Art criticism

through all aspects of our lives, regardless of the culture

or times. There are many dierent variables that determine ones judgment of art such as aesthetics, cognition
or perception. Art can be objective or subjective based
on personal preference toward aesthetics and form. It can
be based on the elements and principle of design and by
social and cultural acceptance. Art is a basic human instinct with a diverse range of form and expression. Art
can stand-alone with an instantaneous judgment or can
be viewed with a deeper more educated knowledge. Aesthetic, pragmatic, expressive, formalist, relativist, processional, imitation, ritual, cognition, mimetic and postmodern theories are some of many theories to criticize and appreciate art. Art criticism and appreciation can be subjective based on personal preference toward aesthetics and
form, or it can be based on the elements and principle of
design and by social and cultural acceptance.

Monkeys as Judges of Art, 1889, Gabriel von Max

Art criticism is the discussion or evaluation of visual

art.[1][2][3] Art critics usually criticise art in the context of aesthetics or the theory of beauty.[2][3] A goal
1 Denition
of art criticism is the pursuit of a rational basis for
[1][2][3]
art appreciation
but it is questionable whether
such criticism can transcend prevailing socio-political Art criticism has many and often numerous subjective
viewpoints which are nearly as varied as there are people
circumstances.[4]
practising it.[2][3] It is dicult to come by a more stable
The variety of artistic movements has resulted in a dividenition than the activity being related to the discussion
sion of art criticism into dierent disciplines which may
and interpretation of art and its value.[3] Depending on
each use dierent criteria for their judgements.[3][5] The
who is writing on the subject, art criticism itself may
most common division in the eld of criticism is bebe obviated as a direct goal or it may include art history
tween historical criticism and evaluation, a form of art
within its framework.[3] Regardless of denitional probhistory, and contemporary criticism of work by living
lems, art criticism can refer to the history of the craft in
artists.[1][2][3]
its essays and art history itself may use critical methods
Despite perceptions that art criticism is a much lower implicitly.[2][3][7] According to art historian R. Siva Kurisk activity than making art, opinions of current art are mar, The borders between art history and art criticism...
always liable to drastic corrections with the passage of are no more as rmly drawn as they once used to be. It
time.[2] Critics of the past are often ridiculed for either perhaps began with art historians taking interest in modfavouring artists now derided (like the academic painters ern art.[11]
of the late 19th century) or dismissing artists now venerated (like the early work of the Impressionists).[3][6][7]
Some art movements themselves were named disparag2 Methodology
ingly by critics, with the name later adopted as a
sort of badge of honour by the artists of the style
[3]
(e.g., Impressionism, Cubism), with the original negative Art criticism includes a descriptive aspect, where the
work of art is suciently translated into words so as to
meaning forgotten.[6][8][9]
allow a case to be made.[2][3][7][12] The evaluation of a
Artists have often had an uneasy relationship with their work of art that follows the description (or is interspersed
critics. Artists usually need positive opinions from crit- with it) depends as much on the artists output as on the
ics for their work to be viewed and purchased; unfortu- experience of the critic.[2][3][9] There is in an activity with
nately for the artists, only later generations may under- such a marked subjective component a variety of ways in
stand it.[2][10]
which it can be pursued.[2][3][7] As extremes in a possible
Art is an important part of being human and can be found spectrum,[13] while some favour simply remarking on the
1

