe Cooling Circuit .......................................................................................... 18

1

4.8.3
4.9

Displacer Piston ........................................................................................................................... 19

4.9.1

Foam Concept ..................................................................................................................... 19

4.9.2

Displacer Piston Ring ........................................................................................................... 19

4.9.3

Materials Research.............................................................................................................. 20

4.10

Cooler Assembly.......................................................................................................................... 20

4.10.1

Design Concepts .................................................................................................................. 20

4.10.2

Waterjet Ring Concept ........................................................................................................ 21

4.10.3

Press fits .............................................................................................................................. 23

4.10.4

Heat Transfer/Pressure Drop Calculations ......................................................................... 23

4.11

Connecting Pipe Instrument Ports ...................................................................................... 18

Heater Head Assembly ................................................................................................................ 23

4.11.1

Design Concepts .................................................................................................................. 23

4.11.2

Annular Gap Concept .......................................................................................................... 24

4.11.3

Heat Transfer/Pressure Drop Calculations ......................................................................... 24

4.11.4

Materials Research.............................................................................................................. 24

Test Rig ................................................................................................................................................ 26

5.1

Measurement System ................................................................................................................. 26

5.1.1

Temperature Measurement ............................................................................................... 26

5.1.2

Pressure Measurement ....................................................................................................... 27

5.1.3

Angular Position/Speed Measurement ............................................................................... 28

5.1.4

Torque Measurement ......................................................................................................... 28

5.2

Heating System ........................................................................................................................... 29

5.3

Cooling System Design for Test Rig ............................................................................................. 29

5.4

Physical Cart Layout .................................................................................................................... 30

Results ................................................................................................................................................. 31

Analysis ............................................................................................................................................... 31

Conclusions ......................................................................................................................................... 31

References .......................................................................................................................................... 31

List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Schematic of Solar Energy Conversion System ............................................................................ 4
Figure 1.2 (a) Pressure-Volume Plot of the Ideal Stirling Cycle (b) Coloured Section View of a GammaType Stirling Engine ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 3.1 (a) Isometric View of Original Engine Design (b) Section View of Original Engine Design .......... 7
Figure 4.1 Solid Model of Combined Crank Web and Counterweight .......................................................... 9
Figure 4.2 Polar Plot of Resultant Shaking Force on Crankshaft................................................................... 9
Figure 4.3 (a) Rotary Seal Gland Geometry (b) Section View of Redesigned Rotary Seal System .............. 11
Figure 4.4 (a) Displacer Piston Connecting Rod (b) Power Piston Connecting Rod ...... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Figure 4.5 Section View of Power Cylinder Assembly ................................................................................. 14
Figure 4.6 (a) Exploded Solid Model of Connecting Pipe Assembly (b) Section View Showing Water Jacket
.................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 4.7 Velocity Simulation of Cooling Water Flow ............................................................................... 18
Figure 4.8 (a) Exploded View of Foam Displacer Piston (b) Solid Model of Entire Foam Displacer Piston
Assembly ..................................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 12 (a) Original Cooler Cartridge (b) Waterjet Ring Cooler Concept ................................................. 21
Figure 13 (a) Original Cooler Jacket (b) Redesigned Cooler Jacket (c) Original Cooler Liner (d) Redesigned
Cooler Liner ................................................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 4.11 (a) Drilled Block (b) Short Drilled Block with Doughnut Cap (c) Annular Gap (d) 3D Print ...... 24
Figure 5.1 Thermocouple Locations ............................................................................................................ 26
Figure 5.2 Pressure Transducer Locations .................................................................................................. 27
Figure 5.3 Schematic of Torque Measurement System .............................................................................. 28
Figure 18 (a) Solid Model of Heater Head Cap (b) Temperature Distribution for Arbitrary Convective
Boundary Condition in the Center .............................................................................................................. 29
Figure 19 Preliminary Piping and Instrumentation Diagram of the Cooling System .................................. 29
Figure 20 Preliminary Cart Model ............................................................................................................... 30

List of Tables
Table 4.1 Heater Head Material Principal Advantages and Disadvantages ................................................ 25
Table 5.1 Specifications of Some Suitable Thermocouples ........................................................................ 27
Table 5.2 Specifications of Some Suitable Pressure Transducers ............................................................... 28

1 Introduction
1.1 Solar Energy Conversion System
A small electronics company based in Montreal has identified a potential market in India for a
cheap solar energy conversion system. The system would consist of a Fresnel mirror solar collector, a
thermal storage system, a Stirling engine, and an electrical generator. Research carried out by the Nobes
Research Group will be focused on the Stirling Engine.

