Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Composites
http://jrp.sagepub.com/
Published by:
http://www.sagepublications.com
Additional services and information for Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites can be found at:
Email Alerts: http://jrp.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts
Subscriptions: http://jrp.sagepub.com/subscriptions
Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav
Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
Citations: http://jrp.sagepub.com/content/28/10/1169.refs.html
INTRODUCTION
N THE RECENT past considerable research and development have been expanded in
natural fibers as a reinforcement in thermoplastic resin matrix. These reinforced plastics
serve as an inexpensive, biodegradable, renewable, and nontoxic alternative to glass or
carbon fibers. The various advantages of natural fibers over man-made glass and carbon
fibers are low cost, low density, competitive specific mechanical properties, reduced energy
consumption and biodegradability. Thermoplastic materials that currently dominate as
matrices for natural fibers are polypropylene(PP), polyethylene, and poly(vinyl chloride)
while thermosets, such as phenolics and polyesters, are common matrices. With a view to
replacing the wooden fittings, fixtures and furniture, organic matrix resin reinforced with
natural fibers such as jute, kenaf, sisal, coir, straw, hemp, banana, pineapple, rice husk,
bamboo, etc., have been explored in the past two decades.
There is an increasing demand from automotive companies for materials with sound
abatement capability as well as reduced weight for fuel efficiency. Natural fibers possess
excellent sound absorbing efficiency and are more shatter resistant and have better energy
management characteristics than glass fiber reinforced composites. In automotive
parts, such composites not only reduce the mass of the component but also lower the
AND
1169
1170
R. MALKAPURAM ET AL.
energy needed for production by 80%. Eco-friendly composites can be made by replacing
glass fibers with various types of ligno-cellulose fibers. However, such composites have a
distinct disadvantage of load-bearing capability compared to glass fiber reinforced
thermoplastics. The variation in the properties of natural fibers is another important
aspect that has to be considered. Demands for natural fibers in plastic composites is forecast
to grow at 1520% annually with a growth rate of 1520% in automotive applications, and
50% or more in selected building applications. Other emerging markets are industrial and
consumer applications such as tiles, flower pots, furniture, and marine piers [1].
Development of new composite products from the easily renewable natural materials
has a strong potential to deliver novel biodegradable and/or readily recyclable materials
suitable for the automotive and packaging industry, thereby replacing not so easily
renewable fossil fuel-based polymers/plastics.
Complete matrix fusion to facilitate thorough fiber impregnation, formation of strong
fiber/matrix interfacial bonding, and matrix-to-fiber stress transfer efficiency are vital
requirements for the manufacture of reliable, eco-friendly natural composites that can
possess better mechanical properties and withstand environmental attacks. Bledzki and
Gassan [2] have stated that the quality of the fibermatrix interface is significant for the
application of natural fibers as reinforcement fibers for plastics. Physical and chemical
methods can be used to optimize this interface. These modification methods are of
different efficiency for the adhesion between matrix and fiber.
However, the main problem of natural fiber/polymer composites is the incompatibility
between the hydrophilic natural fibers and the hydrophobic thermoplastic matrices. It
necessitates the use of compatibilizers or coupling agents in order to improve the adhesion
between fiber and matrix [3].
Matrix or fiber modification is therefore necessary to improve the compatibility between
fiber and matrix. Maleated polyolefins are used to modify the matrix. Such modification of
the matrix develops the interactions between the anhydride groups of maleated coupling
agents and the hydroxyl groups of natural fibers. For the purpose of making engineering
parts with a wide study on the effect of different coupling agents, such as silanes, maleic
anhydride grafted polypropylene (PPgMA) or modification by acetylation, has been
reported in the literature.
In the present article an attempt has been made to review the state of the art of
organocellulosic fiber reinforced polyolefin composites. The various types of natural fibers
used for such reinforcement are described. The modifications of fiber and matrix are
discussed and the mechanical properties of composites are described also. Performance of
the composites is summarized.
LIGNOCELLULOSIC FIBERS OR MATERIALS
Several types of lignocellulosic materials have been investigated in PP [412].
Cellulosic fibers from other sources have been reported in polyolefin composites by
several authors. A comprehension review of the cellulosic-based materials in composites
has appeared recently [2]. The lignocellulosic fibers that have been used in polyolefins
include cellulose fiber [412], wood fiber [1322], flax [2329], Cannatis sativa (hemp)
[3035], jute [1,25,33,3537], pinewood fiber [3841], sisal [3,33,4244], rice husk [4548],
saw dust [4850], lugffa sponge fiber [3,51], wheat straw [52], paper sludge [53], coconut
fiber [33,54], kenaf [55,56], kapok/cotton [57], pineapple leaf [58], basalt [59], vetiver [60],
bio flour [61], bamboo fiber [62], and date palm fiber [63].
1171
Cellulose
(wt%)
Lignin
(wt%)
Hemicellulose
(wt%)
Pectin
(wt%)
Wax
(wt%)
Moisture
content (wt%)
Jute
Hemp
Kenaf
Flax
Ramie
Sunn
Sisal
Henquen
Cotton
Kapok
Coir
Banana
PALF
6171.5
70.274.4
3139
71
68.676.2
67.8
6778
77.6
82.7
64
3643
6367.6
7082
1213
3.75.7
1519
2.2
0.60.7
3.5
811
13.1
13
4145
5
512
13.620.4
17.922.4
21.5
18.620.6
13.116.7
16.6
10.014.2
48
5.7
23
1020
19
0.4
0.9
2.3
1.9
0.3
10
23
34
0.5
0.8
1.7
0.3
0.4
2.0
0.6
12.6
10
10
8
10
11
8
8.7
11.8
Density
(g/cm3)
Diameter
(km)
Tensile
strength (MPa)
Youngs
modulus (GPa)
Elongation
at break (%)
Jute
Hemp
Kenaf
Flax
Ramie
Sunn
Sisal
Cotton
Kapok
Coir
Banana
PALF
1.31.45
1.5
1.