HISTORY

immediate impressions caused by an artistic object,[2][3]

others prefer a more systematic approach calling on technical knowledge, favoured aesthetic theory and the known
sociocultural context the artist is immersed in to discern
their intent.[2][3][7]

in art began to become widespread, and art was regularly

exhibited at the Salons in Paris and the Summer Exhibitions of London. The rst writers to acquire an individual
reputation as art critics in 18th-century France were JeanBaptiste Dubos with his Rexions critiques sur la posie
et sur la peinture (1718)[18] which garnered the acclaim
of Voltaire for the sagacity of his approach to aesthetic
[19]
and tienne La Font de Saint-Yenne with Retheory;
3 History
exions sur quelques causes de l'tat prsent de la peinture
en France who wrote about the Salon of 1746,[20] comCritiques of art likely originated with the origins of art menting on the socioeconomic framework of the producitself, as evidenced by texts found in the works of Plato, tion of the then popular Baroque art style,[21] which led to
Vitruvius or St. Augustine among others, that contain a perception of anti-monarchist sentiments in the text.[22]
early forms of art criticism.[3] Also, wealthy patrons have
employed, at least since the start of Renaissance, inter- The 18th-century French writer Denis Diderot greatly admediary art-evaluators to assist them in the procurement vanced the medium of art criticism. Diderots The Salon of 1765[23] was one of the rst real attempts to capof commissions and/or nished pieces.[14][15][16]
ture art in words.[24] According to art historian Thomas E.
Crow, When Diderot took up art criticism it was on the
heels of the rst generation of professional writers who
3.1 Origins
made it their business to oer descriptions and judgments
of contemporary painting and sculpture. The demand for
such commentary was a product of the similarly novel institution of regular, free, public exhibitions of the latest
art.[25]
Meanwhile, in England an exhibition of the Society of
Arts in 1762 and later, in 1766, prompted a urry of critical, though anonymous, pamphlets. Newspapers and periodicals of the period, such as the London Chronicle, began to carry columns for art criticism; a form that took o
with the foundation of the Royal Academy in 1768. In the
1770s, the Morning Chronicle became the rst newspaper
to systematically review the art featured at exhibitions.[17]

3.2 19th century

Jonathan Richardson coined the term 'art criticism' in 1719.

Art criticism as a genre of writing, obtained its modern

form in the 18th century.[3] The earliest use of the term
art criticism was by the English painter Jonathan Richardson in his 1719 publication An Essay on the Whole Art of
Criticism. In this work, he attempted to create an objective system for the ranking of works of art. Seven categories, including drawing, composition, invention and
colouring, were given a score from 0 to 18, which were
combined to give a nal score. The term he introduced
quickly caught on, especially as the English middle class
began to be more discerning in their art acquisitions, as
symbols of their aunted social status.[17]
In France and England in the mid 1700s, public interest John Ruskin, the preeminent art critic of 19th century England.

3.3

Turn of the twentieth century

From the 19th century onwards, art criticism became

a more common vocation and even a profession,[3] developing at times formalised methods based on particular aesthetic theories.[2][3][5][13] In France, a rift emerged
in the 1820s between the proponents of traditional neoclassical forms of art and the new romantic fashion. The
Neoclassicists, under tienne-Jean Delcluze defended
the classical ideal and preferred carefully nished form
in paintings. Romantics, such as Stendhal, criticized the
old styles as overly formulaic and devoid of any feeling.
Instead, they championed the new expressive, Idealistic, and emotional nuances of Romantic art. A similar,
though more muted, debate also occurred in England.[17]
One of the prominent critics in England at the time was
William Hazlitt, a painter and essayist. He wrote about
his deep pleasure in art and his belief that the arts could
be used to improve mankinds generosity of spirit and
knowledge of the world around it. He was one of a rising tide of English critics that began to grow uneasy with
the increasingly abstract direction J. M. W. Turner's landscape art was moving in.[17]
One of the great critics of the 19th century was John
Ruskin. In 1843 he published Modern Painters in which
he robustly defended the work of J. M. W. Turner from
his critics, who charged Turner with being unfaithful to
nature. Through painstaking analysis and attention to detail, Ruskin was able to demonstrate the very opposite,
in what the art historian E. H. Gombrich called the most
ambitious work of scientic art criticism ever attempted.
Ruskin became renowned for his rich and owing prose,
and later in life he branched out to become an active and
wide-ranging critic, publishing works on architecture and
Renaissance art, including the Stones of Venice.
Another dominating gure in 19th-century art criticism,
was the French poet Charles Baudelaire, whose rst published work was his art review Salon of 1845,[26] which attracted immediate attention for its boldness.[27] Many of
his critical opinions were novel in their time,[27] including
his championing of Eugne Delacroix.[28] When douard
Manet's famous Olympia (1865), a portrait of a nude
courtesan, provoked a scandal for its blatant realism,[29]
Baudelaire worked privately to support his friend.[30] He
claimed that criticism should be partial, impassioned,
political that is to say, formed from an exclusive point
of view, but also from a point of view that opens up the
greatest number of horizons. He tried to move the debate from the old binary positions of previous decades,
declaring that the true painter, will be he who can wring
from contemporary life its epic aspect and make us see
and understand, with colour or in drawing, how great and
poetic we are in our cravats and our polished boots.[17]