Figure 1-1 Schematic of Solar Energy Conversion System

1.2 The Stirling Cycle

The Stirling cycle is a reciprocating heat engine which uses a gaseous working fluid. The working
fluid is permanently sealed inside the engine. In the ideal cycle, the working fluid undergoes 4 processes:
1. Constant temperature expansion.
2. Constant volume heat rejection.
3. Constant temperature compression.
4

4. Constant volume heat addition.

The cycle is shown as a pressure-volume plot in Figure 1-2 (a).
Real engines approximate this ideal cycle using a wide variety of designs. The engine being
studied is a gamma type engine characterized by its separate power and displacer cylinders. The engine
is shown in Figure 1-2 (b) below. The red parts of the engine are heated via direct contact with a solid
thermal storage block. The blue parts of the engine are cooled by a water circulation loop. In Figure 1-2,
the crankshaft spins clockwise.
The pink piston is called the displacer piston, and it serves only to change the temperature of the
working fluid. Since the pressure is always equal on both sides of this piston, it contributes no work to
the cycle. If it was cycled with the power piston stationary, it would simply change the average
temperature of the working fluid from hot to cold, which varies the pressure from high to low and back
again. The displacer piston is responsible for steps 2 and 4 of the Stirling cycle.
The green piston is called the power piston. Its function is to change the volume of the working
fluid. The power piston completes steps 1 and 3 of the Stirling cycle.
The timing of the engine is such that the working fluid is expanded when the bulk of it is in the hot
part of the engine and the pressure is high. Similarly, the working fluid is compressed when most of it is
in the cold parts of the engine and the pressure is low.
Another important part of the engine is the regenerator. This is shown in yellow in Figure 1-2 (b).
The regenerator is a piece of porous material through which the working fluid passes when traveling
between the hot and cold spaces of the engine. Its purpose is to store a portion of the heat from the
working fluid when it moves from the hot space to the cold space, and then return it when the working
fluid comes back. This greatly improves the efficiency of the engine.

(a)
(b)
Figure 1-2 (a) Pressure-Volume Plot of the Ideal Stirling Cycle1 (b) Coloured Section View
of a Gamma-Type Stirling Engine

2 Project Scope
Although the proposed system consists of many parts, the Nobes research group will only be
concerned with the development of the Stirling engine. The Nobes research group is responsible for the
following tasks:

Design review of the ST05G-CNC Stirling engine

Design modifications with the aim of reducing manufacturing cost, improving seals,
facilitating experimental testing and increasing the power output
Construction of a prototype engine
Complete experimental study of the engine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling_engine

The other subassemblies of the solar energy conversion system will not be studied by the Nobes
research group, but have been listed below.

Solar collector
Thermal energy storage system
Electrical system

3 Original Design
3.1 Design Description
The original design was done by the German company, Ingenieure, and was intended to make use
of waste heat produced by furnaces or by burning biomass fuels. The heater head of this engine was
designed as a gas-to-gas heat exchanger. The engine had one continuous cooling loop that ran from the
cooler, through the connecting pipe, to the power cylinder. The regenerator consisted of stainless steel
mesh packed into an annular gap above the cooler. The engine design is depicted in Figure 3-1 below.

(a)
(b)
Figure 3-1 (a) Isometric View of Original Engine Design (b) Section View of Original Engine
Design

3.2 Shortcomings of the Original Design

After the design review, the main shortcomings of the original design were found to be:

Unreliable sealing
Difficult/expensive to manufacture
Not suitable for a conduction heat source
Low power output

3.3 Redesign Goals

The redesign goals come directly from the shortcomings above:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Improve manufacturability/Decrease manufacturing cost.