1.45
1.51.6
1.15
25200
50200
100450
2080
393773
690
3451100
400938
1.171.9
468640
287800
131175
1.77.9
4131627
1326.5
27.6
61.4128
9.422.0
5.512.6
46
34.582.5
1.161.5
1.6
2.7
2.73.2
1.23.8
5.5
37
78
1.2
1540
1.59.0
1.6
1172
R. MALKAPURAM ET AL.
The properties are affected by the chemical constitutents and complex chemical
structure of natural fibers. The angle between the axis and the fibril of the fiber
(microfibrillar or spiral angle) also affect the strength of the fibers. Mechanical
properties are higher if this is smaller. Least tensile strength is shown by coir fibers
which may be attributed to low cellulose content and considerably high microfibrillar
(41458 for coir, 208 for sisal, 148 for PALF, and 108 for flax while other fibers such as
jute, ramie, and hemp, have values 510). The lignin content of the fibers influence its
structure properties and morphology. The waxy substances of the natural fibers affect
the fiber wettability and adhesion characteristics. In specific strength the natural fibers
can be compared with glass fibers.
SURFACE MODIFICATIONS OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC FIBERS
Physical Methods
Reinforcing fibers can be modified by physical and chemical methods. Physical
methods, such as stretching, calandering, thermotreatment, and the production of hybrid
yarns do not change the chemical composition of the fibers. Physical treatments change
structural and surface properties of the fiber and thereby influence the mechanical
bondings to polymers.
Chemical Methods
Strongly polarized cellulose fibers are inherently incompatible with hydrophobic
polymers when two materials are incompatible; it is often possible to bring about
compatibility by introducing a third material that has properties intermediate between
those of the other two. There are several mechanisms of coupling in materials:
. weak boundary layers coupling agents eliminate weak boundary layers,
. deformable layers coupling agents produce a tough, flexible layer,
. restrained layers coupling agents develop a highly crosslinked interphase region, with
a modulus intermediate between that of substrate and of the polymer,
. wettability coupling agents improve the wetting between polymer and substrate
(critical surface tension factor),
. chemical bonding coupling agents form covalent bonds with both materials, and
. acidbase effect coupling agents alter acidity of substrate surface.
1173
dispersion in PP. A treatment with poly(vinyl acetate) increases the mechanical properties
and moisture repellence.
Impregnation of Fibers
A better combination of fiber and polymer is achieved by impregnation of the
reinforcing fabrics with polymer matrices compatible to the polymer. For this purpose
polymer solutions or dispersions of low viscosity are used.
Graft Copolymerization of Matrix
An effective method of chemical modification of matrix and natural fibers is graft
copolymerization. This reaction is initiated by free radicals of the cellulose molecule. The
cellulose is treated with an aqueous solution with selected ions and is exposed to a high
energy radiation. Then the cellulose molecule cracks and radicals are formed. Afterward
the radical sites of the cellulose are treated with a suitable solution (compatible with the
polymer matrix), for example vinyl monomer (i.e., acrylonitrile, methyl methacrylate,
polystyrene, etc.). The resulting co-polymer possesses properties characteristic of both
fibrous cellulose and grafted polymer.
For example, the treatment of cellulose fibers with hot polypropylenemaleic anhydride
(MAHPP) copolymers [3] provides covalent bonds across the interface. The mechanism
of reaction can be divided into two steps: activation of the copolymer by heating
(t 1708C) (before fiber treatment), and esterification of cellulose.
After this treatment the surface energy of the fibers is increased to a level much closer to
the surface energy of the matrix. Thus, a better wettability and a higher interfacial
HO
H
2
C
O
PP chain
HO
PP chain
H
2
C
C
O
C
H
C
H
Cellulose fiber
H2
C
H2
C
C
H
CH3
O
C
O
C
H
CH3
O
Cellulose fiber
Cellulose fiber
CH3
O
O
OH
+
OH
+ H2O
O
O
H
C
O
H
H2
C
C
H
CH3
1174
R. MALKAPURAM ET AL.
O
R HN C O Cell
R N = C = O + H O Cell
Figure 2. Formation of urethane linkage by reaction of isocyanate and hydroxyl groups of cellulose.
Cellulose + Lignin
C=O
C=O
C=O
NH
NH
NH
CH2
CH2
CH
CH2
CH
CH2
CH2
CH
CH2
Polystyrene
Figure 3. Interaction between PS Matrix and PMPPIC modified cellulose fibers.
The mechanical properties of composites reinforced with wood fibers and PVC or PS as
resin can be improved by an isocyanate treatment of cellulose fibers [52,61].
Polymethylenepolyphenylisocyanate (PMPPIC) in pure state or solution in plasticizer
can be used. Isocyanates are chemically linked to the cellulose matrix through strong
covalent bonds: both PMPPIC and PS contain benzene rings, and their delocalized
electrons provide strong interactions, so that there is an adhesion between PMPPIC and
PS.
The isocyanatic treatment is reported to be more effective than the treatment with
silane. Similar results are obtained, when PMPPIC is used for the modification of the
fibers or polymer matrix.
Triazine Coupling Agents
Triazine derivatives form covalent bonds with cellulose fibers. The triazine derivatives
are used to reduce the moisture absorption of cellulose fibers and their composites.