Charles Baudelaire's Salon of 1845 art review shocked its audience with its ideas.

guineas for inging a pot of paint in the publics face.[32]

This criticism provoked Whistler into suing the critic for
libel.[33][34] The ensuing court case proved to be a Pyrrhic
victory for Whistler.[35][36][37]

3.3 Turn of the twentieth century

Towards the end of the 19th century a movement towards

abstraction, as opposed to specic content, began to gain
ground in England, notably championed by the playwright
Oscar Wilde. By the early twentieth century these attitudes formally coalesced into a coherent philosophy,
through the work of Bloomsbury Group members Roger
Fry and Clive Bell.[39][40] As an art historian in the 1890s,
Fry became intrigued with the new modernist art and its
shift away from traditional depiction. His 1910 exhibition
of what he called post-Impressionist art attracted much
criticism for its iconoclasm. He vigorously defended himself in a lecture, in which he argued that art had moved
to attempt to discover the language of pure imagination,
rather than the staid and, to his mind, dishonest scientic capturing of landscape.[41][42] Frys argument proved
to be very inuential at the time, especially among the
progressive elite. Virginia Woolf remarked that: on or
about December 1910 [the date Fry gave his lecture] huIn 1877, John Ruskin derided Nocturne in Black and
man character changed.[17]
Gold: The Falling Rocket after the artist, James McNeill
Whistler, showed it at Grosvenor Gallery:[31] I have seen, Independently, and at the same time, Clive Bell argued in
and heard, much of Cockney impudence before now; his 1914 book Art that all art work has its particular 'sigbut never expected to hear a coxcomb ask two hundred nicant form', while the conventional subject matter was
essentially irrelevant. This work laid the foundations for

HISTORY

3.4 Since 1945

As in the case of Baudelaire in the 19th century, the poetas-critic phenomenon appeared once again in the 20th,
when French poet Apollinaire became the champion
of Cubism.[49][50] Later, French writer and hero of the
Resistance Andr Malraux wrote extensively on art,[51]
going well beyond the limits of his native Europe.[52]
His conviction that the vanguard in Latin America lay
in Mexican Muralism (Orozco, Rivera and Siqueiros)
changed after his trip to Buenos Aires in 1958. After visiting the studios of several Argentine artists in the
company of the young Director of the Museum of Modern Art of Buenos Aires Rafael Squirru, Malraux declared the new vanguard to lie in Argentina's new artistic movements. Squirru, a poet-critic who became Cultural Director of the OAS in Washington, D.C., during
the 1960s, was the last to interview Edward Hopper before his death, contributing to a revival of interest in the
American artist.[53]
In the 1940s there were not only few galleries (The Art of
This Century) but also few critics who were willing to folSelf portrait of Roger Fry, described by the art historian Kenneth
[54]
There were
Clark as incomparably the greatest inuence on taste since low the work of the New York Vanguard.
Ruskin... In so far as taste can be changed by one man, it was also a few artists with a literary background, among them
Robert Motherwell and Barnett Newman who functioned
changed by Roger Fry.[38]
as critics as well.[55][56][57]

