Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
-1-
base delivers the load placed upon the structure to the sub grade
below. The load bearing capacity of the surface material can be
improved by increasing the depth of the sub base.
Use of surface
Very light pedestrian
Pedestrian
Light vehicular
Heavy vehicular
-2-
natural stone can set the mood for and be in harmony with almost any
scheme. Natural stone lends a feel of quality to a project and although
it is one of the most expensive options for paving an area, the cost
differential between natural stone and concrete products has narrowed
over the last decade. This is due mainly to two reasons; increased
taxation on the extraction of aggregates used in the manufacture of
concrete products, and the opening up of the world market for
imported stone products. Both have environmental and ethical issues
which are causing much debate. (See Module 33 on environment and
sustainability, and be prepared for some of your clients to ask you
questions on this matter.)
Rock from which natural stone paving is derived, falls into three
categories, Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic. All types of rock
are suitable for landscape works. Below are the main types of stone
used:
Sandstone a sedimentary rock composed mainly of quartz
crystals, sandstone is hard yet easy to work making it an ideal
paving material. Sandstone, like sand itself comes in a range of
colours from grey through rich buffs to browns. These natural
colours give sandstone the ability to harmonise with many
materials such as red brick and granite setts and give a warmth to
schemes especially when wet. York stone is a sandstone derived
from quarries in Yorkshire in the UK and is considered to be a
premium product due to its mellow colours and soft visual
qualities. Reclaimed York stone is available but quality and
thickness is variable so it is best only laid when a match with
existing old York stone is required. Sandstone occurs worldwide
and a wide range of products are now imported from India. These
sandstones are harder, both physically and visually than York
stone, but are popular because they are relatively inexpensive
and have opened up the market to projects which once would
have excluded natural stone.
Limestone a sedimentary rock containing variable amounts of
silica in the form of clay, silt and sand but primarily of calcite
derived from the skeletons of marine organisms. Pure limestone is
almost white, but because of impurities and the presence of
oxides it can come in many colours, even black. Limestone is a
soft rock and is therefore prone to the action of weathering and
some are not suitable for external use. Portland and Purbeck
stone are examples of Limestone quarried in the UK. Continental
Europe is a large supplier of high quality limestone paving,
Travertine being an example that is popular in landscape
schemes.
Granite an igneous rock of crystalline structure of quartz and
feldspar and other minerals such as black mica crystals. It is hard
and tough as its mineral grains have grown tightly together during
klc school of design
-3-
-4-
-5-
-6-
lay the wearing course butt jointed ensuring all levels and falls are
correct.
brush with jointing sand until any gaps are filled.
-7-
Bed setts individually into the base course ensuring all levels and
falls are correct with 10 - 15mm pointing gap.
fill joint using a semi wet mortar mix of soft sand and OPC at 6:1,
compacted into the joint with a flush finish.
Where laid in large areas the pointing gaps may be filled with a
proprietory cement and crushed stone slurry, such as Granfix. This is
poured onto the surface and spread with a squeegee. When the mix
begins to cure the surface of the setts is washed and brushed.
As a flexible surface:
compact sub grade and create sub base as before.
lay 50mm bedding course of dry sharp sand or stone dust, screed
to correct levels and falls.
Bed setts individually into base course ensuring all levels and falls
are correct with 10 - 15mm pointing gap.
Brush surface with stone dust and vibrate using a compactor
plate, apply more stone dust and repeat.
Concrete and clay pavers
Concrete pavers, also referred to as paviours or block paving, are
blocks of high strength, hydraulically pressed concrete. They are laid as
a flexible surface and are available in three common types:
Rectangular blocks - 100 x 200mm in buff pink or grey. These are
the most common and the least expensive concrete paving.
Tumbled blocks visually softer and available in several sizes.
These concrete pavers are a more cost effective alternative to
stone setts.
Shaped blocks Hexagonal and octagonal shaped blocks that
form an interlocking pattern. These blocks have been developed
for highly trafficked areas.
Clay pavers are manufactured from dense extruded clay and are
usually finished with a wire cut surface. Colours range from buff through
rich oranges and reds to black. Clay pavers are usually 100 x 200mm (as
concrete pavers) but some are available as brick size, 102.5 x 215mm.
These brick sized pavers are manufactured as stock bricks and are used
for pedestrian paths where more character is called for. Brick size pavers
can be laid as flexible or rigid surfaces.