1175
H2NR
HN
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
R
HN
N
H
O
CI
Cellulose fiber
Figure 4. Modification of cellulose fibers with triazine derivatives.
1176
R. MALKAPURAM ET AL.
Table 3. Continuous fiber reinforced PP composites.
Fiber
Processing technic
Jute yarn
Non wovens of flax and sisal fiber
Uni-directional lyocell fiber
Hightenacity cellulosefilament yarn
(rayon tyre cord yarn)
Unidirectional and multidirectional
flax fiber
Flax fiber yarn
Flax fiber yarn
Jute fiber yarn
Sisal fiber yarn
Kapok/cotton fabric
Reference
number
1
2
4
5
23
28
29
36
42
57
Processing technic
Twin-screw extruder and hydraulic press
Haake rheomix and injection molding
Twin-screw extruder and injection molding
Shear K-mixer and injection molding
Laboratory sigma blade mixer and injection molding
Melt mixing (Haake rheocord mixer), solution mixing
(toluene) followed by extrusion and compression molding
Haake rheocord mixer
Compression molding through a sheet stacking technic
Hydraulic press using film stacking technic
Internal mixer and injection molding machine
Haake rheocord and injection molding
Single-screw extruder and injection molding
Reference
number
6
26
27
37
41
43
44
55
58
60
62
63
The pultrusion compounding method developed for highly homogeneous composites. For
a fiber load of 30 wt%, typical values for tensile strength, modulus, Charpy unnotched,
and notched impact strength are 80 MPa, 3.5 GPa, 85 kJ/m2, and 12 kJ/m2, respectively.
A high impact resistance level is maintained also at low temperatures where the matrix
material becomes brittle. For the other matrix materials, similar reinforcing effects are
observed, except for the impact behavior of HIPS, where the reinforcing fibers interfere
with the impact modification of the matrix polymer. In contrast, the impact characteristics
of PLA are drastically improved increasing the unnotched and notched Charpy strengths
by 380% and 200%, respectively [5].
Amash and Zugenmaier [6] investigated the thermal, morphological and dynamic
mechanical properties of PPcellulose fiber (CF) composites. The effects of drawing on the
structure and physical properties of PPCF composites were also studied. By increasing
draw ratio, the melting peak of PP shifted to higher temperatures suggesting a constrained
melting, and the uniaxial elastic modulus was considerably enhanced. The biggest
1177
Processing technic
Reference
number
7
8
9
10
11
Droplet method
Hot press
High-speed mixer and injection molding
Single-screw extruder and compression molding
Twin-screw extruder and injection molding
Mixer and injection molding
Haake rheomix 600 equipped with roller blades
rotor and compression molding
woodtruder and die
Haake rheomix, single-screw extruder
and injection molding
Twin-screw extruder and compression molding
Single-screw extruder and compression molding
Twin-screw extruder and injection molding
Powder impregnation through compression
molding and extrusion followed by injection molding
Heated roll mixer and injection molding
Brabender internal mixer and compression molding
Compression molding using a film stacking method
12
12
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
24
30
31
32
33
34
35
38
39
40
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
56
61
1178
R. MALKAPURAM ET AL.
influence was observed for the samples of PPspun cellulose and the lowest for neat PP.
In addition to the fibrillar structure of the oriented PP, the highly CF orientation and
the efficient compatibilization in composites are responsible for the effects observed in
the drawn samples.
The nanocomposite films of isotactic PP reinforced with cellulose whiskers highly
dispersed with surfactant were prepared for the first time and compared with either bare or
grafted aggregated whiskers. The nanocomposites obtained with the surfactant-modified
whiskers exhibited enhanced ultimate properties when compared to the neat matrix or to
the composites containing the other filler types [7].
The tensile and Izod impact strength properties of rice-husk flour and wood flour as the
reinforcing filler and different compatibilizing agents, by assessing their mechanical
properties and the morphological characteristics of their fracture surfaces. The tensile
properties of the composites made with the twin-screw extruding system were better than
those of the composites made with the single-screw extruding system, due to the improved
dispersion of the filler. The tensile strength and modulus of the lignocellulosic fillerPP
composite made with the twin-screw extruding system were improved in the case of the
composite made without any compatibilizing agent and significantly improved in the case
of the composite made with the compatibilizing agent, as compared with those made with
the single-screw extruding system. The Izod impact strengths of the composites made
with the two different extruding systems were almost the same, the degree of dispersion
of the fillers might influence the notched impact performance, but the similar impact
strength of both samples with different extruding processes might be due to the fact that
impact test is not discriminating enough to reveal the difference in dispersion status of the
present composites [8].
The mechanical properties of the CFs reinforced polyethylene composites increased
with increasing the average fiber length and the composite materials prepared using
both matrices and cellulose fibers treated with g-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxy silane
(MPS), and g-mercaptoproyltrimethoxy silanes (MRPS) displayed good mechanical
performances. On the other hand, with hexadecyltrimethoxy-silanes (HDS) bearing
merely aliphatic chain only a modest enhancement on composite properties was
observed [9].
Qiu et al. [10] have reported that PP with higher molecular weight revealed stronger
interfacial interaction with cellulose fibers in the composites, compared with the lower
molecular weight PP; the composites derived from higher molecular weight of PP exhibited
stronger tensile strength at the same cellulose content.
Georgopoulos et al. [11] have investigated that the loading of LDPE with natural fibers
leads to a decrease in tensile strength of the pure polymer. On the other hand, Youngs
modulus increased due to the higher stiffness of the fibers. Although the properties of
some blends are acceptable for some applications, further improvement is necessary, by
optimizing fiberpolymer interface characteristics.