the formalist approach to art.[5] In 1920, Fry argued that

its all the same to me if I represent a Christ or a saucepan
since its the form, and not the object itself, that interests
me. As well as being a proponent of formalism, he argued that the value of art lies in its ability to produce a
distinctive aesthetic experience in the viewer. an experience he called aesthetic emotion. He dened it as that
experience which is aroused by signicant form. He also
suggested that the reason we experience aesthetic emotion in response to the signicant form of a work of art
was that we perceive that form as an expression of an experience the artist has. The artists experience in turn, he
suggested, was the experience of seeing ordinary objects
in the world as pure form: the experience one has when
one sees something not as a means to something else, but
as an end in itself.[43]

Although New York and the world were unfamiliar with the New York avant-garde,[54] by the late
1940s most of the artists who have become household names today had their well established patron
critics.[58] Clement Greenberg advocated Jackson Pollock and the color eld painters like Clyord Still,
Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman, Adolph Gottlieb and
Hans Hofmann.[59][60][61][62][63][64][65] Harold Rosenberg
seemed to prefer the action painters such as Willem de
Kooning and Franz Kline.[66][67] Thomas B. Hess, the
managing editor of ARTnews, championed Willem de
Kooning.[68]

The new critics elevated their protgs by casting other

artists as followers or ignoring those who did not serve
their promotional goal.[5][69] As an example, in 1958,
Mark Tobey became the rst American painter since
Whistler (1895) to win top prize at the Biennale of
Venice. New Yorks two leading art magazines were not
interested. Arts mentioned the historic event only in a
news column and Art News (Managing editor: Thomas
B.
Hess) ignored it completely. The New York Times and
Herbert Read was a champion of modern British artists
Life
printed feature articles.[70]
such as Paul Nash, Ben Nicholson, Henry Moore and
Barbara Hepworth and became associated with Nashs Barnett Newman, a late member of the Uptown Group
contemporary arts group Unit One. He focused on the wrote catalogue forewords and reviews and by the late
modernism of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, and 1940s became an exhibiting artist at Betty Parsons
published an inuential 1929 essay on the meaning of Gallery. His rst solo show was in 1948. Soon after
art in The Listener.[44][45][46][47] He also edited the trend- his rst exhibition, Barnett Newman remarked in one of
setting Burlington Magazine (193338) and helped or- the Artists Session at Studio 35: We are in the proganise the London International Surrealist Exhibition in cess of making the world, to a certain extent, in our own
1936.[48]
image.[71] Utilizing his writing skills, Newman fought