Optimize the Heater Head for a conduction heat source
Make working gas sealing more robust.
Increase the power output.

4 Design Changes
4.1 Crankcase
The Crankcase was changed to decrease manufacturing cost and to allow experimental testing.
4.1.1

Removal of Aesthetic Features

The original crankcase had some aesthetic features that were removed to decrease
manufacturing cost. These consisted small chamfers on parts of the edges. The original Crankcase also
had mounting holes on all six sides. These have all been removed except for those on the bottom and on
the left side.
4.1.2

Crankcase Instrument Ports

The crankcase pressure and temperature are desired as part of the experimental results. Holes
were made in the crankcase cover to accept the instruments required for these measurements.

4.2 Crankshaft Assembly

4.2.1 Combined Crank Web and Counterweight
The crank web and counterweight were combined for the following design improvements:

reduced part count,

improved rigidity,
more accurate mass properties,
increased clearance between engine components, and
reduced assembly cost.

Figure 4-1 Solid Model of Combined Crank Web and Counterweight

The crank balance calculations needed to be updated to minimize shaking force with the new
crank shaft orientation. Maximum shaking force for the cycle was minimized with some slight
adjustments to the new design.

Figure 4-2 Polar Plot of Resultant Shaking Force on Crankshaft

4.2.2

Crankshaft Length Increase

Originally, the crankshaft was 165mm long, so it extended past the bearing cartridge to support
the flywheel. The crankshaft needed to be lengthened for instrumentation and potentially other
applications. Currently, the crankshaft is 200mm long, the length of the shaft stock, ***
4.2.3

Crankshaft Material Change

The original designs crankshaft material is hardened stainless steel. However, the corrosion
resistance properties of stainless steel are not required because the engine operates in an inert
atmosphere. AISI 1566 unhardened shaft stock substituted the original material due to the raw material
and machining cost of stainless steel. After machining, the shafts will be hardened to 57-62 HRC. Other
benefits to the change in material are increases in both shaft strength and hardness.

4.3 Bearing Cartridge Assembly

4.3.1 Accommodation of Flanged Rotary Seal
The rotary seal was not specified in the original design. After consulting Hi-Tech Seals and the Parker
Rotary Seal Design Guide, it was determined that a machined polytetraflouroethylene (PTFE) seal would
be the best choice for this application. The seal would be energized by a cantilever spring, and would
use a flange to prevent rotation with the shaft. The seal would be made of graphite filled PTFE since this
material has low enough friction for dry running. Hi-Tech Seals manufactures these components in
house and quoted us $192 to produce the seal shown below in Figure 4-3. The design was modified to
incorporate this seal design.
`
McMaster-Carr carries standard seals similar to this recommended design for around $50.
McMaster-Carrs seals have a canted coil spring rather than a cantilever spring, and they do not have a
flange to prevent rotation in the seal bore.

10

(a)
(b)
Figure 4-3 (a) Rotary Seal Gland Geometry (b) Section View of Redesigned Rotary Seal
System

4.4 Connecting Rods

The redesigned connecting rods are easier to machine, but this slightly reduced the strength of
both rods. The displacer connecting rods are just over 2 % weaker as a pair and the power piston is
roughly 7.5 % weaker than the original. More calculations are necessary to determine if the loss in
strength will lead to failure.

11

4.5 Flywheel Assembly

The flywheel drawing supplied in the original drawing package only contained shaft mounting
details, no sizing information. Calculations for minimum flywheel size concluded that the flywheel
needed at least 0.0621 kg-m2 mass moment of inertia to compress the working gas. The current
flywheels mass moment of inertia is 0.0734 kg-m2. Another concern with the flywheel is the integration
of a pulley. Therefore, the base structure of the flywheel is a 10 V-belt pulley.