Joly et al. [12] have optimized the fiber treatments for PP/cellulosic-fiber composites.
In one method the grafting of a PP chain by an ester bond capable of co-crystallizing or
entangling with the fibers was used. While the modification of cellulose fiber was done by
isocyanates for improvement in the rupture, initiation strength was observed by PP
modification of fibers resulting in the crack propagation strength.
The tensile strength of the PP-wood-based composites decreased significantly with
increasing wood fiber content and no significant change in modulus of elasticity was found
for any weight fraction of wood fiber. Fiber pullout was observed on most of the
1179
PP composite fracture surfaces examined using SEM. These results indicate a lack of
adhesion between PP and wood fiber [13].
Tensile and flexural tests of foamed composites were investigated as a dependence
of function of density (specific properties) of foamed specimens and compared with
nonfoamed composites based on MAHPP has improved the physico-mechanical
properties up to 80%. Chemical foaming agents have also an effect on surface roughness
of the composites which decreased surface roughness of the foamed composites compared
to the nonfoamed composites. Water absorption and thickness swelling of the composites
were also investigated. The density of microfoamed hard wood fiberPP composites
reduced around 30% and decreased up to 0.741 g/cm3 by using an exothermic chemical
foaming agent. Optical microscopy showed that the cells are round and cell sizes are
affected by chemical foaming agents. Tensile and flexural tests are performed on the
foamed composites to investigate the dependence of these properties on the density
(specific properties) of foamed specimens and compared with nonfoamed composites and
MAHPP has improved the physico-mechanical properties up to 80% [14].
The impact fracture behavior of PP/wood fiber composites modified with maleated
PP as compatibilizer and poly(butadiene styrene) rubber as impact modifier has been
studied by a Charpy impact testing method. The neat PP and unmodified PP/wood
fiber composite exhibit brittle fracture and nearly elastic behavior while the impact
modifier and compatibilizer cause elastic to elasticplastic transition dominated by
unstable crack propagation. Both the impact modifier and the compatibilizer toughen the
PP matrix enhance the total fracture energy of the modified composites. While the crack
initiation energy is mostly only a little material dependent and reflects the matrix behavior,
the crack propagation energy is much more influenced by the morphology [15].
Novel compatibilizer (m-TMI-g-PP) with isocyanate functional group was synthesized
by grafting m-isopropenyl-a,a-dimethylbenzyl-isocyanate (m-TMI) onto isotactic PP in a
twin-screw extruder. The effect of filler concentration on the mechanical properties
of bleached kraft pulp of eucalyptus reinforced PP composites, prepared by using
m-TMI-g-PP as the compatibilizer, was investigated. The addition of the compatibilizer
resulted in greater reinforcement of composites, as indicated by the improvement in
mechanical properties. Tensile strength of composites so prepared increased by almost
45%, whereas 85% increase in flexural properties was observed [16].
Costa et al. [18] have evaluated the tensile and flexural performance of PPwood fiber
composites. The effect of these variables on tensile strength, Youngs modulus, elongation
at yield and flexural strength was determined through a 2231 factorial design (where the
variables chosen were: fiber content (F ), percentage of MAPP coating on the wood fiber
(C ) and type of matrix (M )). The mechanical properties (responses) selected from tensile
data were stress at maximum load (TS), tensile modulus (TM) and elongation at yield (E ).
The selected responses of flexural data were stress at maximum load (FS) and flexural
modulus (FM). Using standard least-squares parameter estimation procedures and
statistical analysis, empirical models were built and parameter values and co-variances
were computed. The analysis of variance of the experimental and predicted data shows
that the constructed models provide a fair approximation of actual experimental
measurements. Finally, experimental details regarding the preparation of optimum
composites as predicted by empirical models are discussed.
Jungil Son and his coworkers analyzed the effect of process additives, that is, maleated
PP (MAPP), and a nucleating agent on the viscoelastic properties of different types
of extruded PPwood plastic composites manufactured from either a PP homopolymer,
1180
R. MALKAPURAM ET AL.
1181
1182
R. MALKAPURAM ET AL.
that of unfilled matrix) in tensile modulus. A higher effect was noted for MRPS, followed
by MPS, HDS, and g-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (AMPS). Flexural modulus was
amplified by 130% with fiber addition and modestly enhanced after silane treatment
compared with that of untreated fibers, flexural modulus increased by 6, 5, 20, and 8% in
the presence of MPS, HDS, AMPS, and MRPS, respectively.
Borysiak and Doczekalska [39] studied the wood sawdust/PP composites based on
polish timber species pine wood (Pinus silvestris L.) as a softwood species and beech wood
(Fagus silvatica L.) as a hardwood species. The size of wood saw dust ranged from 0.5 to
1.0 mm. Three different types of wood/PP mixture were prepared: (1) PPuntreated wood,
(2) PPNaOH treated wood, and (3) PPesterified wood with maleic anhydride. In this
study, the kinetic parameters of crystallization of PP by differential scanning calorimetry
(DSC) were investigated. It is interesting that crystallization of PP depends on the kind of
wood. The chemical treatment of wood caused changes of crystal conversion and half
crystallization time of PP matrix.
Wechsler and Hiziroglu [40] have studied woodplastic composite (WPC) specimens
having 60 and 80% particle and fiber of radiata pine (Pinus radiata) mixed with PP
(plastic), and four different additives, namely Structor TR 016 which is a coupling agent,
CIBA anti-microbial agent (IRGAGUARD F3510) as fungicide, CIBA UV filter coating
(TINUVIN 123S), CIBA blue pigment (Irgalite), and their combinations. Based on the
initial finding of this study static bending properties of the samples enhanced by the above
chemicals were added into both particle and fiber-based specimens. Thickness swelling of
the samples were also improved by the presence of additives in the panels. Micrographs
taken on a scanning electron microscope (SEM) revealed that coupling agent and pigment
resulted in more homogeneous mixture of wood and plastic together. The particle-based
samples had rougher surface characteristics than those of fiber-based ones. No significant
influence of chemicals added in the samples was found on surface roughness values of the
samples manufactured from particle and fiber of radiata pine.