4.1

Art blogs

every step of the way to reinforce his newly established ics appear also on the internet, TV, and radio, as well
image as an artist and to promote his work. An example as in museums and galleries.[1][83] Many are also emis his letter to Sidney Janis on 9 April 1955:
ployed in universities or as art educators for museums.
Art critics curate exhibitions and are frequently employed
to write exhibition catalogues.[1][2] Art critics have their
It is true that Rothko talks the ghter. He
own organisation, a UNESCO non-governmental organights, however, to submit to the philistine
sation, called the International Association of Art Critics
world. My struggle against bourgeois society
which has around 76 national sections and a political nonhas involved the total rejection of it.[72]
aligned section for refugees and exiles.[84]
The person thought to have had most to do with the promotion of this style was a New York Trotskyist, Clement
Greenberg.[5][58] As long time art critic for the Partisan 4.1 Art blogs
Review and The Nation, he became an early and literate proponent of Abstract Expressionism.[5] Artist Robert Main article: Art blog
Motherwell, well-heeled, joined Greenberg in promoting
a style that t the political climate and the intellectual re- Since the early 21st century, online art critical websites
belliousness of the era.[73]
and art blogs have cropped up around the world to add
[85][86]
Many of these writClement Greenberg proclaimed Abstract Expressionism their voices to the art world.
and Jackson Pollock in particular as the epitome of aes- ers use social media resources like Facebook, Twitter,
thetic value. Greenberg supported Pollocks work on for- Tumblr and Google+ to introduce readers to their opinmalistic grounds as simply the best painting of its day and ions about art criticism.
the culmination of an art tradition going back via Cubism
and Czanne to Monet, in which painting became ever
purer and more concentrated in what was essential to 5 See also
it, the making of marks on a at surface.[74]
Jackson Pollocks work has always polarised critics.
Harold Rosenberg spoke of the transformation of painting into an existential drama in Pollocks work, in which
what was to go on the canvas was not a picture but an
event. The big moment came when it was decided
to paint 'just to paint'. The gesture on the canvas was
a gesture of liberation from valuepolitical, aesthetic,
moral.[75]
One of the most vocal critics of Abstract Expressionism
at the time was New York Times art critic John Canaday.[76] Meyer Schapiro and Leo Steinberg were also important postwar art historians who voiced support for Abstract Expressionism.[77][78] During the early to mid sixties younger art critics Michael Fried, Rosalind Krauss
and Robert Hughes added considerable insights into the
critical dialectic that continues to grow around Abstract
Expressionism.[79][80][81]

3.5

Feminist art criticism

Feminist art criticism emerged in the 1970s from the

wider feminist movement as the critical examination
of both visual representations of women in art and art
produced by women.[82] It continues to be a major eld
of art criticism.

Today

Art critics today work not only in print media and in specialist art magazines as well as newspapers. Art crit-

Art history
Art critic
Documenta 12 magazines (contemporary examples
of art criticism)

6 References
[1] Art Criticism. Comprehensive Art Education. North
Texas Institute For Educators on the Visual Arts. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
[2] Gemtou, Eleni (2010). Subjectivity in Art History and
Art Criticism (PDF). Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities. 2 (1): 213. Retrieved 12
December 2013.
[3] Elkins, James (1996). Art Criticism. In Jane Turner.
Grove Dictionary of Art. Oxford University Press.
[4] Kaplan, Marty. The curious case of criticism. Jewish
Journal. 23 January 2014.
[5] Tekiner, Deniz (2006). Formalist Art Criticism and the
Politics of Meaning. Social Justice. 33 (2 (104) Art,
Power, and Social Change): 3144. JSTOR 29768369.
[6] Rewald, John (1973). The History of Impressionism (4th,
Revised Ed.). New York: The Museum of Modern Art.
p. 323 ISBN 0-87070-360-9
[7] Ackerman, James S. (Winter 1960). Art History and the
Problems of Criticism. Daedalus. 89 (1 The Visual
Arts Today): 253263. JSTOR 20026565.

[8] Christopher Green, 2009, Cubism, MoMA, Grove Art

Online, Oxford University Press
[9] Fishman, Solomon (1963). The Interpretation of Art: Essays on the Art Criticism of John Ruskin, Walter Pater,
Clive Bell, Robert Fry, and Herbert Read. University of
California Press. p. 6.

REFERENCES

[23] Diderot, Denis (1795). Franois Buisson, ed. Essais sur

la peinture (in French). Paris: Franois Buisson. pp. 118
407. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
[24] Morley, John (1911). DIDEROT, DENIS. In Hugh
Chisholm, Franklin Henry Hooper. Encyclopdia Britannica. 8 (11th ed.). p. 205. Retrieved 10 December 2012.

[10] Seenan, Gerard (20 April 2004). Painting by ridiculed

but popular artist sells for 744,800. The Guardian. Retrieved 12 December 2013.

[25] Crow, Thomas E. (1995). Introduction. In Denis

Diderot. Diderot on Art, Volume I: The Salon of 1765 and
Notes on Painting. Yale University Press. p. x.