Laying concrete or clay pavers
Laying as a flexible surface
compact sub grade and create sub base as before.
lay 50mm base course of dry sharp sand, screed to correct levels
and falls and compact using a plate compactor.
-8-
Lay pavers onto base course ensuring all levels and falls are
correct. Take care not to trap the bedding sand between pavers
when placing.
Brush surface with jointing sand and vibrate using a compactor
plate, apply more jointing sand and repeat. When using clay
pavers a rubber mat should be fitted to the plate to prevent
damage to the upper surface of the clay pavers.
With increased desire for natural stone products, many stone suppliers
now manufacture sawn and gauged stone pavers. These are laid as
flexible concrete pavers and can have the same surface textures
added as natural stone flagstones. This adds the quality feel of natural
stone with the ease of laying of concrete or clay pavers.
Granular surfaces
Granular surfaces are the main group of flexible surfaces. Generally
referred to as gravel surfaces they have a low unit cost but their
suitability needs to be carefully considered. Blending comfortably with
many styles, gravel surfaces can add a feeling of grandeur to schemes
when used on large expanses such as entrance way and avenue walks
but can be equally at home in cosy cottage gardens.
-9-
- 10 -
- 11 -
- 12 -
out the same function as edge restraints and they can also add
an upstand to the edge. This upstand can acts as a vehicular
deterrent on driveways, forms a drainage gulley at the edge of
areas of paving and also prevents creep of shingle and gravels.
Trims and thresholds trims add textural interest to areas of
paving; this could be as simple as single course of concrete
pavers in a contrasting colour around an area of block paving.
Granite setts are a popular choice for trims as they combine well
with natural stone and add a quality feel to a project - these are
generally laid as a double edge with the type of sett used
(cropped or sawn and textured) being led by the style of the
scheme. Trims also work as psychological deterrents. Water
rounded cobbles set into concrete are uncomfortable to walk on
and can prevent pedestrians from straying from a path.
Thresholds are intermediate areas of paving that act as a
transitional surface between larger areas of materials. These
create a visually easier passage from one surface to another and
can break up harsh lines in a design.
Mowing edges mowing edges are narrow bands of paving
surrounding a lawn. Visually they create structure in a scheme
and subtly link hard and soft landscape. They should be included
where lawns abut steps and walls as mowing of these areas is
difficult. They also eliminate the need for regular edge trimming
after mowing, reducing maintenance. Some mowing edges are
less obvious: subtle metal edges such as Everedge can be used
to create sharp edges to lawns and are almost invisible.
Quite often edge details will fulfil more than one of these criteria, for
example a trim could also double as an edge restraint, or a simple
timber mowing edge could also be an edge restraint to the adjacent
gravel path. Edge details, as well as being necessary, are one of the
easiest ways to add unique detail to a hard landscape scheme and
therefore should be considered at every opportunity.
Timber Decking
The use of timber as a building material in all aspects of construction is
popular in Australia, New Zealand and USA and it is the natural
progression for verandas and terraces to be also of timber. This is helped
by the climate in these regions, which encourages the outdoor life style.
In more temperate climates the idea of timber as surface material has
taken longer to catch on. But with increased exposure in the media over
the last 15 years popularity has grown and due to the relative ease of
construction and the fact that timber blends in so well, it has now
become an integral part of garden design.
klc school of design
- 13 -
Timber choices
When working in a temperate climate the biggest enemy to any timber
structure is the damp; this is increased when the structure is horizontal
and close to the ground. Any timbers selected must have natural rot
resistance or be treated with preservative. Tanilisation is a pressure
treatment which impregnates timber with preservative, protecting it
against rot and insect attack for up to thirty years, and all timber used in
the construction of the decking frame must be treated in this way. Brushapplied wood preservatives or dip treatments are not suitable for the
long-term protection of timber used for decking and other outdoor
landscaping applications and should only be used in addition to
taniliastion.
Hardwood
Hardwoods are naturally resistant to fungal growth and offer superior
levels of durability and wear resistance, without any additional chemical
treatment, making hardwoods the ideal material for use in the
construction of decking outdoor structures. There are a number of
species to choose from such as Ipe, Massaranduba, Tatajuba and
Yellow Balau. But care should be taken to ensure as far as possible that
these are from sustainable and renewable sources. Hardwoods respond
well to oiling and with a little care will retain their rich dark colour for
many years.