Pickering and Ji [41] studied the effects of poly[methylene (polyphenyl isocyanate)]
(PMPPIC) and MAPP coupling agents, separately and combined, on the strength and
Youngs modulus of New Zealand radiata pine-reinforced PP composites. A modest
improvement compared to the unreinforced matrix strength of 4% and much greater
improvement of 123%, substantially greater than reported elsewhere in the literature, were
obtained using PMPPIC and MAPP, respectively. Youngs modulus improvements
compared to the unreinforced matrix of 77 and 177% were obtained using PMPPIC and
MAPP, respectively.
The processing of sisal fiber reinforced PP composites by injection molding was reported
by Li and his coworkers. The tensile properties for PP, high temperature (HT) and low
temperature (LT) specimens were compared. It was observed that the incorporation of
10 wt% of sisal fibers increases Youngs modulus by about 150%, and the tensile strength
was increased by about 10%. The reinforcement efficiency for LT specimens is slightly
higher than HT samples [42].
Joseph et al. [43,44] prepared sisal fiber reinforced PP composites by melt-mixing and
solution-mixing methods. The methods enhanced the tensile properties of the
composites. The effect of fiber content and chemical treatments on the thermal
properties of sisal/PP composites was also evaluated. It was found that treated fiber
composites show superior properties compared to the untreated system. DSC
measurements exhibited an increase in the crystallization temperature and crystallinity,
upon the addition of fibers to the PP matrix. This is attributed to the nucleating effects
1183
1184
R. MALKAPURAM ET AL.
1185
Czigany [59] manufactured the basalt fiber reinforced, PP matrix hybrid composites
in the process of carding, needle-punching, and pressing. Hemp, glass, and carbon fibers
were applied besides basalt fiber in these composites. In order to achieve a sufficient
interfacial adhesion, the fibers were treated with the reaction mixture of maleic acid
anhydride and sunflower oil. The hybrid effect in these composites was examined as a
function of fiber content and fiber combination. The strength properties of hybrid
composites improved owing to surface treatment and this was proven by mechanical tests
and microscopic analysis, as well. Acoustic emission methods revealed that there is a
correlation between the physical parameters of sound waves that occurred during failure
and the mechanical properties.
Ruksakulpiwat et al. [60] prepared the injection molded vetiverPP composites at
various ratios of vetiver content and vetiver length. When compared to PP, vetiverPP
composites exhibited higher tensile strength and Youngs modulus but lower elongation
at break and impact strength. An increase in vetiver content led to an increase in
viscosity, heat distortion temperature, crystallization temperature, and Youngs modulus
of the composites. On the other hand, the decomposition temperature, tensile
strength, elongation at break, and impact strength decreased with increasing
vetiver content. The chemical treatment of the vetiver grass improved the mechanical
properties of the composites.
Kim et al. [61] investigated the effect on thermal properties of the addition of
two different compatibilizing agents, maleic anhydride (MA)-grafted polypropylene
(MAPP) and MA-grafted polyethylene (MAPE), to bio-flour-filled, PP, and low
density polyethylene (LDPE) composites. The effect of two different types of MAPE
polymer, MA-grafted high-density polyethylene (HDPE-MA) and MA-grafted linear
LDPE (LLDPE-MA), was also examined. With increasing MAPP and MAPE content,
the thermal stability, storage modulus (E_ ), tan max peak temperature (glass transition
temperature: Tg) and loss modulus (Emax) peak temperature ( relaxation) were
slightly increased. The thermal stability, E_ and E__ of MAPE-treated composites were
not significantly affected by the two different MAPE polymers. The melting temperature
(Tm) of the composites was not significantly changed but the crystallinity (Xc) of
MAPP- and MAPE-treated composites was slightly increased with increasing MAPP
and MAPE content. This enhancement of thermal stability and properties could
be attributed to an improvement in the interfacial adhesion and compatibility
between the rice husk flour (RHF) and the matrix due to the treatment of compatibilizing
agent. Attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR) analysis confirmed this result
by demonstrating the changed chemical structures of the composites following
MAPP and MAPE addition.
Liao et al. [62] have studied the resistance of bamboo fiber reinforced PP composite
(BFRP) and bamboo-glass fiber reinforced PP hybrid composite (BGRP) to hygrothermal
aging, and their fatigue behavior under cyclic tensile load, were studied. Injection molded
samples were exposed in water at 258C for up to 6 months and at 758C for up to 3 months.
Tensile strength and elastic modulus of BFRP and BGRP samples have shown moderate
reduction after aging at 258C after 6 months; however, they were reduced considerably
after aging at 758C for 3 months. Moisture absorption and tensile strength degradation are
suppressed by using MAPP as a coupling agent in both types of composite systems. BFRP
and BGRP samples were also loaded cyclically at maximum cyclic load of 35, 50, 65, and
80% of their ultimate tensile stress. Results suggest that BGRP has better fatigue
resistance than BFRP at all load levels tested.
1186
R. MALKAPURAM ET AL.
Abu-Sharkh and Hamid [63] studied the degradation characteristics of the date palm
leaves compounded with PP and UV stabilizers. Enhanced stability imparted by the
presence of the fibers in the composites, enhanced interfacial adhesion resulting from
oxidation of the polymer matrix can be the source of retention of mechanical strength.