[11] http://humanitiesunderground.org/
all-the-shared-experiences-of-the-lived-world/

[26] Baudelaire, Charles (1868). Salon de 1845. Curiosits

esthtiques: Salon 18451859. M. Lvy. pp. 576. Retrieved 10 December 2013.

[12] Fishman, Solomon (1963). The Interpretation of Art: Essays on the Art Criticism of John Ruskin, Walter Pater,
Clive Bell, Robert Fry, and Herbert Read. University of
California Press. p. 3.
[13] Fishman, Solomon (1963). The Interpretation of Art: Essays on the Art Criticism of John Ruskin, Walter Pater,
Clive Bell, Robert Fry, and Herbert Read. University of
California Press. p. 5.
[14] Gilbert, Creighton E. (Summer 1998). What Did the
Renaissance Patron Buy?" (PDF). Renaissance Quarterly. The University of Chicago Press on behalf of
the Renaissance Society of America. 51 (2): 392450.
doi:10.2307/2901572. JSTOR 2901572. Retrieved 14
December 2013.
[15] West, Susan H. (February 2012). The Renaissance
Courts of Northern Italy: Culture and the Development
of Art Patronage in Mantua (PDF). International Journal of Humanities and Social Science. 2 (3). Retrieved 14
December 2013.
[16] Nagel, Alexander (2003). Art as Gift: Liberal Art and
Religious Reform in the Renaissance. Negotiating the
Gift: Pre-Modern Figurations of Exchange (PDF). pp.
319360. Retrieved 14 December 2013.
[17] A History of Art Criticism (PDF). Retrieved 16 December 2013.
[18] Dubos, Jean-Baptiste (1732). Rexions critiques sur la
posie et sur la peinture (in French) (3rd ed.). Utrecht: E.
Neaulme.
[19] Voltaire (1874). Charles Louandre, ed. Le Sicle de Louis
XIV (in French). Paris: Charpentier et Cie , Librairesditeurs. p. 581. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
[20] La Font de Saint-Yenne, tienne (1747). Reexions sur
quelques causes de l'tat prsent de la peinture en France :
avec un examen des principaux ouvrages exposs au Louvre le mois d'aot 1746 (in French). The Hague: Jean
Neaulme.
[21] Saisselin, Rmy G. (1992). The Enlightenment Against the
Baroque: Economics and Aesthetics in the Eighteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 4950.
Retrieved 10 December 2013.
[22] Walter, Nancy Paige Ryan (1995). From Armida to
Cornelia: Women and Representation in Prerevolutionary
France (MA). Texas Tech University. p. 11. Retrieved
10 December 2013.

[27] Hugh Chisholm, Franklin Henry Hooper, ed. (1911).

BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE. Encyclopdia
Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). p. 537. Retrieved 10 December
2012.
[28] Richardson, Joanna (1994). Baudelaire. New York: St.
Martins Press. p. 110. ISBN 0-312-11476-1. OCLC
30736784.
[29] "douard Manets Olympia by Beth Harris and Steven
Zucker. Smarthistory. Khan Academy. Retrieved 11
February 2013.
[30] Hyslop, Lois Boe (1980). Baudelaire, Man of His Time.
Yale University Press. p. 51. ISBN 0-300-02513-0.
[31] Merrill, Linda, After Whistler: The Artist and His Inuence
on American Painting. City: Publisher, 2003. p. 112
[32] Ronald Anderson and Anne Koval, James McNeill
Whistler: Beyond the Myth, Carroll & Graf, New York,
1994, p. 215
[33] Stuttaford, Genevieve. Nonction the Aesthetic Movement by Lionel Lambourne. Vol. 243. (1996).
[34] Ronald Anderson and Anne Koval, James McNeill
Whistler: Beyond the Myth, Carroll & Graf, New York,
1994, p. 216
[35] Whistler, James Abbott McNeill. WebMuseumn, Paris
[36] Prideaux, Tom. The World of Whistler. New York: TimeLife Books, 1970. p. 123
[37] Peters, Lisa N. (1998). James McNeil Whistler. New Line
Books. pp. 5152 ISBN 1-880908-70-0.
[38] IAN CHILVERS. Fry, Roger. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists. 2003. Encyclopedia.com. 9
March 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.Retrieved
9 March 2009
[39] Archive Journeys: Bloomsbury Biographies: Roger Fry,
as art critic | Tate. Archive Journeys. Tate. Retrieved 10
December 2013.
[40] Archive Journeys: Bloomsbury Group Proles | Tate.
Archive Journeys. Tate. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
[41] Archive Journeys: Bloomsbury Biographies: Roger Fry,
ideas | Tate. Archive Journeys. Tate. Retrieved 10 December 2013.