12

Figure 4-4 Schematic of Flywheel Assembly

13

4.6 Power Cylinder Assembly

Figure 4-5 Section View of Power Cylinder Assembly

The most significant changes to the power cylinder are the coolant path, seals, and the addition
of welded joints. Additionally, instrumentation ports have been added to the cylinder head.
4.6.1 Coolant Path Changes
A list of coolant path changes is below:

ports are on the cooling jacket,

coolant only flows around the cylinder liner (not through cylinder head),
Sealing strips have been eliminated by using a threaded design
1/4 NPT fittings for inlet and outlet rather than G3/8 fittings.

14

Figure 4-6: Threaded Cooling Jacket for Power Piston

4.6.2

Sealing Improvements
The coolant path does not enter the cylinder head, reducing the seal count by 2. The cooling
jacket and cylinder liner are welded together. Finally, proper, larger O-ring grooves were added to the
cylinder liner.
4.6.3 Introduction of welds
The changes required for the welded joints are as follows:

6mm clearance from O-ring grooves,

stepped cylinder liner for alignment,
2:1 overlap to tube thickness ratio,
similar material thickness.

4.7 Power Piston

The power piston was modified to incorporate standard piston rings available from Hi-Tech Seals.
This change was brought on by the difficulty in finding step cut piston rings of a suitable size.
4.7.1

Power Piston Sealing Rings

The chosen sealing rings are continuous and must be heated and stretched into their respective
grooves. They use a nitrile O-ring rather than a metal spring to stay centered and in contact with the
cylinder bore.

15

4.7.2 Power Piston Wear Rings

The original power piston used sheets of plastic on the piston skirt as wear surfaces. The design has
been changed to use circular wear rings rather than plastic sheets. This was done to simplify the
machining and assembly processes for the power piston.

Figure 4-7: Ring Changes for The Power Piston

16

4.8 Connecting Pipe, Displacer Mount, and Cylinder Head

(a)

(b)
Figure 4-8 (a) Exploded Solid Model of Connecting Pipe Assembly (b) Section View
Showing Water Jacket
4.8.1

Sealing Improvements
The original connecting pipe assembly was sealed using four small o-rings in radial grooves. Two
sealed the working fluid while the other two sealed the coolant. In the new design, the coolant is sealed
by welds and the working gas is sealed by large cross-section face groove o-rings. This sealing strategy
should make a leak at the connecting pipe far less likely.
17

4.8.2

Connecting Pipe Cooling Circuit

The coolant ports of the connecting pipe are offset from center because it increases the average
velocity of the coolant. As a result, it increases the convective heat transfer coefficient of the cooling
water and may reduce the minor losses in the cooling circuit.

Figure 4-9 Velocity Simulation of Cooling Water Flow

4.8.3

Connecting Pipe Instrument Ports

The connecting pipe assembly will house a total of four instrument ports. These will measure the
inlet and outlet pressure and temperature of the working gas as it travels through the pipe. The ports
are located in the Blocks on either end of the pipe.

18

4.9 Displacer Piston

4.9.1

Foam Concept
The original design featured a sheet metal displacer piston. In order to simplify the manufacture
of this component, it was decided to use a high temperature foam-like material rather than
sheet metal. The foam will be glued together using a high temperature adhesive and assembled
as shown in Figure 4-10 below.

(a)

(b)

Figure 4-10 (a) Exploded View of Foam Displacer Piston (b) Solid Model of Entire Foam
Displacer Piston Assembly
4.9.2

Displacer Piston Ring

The outside diameter of the displacer piston is 96mm and is not a standard piston ring size.
Additionally, manufacturers are hesitant to custom build step joint piston rings. Joint-less bronze filled
PTFE piston rings are an acceptable solution. They provide similar sealing performance to stepped joint
19

piston rings and can be stretched over the piston. Therefore, the displacer piston will use a 95mm
diameter piston ring that will be heated and expanded to fit the 96mm bore.
4.9.3

Materials Research
The following materials were considered for the displacer piston.

Table 4.1 Potential Displacer Piston Materials

Calcium Silicate insulation has tentatively been chosen for the displacer piston material. The density of
calcium silicate is close to that of the original displacer piston and it is widely available. The main
concern with calcium silicate is that it will disintegrate and clog the regenerator with dust or damage the
bearings.