FUTURE WORK
There is an increasing demand from auto companies for materials with sound abatement
capability as well as reduced weight for fuel efficiency; therefore, the use of natural fibers
over man-made glass and carbon fibers. However, the properties of these natural fiber
reinforced composites are dependent on the properties of the fiber and the adhesion
between fiber and matrix. The enhancement of the properties of the composites can be
achieved by chemical modificatons of matrix and the fiber.
CONCLUSIONS
The chemical, mechanical, and physical properties of natural fibers have distinct
properties; cellulose content of these fibers varies from fiber to fiber. The moisture content
lowers the mechanical properties. The mechanical properties of composites are influenced
mainly by the adhesion between matrix and fibers. As in the case of glass-fibers, the
adhesion properties can be changed by pre-treating the fibers. Novel processing
techniques, chemical and physical modification methods are developed to improve the
fiber-matrix adhesion resulting in the enhancement of mechanical properties of
the composites. Up to now, the most important natural fibers are jute, flax, and coir.
Yet the development of novel processing and modification methods is not finished.
Further improvements can be expected, so that it might become possible to substitute
technical-fibers in composites quite generally. Natural fibers are low-cost, recyclable and
eco-friendly materials. Eco-friendliness and bio-degradability of these natural fibers may
replace the glass and carbon fibers.
REFERENCES
1. Khondker, O. A., Ishiaku, U. S., Nakai, A. and Hamada, H. (2006). A Novel Processing Technique for
Thermoplastic Manufacturing of Unidirectional Composites Reinforced with Jute Yarns, Composites: Part A,
37(12): 22742284.
2. Bledzki, A. K. and Gassan, J. (1999). Composites Reinforced with Cellulose Based Fibers, Progress in
Polymer Science, 24: 221274.
3. Espert, Ana., Vilaplana, Francisco and Karlsson, Sigbritt (2004). Comparison of Water Absorption in
Natural Cellulosic Fibres from Wood and One-year Crops in Polypropylene Composites and Its Influence on
Their Mechanical Properties, Composites: Part A, 35: 12671276.
4. Seung-Hwan Lee, Siqun Wang, Pharr, George M. and Haitao Xu (2007). Evaluation of Interphase Properties
in a Cellulose Fiber-reinforced Polypropylene Composite by Nanoindentation and Finite Element Analysis,
Composites: Part A, 38(6): 15171524.
5. Ganster, J., Fink, H. P. and Pinnow, M. (2006). High-tenacity Man-made Cellulose Fibre Reinforced
Thermoplastics Injection Moulding Compounds with Polypropylene and Alternative Matrices, Composites:
Part A, 37: 17961804.
6. Amash, A. and Zugenmaier, P. (2000). Morphology and Properties of Isotropic and Oriented Samples of
Cellulose FibrePolypropylene Composites, Polymer, 41: 15891596.
7. Ljungberg, N., Cavaille, J. Y. and Heux, L. (2006). Nanocomposites of Isotactic Polypropylene Reinforced
with Rod-like Cellulose Whiskers, Polymer, 47(18): 62856292.
1187
8. Han-Seung Yanga, Wolcotta, M. P., Hee-Soo Kimb, Sumin Kimb and Hyun-Joong Kim (2006). Properties
of Lignocellulosic Material Filled Polypropylene Biocomposites Made with Different Manufacturing
Processes, Polymer Testing, 25: 668676.
9. Abdelmouleh, M., Boufi, S., Belgacem, M. N. and Dufresne, A. (2007). Short Natural-fibre Reinforced
Polyethylene and Natural Rubber Composites: Effect of Silane Coupling Agents and Fibres Loading,
Composites Science and Technology, 67(78): 16271639.
10. Wulin Qiu, Takashi Endo and Takahiro Hirotsu (2006). Structure and Properties of Composites of Highly
Crystalline Cellulose with Polypropylene: Effects of Polypropylene Molecular Weight, European Polymer
Journal, 42: 10591068.
11. Georgopoulos, S. Th., Tarantili, P. A., Avgerinos, E., Andreopoulos, A. G. and Koukios, E. G. (2005).
Thermoplastic Polymers Reinforced with Fibrous Agricultural Residues, Polymer Degradation and Stability,
90: 303312.
12. Joly, C., Gauthier, R. and Chabert, B. (1996). Physical Chemistry of the Interface in Polypropylene/
Cellulosic-Fibre Composites, Composites Science and Technology, 56: 761765.
13. McHenry, E. and Stachurski, Z. H. (2003). Composite Materials Based on Wood and Nylon Fibre,
Composites: Part A, 34: 171181.
14. Bledzki, A. K. and Faruk, O. (2006). Injection Moulded Microcellular Wood FibrePolypropylene
Composites, Composites: Part A, 37: 13581367.
15. Hristov, V. N., Lach, R. and Grellmann, W. (2004). Impact Fracture Behavior of Modified Polypropylene/
wood Fiber Composites, Polymer Testing, 23: 581589.
16. Karmarkar, A., Chauhan, S. S., Modak, J. M. and Chanda, M. (2007). Mechanical Properties of
WoodFiber Reinforced Polypropylene Composites: Effect of a Novel Compatibilizer with Isocyanate
Functional Group, Composites: Part A, 38: 227233.
17. Tartakowski, Z. and Pietrzak-Mantiuk, A. (2006). Resistance of High-content Polypropylene/Wood
Composites to Low-current Arc Discharges, Polymer Testing, 25: 342346.