[42] Archive Journeys: Bloomsbury Biographies: Roger Fry,

modern art | Tate. Archive Journeys. Tate. Retrieved 10
December 2013.

[61] Greenberg, Clement (1955). American-Type Painting.

Partisan Review: 58.

General Books LLC. ISBN

[62] American Abstract Expressionism: Painting Action and

Colorelds. Color Vision & Art. webexhibits.org. Retrieved 12 December 2013.

[44] Overton, Tom (2009). Paul Nash (18891946)". Venice

Biennale. British Council. Retrieved 11 December 2013.

[63] Chronology. The Barnett Newman Foundation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.

[45] Overton, Tom (2009). Ben Nicholson (18941982)".

Venice Biennale. British Council. Retrieved 11 December
2013.

[64] Special Exhibitions Adolph Gottlieb. The Jewish Museum. Retrieved 12 December 2013.

[43] Clive Bell (2010).

9781770451858.

Art.

[46] Overton, Tom (2009). Henry Moore (18981986)".

Venice Biennale. British Council. Retrieved 11 December
2013.
[47] Overton, Tom (2009). Barbara Hepworth (1903
1975)". Venice Biennale. British Council. Retrieved 11
December 2013.
[48] A History of Art Criticism (PDF). Retrieved 17 December 2012.
[49] Conley, Katharine (Spring 2005). The Cubist Painters
by Guillaume Apollinaire; Peter Read. French Forum.
30 (2): 139141. doi:10.1353/frf.2005.0030. JSTOR
40552391.
[50] Mathews, Timothy (Summer 1988). Apollinaire and Cubism?" (PDF). Style. 22 (2): 275298. Retrieved 11 December 2013.

[65] Hans Hofmann: Biography. The Estate of Hans Hofmann. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
[66] Stevens, Mark; Annalyn Swan (8 November 2004).
When de Kooning Was King. New York.
[67] Wolf, Justin. Harold Rosenberg. The Art Story. The
Art Story Foundation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
[68] Wolf, Justin. Thomas B. Hess. The Art Story. The Art
Story Foundation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
[69] Thomas B. Hess, Willem de Kooning, George Braziller,
Inc. New York, 1959 p.:13
[70] http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/5750568&
referer=brief_results
[71] Barnett Newman Selected Writings and Interviews, (ed.)
by John P. O'Neill, pgs.: 240241, University of California Press, 1990

[51] Allan, Derek (2009). Art and the Human Adventure, Andr Malrauxs Theory of Art. Rodopi.

[72] Barnett Newman Selected Writings Interviews, (ed.) by

John P. O'Neill, p.: 201, University of California Press,
1990.

[52] Hudek, Antony (2012). The Vocal Turn. Journal

of Conservation and Museum Studies. 10 (1): 6465.
doi:10.5334/jcms.1011210.

[73] Glueck, Grace (18 July 1991). Robert Motherwell, Master of Abstract, Dies. The New York Times. Retrieved 12
December 2013.

[53] Levin, Gail (1998). Edward Hopper : an intimate biography. Berkeley: University of California Press.