4.10 Cooler Assembly

4.10.1 Design Concepts

20

4.10.2 Waterjet Ring Concept

(a)

(b)

Figure 4-11 (a) Original Cooler Cartridge (b) Waterjet Ring Cooler Concept

21

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Figure 4-12 (a) Original Cooler Jacket (b) Original Cooler Liner (c) Redesigned Cooler Jacket
(d) Redesigned Cooler Liner (e) No O-ring cooler jacket (f) No O-ring Cooler Liner

22

4.10.3 Press fits

4.10.4 Heat Transfer/Pressure Drop Calculations

4.11 Heater Head Assembly

4.11.1 Design Concepts

(a)

(b)

23

(c)

(d)

Figure 4-13 (a) Drilled Block (b) Short Drilled Block with Doughnut Cap (c) Annular Gap
(d) 3D Print
4.11.2 Annular Gap Concept
4.11.3 Heat Transfer/Pressure Drop Calculations
4.11.4 Materials Research
Heater head material selection considers all the factors listed below:

melting temperature/ operating temperature

thermal conductivity
thermal shock resistance
thermal fatigue life
thermal expansion coefficient
machinability
weldability
high temperature corrosion resistance
porosity
emissivity
strength
price

24

Additionally, heater head material selection considers other properties and material behaviors, such as
the galling of 316 stainless steel and the dust release of graphite.
The materials were researched in detail and their principal advantage and disadvantage are listed in
Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Heater Head Material Principal Advantages and Disadvantages
Material
Principal Advantage
Principal Disadvantage
304 Stainless Steel
Good corrosion resistance
Low thermal conductivity
4140 Alloy Steel
Low cost
Poor high-temp corrosion resistance
1018 Plain Carbon Steel
Low cost
Very poor corrosion resistance
Copper
High thermal conductivity
Creep
Silicon Carbide
High thermal conductivity
Low machinability
Graphite
High thermal conductivity
Porosity
Inconel 625
Excellent high-temp strength
High cost

The material analysis also includes surface treatments. Coatings such as galvanizing, aluminizing, and
chrome plating do not meet the temperature requirements and are porous. However, electroless nickel
plating (ELNP) meets these requirements. ELNP provides high-temperature corrosion resistance for
plain carbon and alloy steels but more research must be done to determine the effect of thermal shock.

25

5 Test Rig
5.1 Measurement System
5.1.1

Temperature Measurement

Figure 5-1 Thermocouple Locations

The smallest thermocouple time constants are around one second. Therefore, temperature as a
function of crank angle cannot be measured; average temperature will be measured instead. Fine tip
thermocouples provide a quick response, but they are fragile. High temperature thermocouples are less
fragile but, respond slower. The signal conditioning system in the lab is designed for K calibration
thermocouples, so the High Temperature MTJ Type-K thermocouples will be used.

26

Table 5.1 Specifications of Some Suitable Thermocouples

Thermocouple

Supplier

Supplier PRT #

Max.
Temperature
Rating (C)

Cost Per
Unit (USD)

Fine Tip TJ Probe Type-T

Omega

TJFT72-T-SS-116G-6-SMPWM

350

$47.00

High Temp MTJ Type-J

Omega

HJMTSS-062E-6

750

$30.00

High Temp MTJ Type-E

Omega

HEMTSS-062E-6

900

$30.00

High Temp MTJ Type-K

Omega

HKMTSS-062E-6

1250

$30.00

5.1.2

Pressure Measurement

Figure 5-2 Pressure Transducer Locations

Pressure transducers can measure temperature remotely with a tube, so extremely high temperature
ratings are not required. Extra DP15 differential pressure transducers are available in the lab and a
signal conditioner for them. However, the transducers need new diaphragms for the pressure range we
expect.