18. Costa, T. H. S., Carvalho, D. L., Souza, D. C. S., Coutinho, F. M. B., Pinto, J. C. and Kokta, B. V. (2000).
Statistical Experimental Design and Modeling of PolypropyleneWood Fiber Composites, Polymer Testing,
19: 419428.
19. Jungil Son, Gardner, D. J., ONeill, S. and Metaxas, C. (2003). Understanding the Viscoelastic Properties
of Extruded Polypropylene Wood Plastic Composites, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 89: 16381644.
20. Geum-Hyun Doh, Sun-Young Lee, In-Aeh Kang and Young-To Kong (2005). Thermal Behavior
of Liquefied Wood Polymer Composites (LWPC), Composite Structures, 68: 103108.
21. Selke, S. E. and Wichman, I. (2004). Wood Fiber/Polyolefin Composites, Composites: Part A, 35: 321326.
22. Borysiak, S., Paukszta, D. and Helwig, M. (2006). Flammability of Wood Polypropylene Composites,
Polymer Degradation and Stability, 91: 33393343.
23. Van de Velde, K. and Kiekens, P. (2003). Effect of Material and Process Parameters on the Mechanical
Properties of Unidirectional and Multidirectional Flax/Polypropylene Composites, Composite Structures,
62: 443448.
24. Cantero, G., Arbelaiz, A., Llano-Ponte, R. and Mondragon, I. (2003). Effects of Fibre Treatment on
Wettability and Mechanical Behaviour of Flax/Polypropylene Composites, Composites Science and
Technology, 63: 12471254.
25. Keener, T. J., Stuart, R. K. and Brown, T. K. (2004). Maleated Coupling Agents for Natural Fibre
Composites, Composites: Part A, 35: 357362.
26. Arbelaiz, A., Fernandez, B., Ramos, J. A. and Mondragon, I. (2006). Thermal and Crystallization Studies
of Short Flax Fibre Reinforced Polypropylene Matrix Composites: Effect of Treatments, Thermochimica
Acta, 440: 111121.
27. Bos, H. L., Mussig, J. and van den Oever, M. J. A. (2006). Mechanical Properties of Short-flax-Fibre
Reinforced Compounds, Composites: Part A, 37: 15911604.
28. Angelov, I., Wiedmer, S., Evstatiev, M., Friedrich, K. and Mennig, G. (2007). Pultrusion of a Flax/
Polypropylene Yarn, Composites: Part A, 38(5): 14311438.
29. Madsen, B. and Lilholt, H. (2003). Physical and Mechanical Properties of Unidirectional Plant
Fibre Composites An Evaluation of the Influence of Porosity, Composites Science and Technology,
63: 12651272.
30. Mohanty, A. K., Wibowo, A., Misra, M. and Drzal, L. T. (2004). Effect of Process Engineering on the
Performance of Natural Fiber Reinforced Cellulose Acetate Biocomposites, Composites Part A, 35: 363370.
31. Mutje, P., Lopez, A., Vallejos, M. E., Lopez, J. P. and Vilaseca, F. (2007). Full Exploitation of Cannabis
Sativa as Reinforcement/Filler of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, Composites: Part A, 38: 369377.
1188
R. MALKAPURAM ET AL.
32. Pracella, M., Chionna, D., Anguillesi, I., Kulinski, Z. and Piorkowska, E. (2006). Functionalization,
Compatibilization and Properties of Polypropylene Composites with Hemp Fibres, Composites Science and
Technology, 66: 22182230.
33. Wambua, P., Ivens, J. and Verpoest, I. (2003). Natural Fibres: Can They Replace Glass in Fibre Reinforced
Plastics? Composites Science and Technology, 63: 12591264.
34. Pickering, K. L., Beckermann, G. W., Alam, S. N. and Foreman, N. J. (2007). Optimising Industrial Hemp
Fibre for Composites, Composites: Part A, 38: 461468.
35. Joung-Man Park, Son Tran Quang, Byung-Sun Hwang and De Vries, K. L. (2006). Interfacial Evaluation
of Modified Jute and Hemp Fibres/Polypropylene (PP) Maleic Anhydride Polypropylene Copolymers
(PP-MAPP) Composites Using Micromechanical Technique and Nondestructive Acoustic Emission,
Composites Science and Technology, 66: 26862699.
36. Thi-Thu-Loan Doan, Shang-Lin Gao and Mader, E. (2006). Jute/Polypropylene Composites, I. Effect of
Matrix Modification, Composites Science and Technology, 66: 952963.
37. Ranaa, A. K., Mandala, A. and Bandyopadhyay, S. (2003). Short Jute Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene
Composites: Effect of Compatibiliser, Impact Modifier and Fiber Loading, Composites Science and
Technology, 63: 801806.
38. Girones, J., Mendez, J. A., Boufi, S., Vilaseca, F. and Mutje, P. (2007). Effect of Silane Coupling
Agents on the Properties of Pine Fibres/Polypropylene Composites, Journal of Applied Polymer Science,
103: 37063717.
39. Borysiak, S. and Doczekalska, B. (2006). Influence of Chemical Modification of Wood on the Crystallisation
of Polypropylene, Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff, 64: 451454.
40. Wechsler, A. and Hiziroglu, S. (2007). Some of the Properties of WoodPlastic Composites, Building and
Environment, 42(7): 26372644.
41. Pickering, K. L. and Ji, C. (2004). The Effect of Poly[methylene(polyphenyl isocyanate)] and Maleated
Polypropylene Coupling Agents on New Zealand Radiata Pine FiberPolypropylene Composites, Journal
of Reinforced Plastics & Composites, 23(18): 20112024.