Softwood
Many softwood decking boards available in the UK are of low quality
and are not suitable for applications where they will be in close
proximity to the ground. The most durable boards are imported from
North America - pressure treated and kiln-dried Southern yellow pine is
the most commonly imported treated softwood and has good strength
and exceptional grain. However, when it comes to decking there is no
better choice than Western Red Cedar.
Western Red Cedar offers superb value for money when you consider its
unbeatable quality, appearance and longevity. The natural oils in cedar
help make the wood resistant to decay and insect attack, increasing its
durability and weatherability without the use of chemical treatments. It
is dimensionally stable, much more so than other woods, so there is
minimal shrinkage. Above all, the wood has a beauty all its own with
colours, grains, and textures unmatched by any other decking material.
Construction of timber decking
Depending on existing ground conditions and location, there are two
main methods of deck construction.
- 14 -
Drainage
Drainage falls into three categories; foul, land and surface water
drainage. Foul drainage is not within the remit of landscape design but
position of chambers and the level of the pipes within chambers, known
as the invert level (IL) should be recorded, as these will affect the
position of elements such as pools and raised features. Land drainage
relates to the condition and water content of the soil. Soil condition and
water table levels should also be noted at the site survey and can quite
often be rectified by improving soil structure, in extreme cases a land
drainage system may need to be installed.
Surface water drainage is the most commonly encountered aspect of
drainage in landscape schemes. As most hard landscape surfaces are
impermeable to water, provision needs to be made to shed and
dispose of surface water.
Falls and cambers
In order to shed water from paths and areas of paving a slope or fall is
required. These falls come in two types; longitudinal falls and cross falls:
- 15 -
both are stated as ratios, e.g. a fall of 1:50 will drop 1cm for every 50cm
of distance.
Longitudinal falls run along the full length of the paving and can be
quite shallow, 1:50 and even 1:00. Cross falls run at 90 degrees to the
longitudinal fall and are used when creating surfaces and paths with
rough surface texture such as granite setts. Cross falls are steeper, 1:30
not being uncommon.
Paths that use granular materials such as Breedon gravel or hoggin or
have rough textures require cross falls to cast water to the sides. These
falls create a curved appearance to the cross section of the path,
known as a camber.
Drainage solutions
With small areas of paving it is quite acceptable to fall paving to a soft
surface such as a lawn or flower bed but with larger areas, or where no
soft areas exist, such as enclosed courtyards, other ways of dispersing
the surface water need to be used:
Gulleys a gulley is a small square or round chamber with a metal
or composite grid. Falls are set to carry water to the gulley: on
larger areas several individual gulleys may be required and the
paving laid to create a series of peaks and valleys.
Channels and gutters - shallow concave channels constructed
from pressed concrete units or more decoratively from setts,
blocks or bricks. These can be used in conjunction with kerbs to
form gutters. A 1:100 fall on the channel carries water to the
outfall, quite often a gulley.
Linear drains - drainage systems that drain along their entire
length, rather than at one particular point, as a gully does. Most
use an enclosed channel, typically with a u-shaped cross-section
and a grating over the top. Also known as monsoon drains, these
are particularly useful when there is no alternative but to drain
towards a building.
Where possible it is best to disperse water collected into existing surface
water systems. Driveways, if the gradient allows, can use channels and
gutters to direct water out onto the roadway and into the highway
drainage system. Most houses will have a surface system to take water
collected from the roof; the position of down pipes established at the
survey will give cues as to where these run. Surface water should never
be directed into the foul drainage system.
Soakaways and French drains
Where no existing surface water system is present or connection is not
possible, a new method of dispersal for water collected will need to be
created. A soakaway is the most common solution. A soakaway is a
klc school of design
- 16 -
large pit filled with clean aggregate into which the water is piped to
dissipate naturally over a period of time. The size of the soakaway is
determined by the area of paving to be drained, but a one cubic metre
pit is usually sufficient for most small works. The pit base should be of a
free draining material and sides of the pit should be lined with geotextile
to prevent contamination of the aggregate.
French drains are effectively small linear soakaways. Typically 300
450mm across with tapered sides and 450mm deep, they are filled with
aggregate wrapped in geotextile. These can incorporate a pipe at the
base but generally allowing water to dissipate along the length of the
drain is sufficient. French drains are used at the base of embankments
and where larger areas of paving cast their water onto soft landscape
areas.
- 17 -