27

Table 5.2 Specifications of Some Suitable Pressure Transducers

Product

Supplier

Supplier PRT #

Max Temperature
Rating (C)

Piezoelectric Pressure Vibro-Meter Transducer

MEGGITT

CP 211

770

Absolute Pressure Transducer

Validyne AP10-52-N-1-W-4-A

121

Low Cost Gauge Pressure Transducer

Validyne

P2-300-V

100

Differential Pressure Transducer

Validyne

DP15

121

Dynamic Pressure Transducers

Omega

DPX101-250

120

5.1.3

Angular Position/Speed Measurement

5.1.4

Torque Measurement

Figure 5-3 Schematic of Torque Measurement System

28

5.2 Heating System

(a)
(b)
Figure 5-4 (a) Solid Model of Heater Head Cap (b) Temperature Distribution for Arbitrary
Convective Boundary Condition in the Center

5.3 Cooling System Design for Test Rig

Figure 5-5 Preliminary Piping and Instrumentation Diagram of the Cooling System
Cooling system design diagram website used: www.draw.io .The file with .xml extension (included in
folder) must be downloaded and loaded in to the website in order to edit the diagram.

The cooling system design consists of 3 loops for cooling 3 separate sections. It is important to
understand the significance and efficiency of the coolant capabilities inside the cooler, the connecting
pipe, and the power piston to determine if it is necessary to facilitate cooling in those particular areas.
In order to easily identify multiple of the similar part, a header naming system was introduced. Push-toconnect adapters which do not require tube fittings are titled PTC_(Letter). Reducing couplings are used
to act as a tube conversion between purchasable standard sized push-to-connect adapters, are named
RC_(Letter). Tubes coming from different sizes in inner diameter and outer diameter are distinguished
by titling T_(Letter). Manifolds which are used to split in to 3 cooling loops to provide accessible coolant
in the 3 zones, are titled M_(Letter). Please refer to the cooling system budget list for further insight.
29

A 20 gallon tank is used to store 10 gallons of Ethylene Glycol, it is then pumped using a plastic pump
that is suitable for light duty application with a maximum 7.8 GPM (gallons per minute) at 3 feet of
head. A ball valve is then used to provide an option to halt the coolant flow if necessary. Then a
manifold is used to split coolant to 3 separate zones as described above. A flow meter for each loop is
implemented to measure the flow rate required to perform detailed thermodynamic calculations.
After the coolant has entered the 3 sections, push-to-connect adapters is installed on the opposite side
of the parts to withdraw the hot coolant and are connected and combine all 3 tubes in to 1 with a 3
outlet manifold. The hot coolant is then connected in to a heat sink with a cooling capacity of 17,600
Btu/hour with a maximum flow capacity of 4 GPM. A tube is connected from the heat sink and back to
the 20 gallon tank, the cycle then repeats.

5.4 Physical Cart Layout

Figure 5-6 Preliminary Cart Model

30

6 Results
7 Analysis
8 Conclusions
9 References

31

Appendix A: Internal Volume Modeling

Figure A.1 Solid Model of Engine Internal Volume

32

Appendix B: Materials Research

Table B.1 Properties of Metals
Thermal Conductivity
Material
(W/m*K)
Aluminum 6061
170
Copper 110
390
304 Stainless
16
AISI 1018 Steel
51.9
AISI 4140 Steel
42.6
Alloy

Emissivity [Temp C,
Condition]
0.11 [199, Oxidized]
0.22 [38, Matte]
0.74 [316, Oxidized]
0.8 [25, Oxidized]

Price
(CAD/1x1x1)
$ 6.91
$ 44.80
$ 28.63
$ 14.59

Machinability
(1 - 10)
9
4
5
8

0.8 [25, Oxidized]

$ 19.36

Table B.2 Properties of Super Alloys

Material
Tensile Strength (MPa)
Maraging Steel (18% Ni)
1340
Inconel 625
880
Table B.3 Properties of Ceramics
Thermal Conductivity
Material
(W/m*K)
Sintered Silicon Carbide
100
Tungsten Carbide
80
Graphite
120

Corrosion Resistance (1-10)

6
10

Machinability (1-10)
3
3
5

Thermal Shock
Resistance
25018
7893
91429

33

Appendix C: Heater Head Calculations

34

Appendix D: Cooler Calculations

35

Appendix E: Crankshaft Dynamic Balance Calculations

36

Appendix F: Connecting Rod Calculations

37

38