42. Fung, K. L., Xing, X. S., Li, R. K. Y., Tjonga, S. C. and Mai, Y.-W. (2003). An Investigation on
the Processing of Sisal Fibre Reinforced Polypropylene Composites, Composites Science and Technology,
63: 12551258.
43. Joseph, P. V., Kuruvilla, J. and Sabu, T. (1999). Effect of Processing Variables on the Mechanical Properties
of Sisal Fiber-reinforced Polypropylene Composites, Composites Science and Technology, 59: 16251640.
44. Joseph, P. V., Joseph, K., Thomas, S., Pillai, C. K. S., Prasad, V. S., Groeninckx, G. and Sarkissova, M.
(2003). The Thermal and Crystallisation Studies of Short Sisal Fibre Reinforced Polypropylene Composites,
Composites: Part A, 34: 253266.
45. Han-Seung Yang, Hyun-Joong Kim, Hee-Jun Park, Bum-Jae Lee and Taek-Sung Hwang (2007). Effect
of Compatibilizing Agents on Rice-husk Flour Reinforced Polypropylene Composites, Composite Structures,
77: 4555.
46. Sain, M., Park, S. H., Suhara, F. and Law, S. (2004). Flame Retardant and Mechanical Properties of Natural
FibrePP Composites Containing Magnesium Hydroxide, Polymer Degradation and Stability, 83: 363367.
47. Han-Seung Yang, Hyun-Joong Kim, Jungil Son, Hee-Jun Park, Bum-Jae Lee and Taek-Sung Hwang (2004).
Rice-husk Flour Filled Polypropylene Composites; Mechanical and Morphological Study, Composite
Structures, 63: 305312.
48. Han-Seung Yang, Wolcott, M. P., Hee-Soo Kim, Sumin Kim and Hyun-Joong Kim (2007). Effect
of Different Compatibilizing Agents on the Mechanical Properties of Lignocellulosic Material Filled
Polyethylene, Bio-composites Composite Structures, 77: 4555.
49. Coutinho, F. M. B., Costa, T. H. S., Suarez, J. C. M. and Melo, D. P. (2000). Sawdust Reinforced
Polypropylene Composites: A Study of Fracture Behavior, Polymer Testing, 19: 625633.
50. Suarez, J. C. M., Coutinho, F. M. B. and Sydenstricker, T. H. (2003). SEM Studies of Tensile Fracture
Surfaces of Polypropylene Sawdust Composites, Polymer Testing, 22: 819824.
51. Demir, H., Atikler, U., Balkose, D. and T|hm|nl|oglu, F. (2006). The Effect of Fiber Surface Treatments on
the Tensile and Water Sorption Properties of PolypropyleneLuffa Fiber Composites, Composites: Part A,
37: 447456.
52. Panthapulakkal, S., Zereshkian, A. and Sain, M. (2006). Preparation and Characterization of Wheat Straw
Fibres for Reinforcing Application in Injection Molded Thermoplastic Composites, Bioresource Technology,
97: 265272.
53. Jang, J. and Lee, E. (2001). Improvement of the Flame Retardancy of Paper Sludge/Polypropylene
Composite, Polymer Testing, 20: 713.
1189
54. Rozman, H. D., Tan, K. W., Kumar, R. N., Abubakar, A., Mohd, Z. A., Ishak and Ismail, H. (2000). The
Effect of Lignin as a Compatibilizer on the Physical Properties of Coconut Fiber Polypropylene Composites,
European Polymer Journal, 36: 14831494.
55. Zampaloni, M., Pourboghrat, F., Yankovich, S. A., Rodgers, B. N., Moore, J., Drzal, L. T., Mohanty, A. K.
and Misra, M. (2007). Kenaf Natural Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene Composites: A Discussion on
Manufacturing Problems and Solutions, Composites: Part A, 38(6): 15691580.
56. Shinichi Shibata, Yong Cao and Isao Fukumoto (2006). Lightweight Laminate Composites Made from
Kenaf and Polypropylene Fibres, Polymer Testing, 25: 142148.
57. Mwaikambo, L. Y., Martuscelli, E. and Avella, M. (2000). Kapok/Cotton FabricPolypropylene
Composites, Polymer Testing, 19: 905918.
58. Arib, R. M. N., Sapuan, S. M., Ahmad, M. M. H. M., Paridahb, M. T. and Khairul Zaman, H. M. D.
(2006). Mechanical Properties of Pineapple Leaf Fibre Reinforced Polypropylene Composites, Materials and
Design, 27: 391396.
59. Czigany, T. (2006). Special Manufacturing and Characteristics of Basalt Fiber Reinforced Hybrid
Polypropylene Composites: Mechanical Properties and Acoustic Emission Study, Composites Science and
Technology, 66: 32103220.
60. Yupaporn Ruksakulpiwat, Nitinat Suppakarn, Wimonlak Sutapun and Wandee Thomthong (2007).
VetiverPolypropylene Composites: Physical and Mechanical Properties, Composites: Part A, 38: 590601.
61. Hee-Soo Kim, Sumin Kim, Hyun-Joong Kim and Han-Seung Yang (2006). Thermal Properties of Bio-flourfilled Polyolefin Composites with Different Compatibilizing Agent Type and Content, Thermochimica Acta,
451: 181188.
62. Moe Moe Thwe and Kin Liao (2003). Durability of Bamboo-glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer Matrix Hybrid
Composites, Composites Science and Technology, 63: 375387.
63. Abu-Sharkh, B. F. and Hamid, H. (2004). Degradation Study of Date Palm Fibre/Polypropylene
Composites in Natural and Artificial Weathering: Mechanical and Thermal Analysis, Polymer
Degradation and Stability, 85(3): 967973.