[74] Clement Greenberg, Art and Culture Critical essays, (The

Crisis of the Easel Picture), Beacon Press, 1961 pp.:154
157

[54] Wolf, Justin. The Art Story: Gallery The Art of This
Century Gallery. The Art Story. The Art Story Foundation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
[55] Archives of American Art. Oral history interview with
Robert Motherwell, 1971 Nov. 24-1974 May 1 Oral
Histories | Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution. Aaa.si.edu. Retrieved 7 December 2011.
[56] Robert Motherwell. Tate. Retrieved 12 December
2013.

[75] Harold Rosenberg, The Tradition of the New, Chapter 2,

The American Action Painter, Da Capo Press, 1959
pp.:2339
[76] Wolf, Justin. John Canaday. The Art Story. The Art
Story Foundation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
[77] Solomon, Deborah (14 August 1994). A Critic Turns
90; Meyer Schapiro. The New York Times. Retrieved 12
December 2013.

[57] The Barnett Newman Foundation website: Chronology of

the Artists Life page

[78] McGuire, Kristi. Remembering Leo Steinberg (1920

2011)". The Chicago Blog. University of Chicago Press.
Retrieved 12 December 2013.

[58] Painters in Postwar New York City. Oxford Art Online.

Oxford University Press. Retrieved 12 December 2013.

[79] Wolf, Justin. Michael Fried. The Art Story. The Art
Story Foundation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.

[59] Wolf, Justin. Abstract Expressionism. The Art Story.

The Art Story Foundation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.

[80] Wolf, Justin. Rosalind Krauss. The Art Story. The Art
Story Foundation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.

[60] Jackson Pollock, Mural (1943) University of Iowa Museum of Art, Iowa City.

[81] Wolf, Justin. Robert Hughes. The Art Story. The Art
Story Foundation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.

[82] Deepwell, Katie (September 2012). 12 Step Guide

to Feminist Art, Art History and Criticism (PDF).
N.paradoxa. online (21): 8.
[83] Gratza, Agnieszka (17 October 2013). Frieze or faculty? One art critics move from academia to journalism.
Guardian Professional. Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
[84] International Association of Art Critics. UNESCO NGO
db. UNESCO. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
[85] Green, Tyler. Tyler Green. In Their Own Words. New
York Foundation for the Arts. Retrieved 12 December
2013.
[86] Kaiser, Michael. The Death of Criticism or Everyone Is
a Critic. The Hungton Post. Retrieved 12 December
2013.

External links
AICA International Association of Art Critics.
Our critics advice. Arts. Guardian News and Media Limited. 8 July 2008.
In this article Adrian Searle, among others,
gives advice to ambitious, young, would-be art
critics.
Judgment and Contemporary Art Criticism.
Archived from the original on 19 August 2011.
conference, reading room, and bibliography
Singerman, Howard. The Myth of Criticism in the
1980s. X-TRA : Contemporary Art Quarterly.

EXTERNAL LINKS

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1

Text

Art criticism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_criticism?oldid=728373436 Contributors: Jahsonic, Warofdreams, Raul654,

Wmahan, Bodnotbod, Icairns, Sam, Rich Farmbrough, MeltBanana, Kwamikagami, Vipul, Andrewpmk, Slaenterprises, Jsmorse47,
SteinbDJ, Gatewaycat, Firsfron, Paulkimpaul, Mandarax, Sparkit, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Dracontes, EeZbub, YurikBot, Briaboru, Bhny, Grafen,
Howcheng, Pgehr, PhilipO, GHcool, Dspradau, Tyrenius, SmackBot, Stevegallery, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Fplay, Colonies
Chris, Rrburke, Ohconfucius, Gobonobo, Dumelow, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Dl2000, J Di, Iopensa, Ewulp, Gregbard, Epbr123, Headbomb, Z10x, E. Ripley, Projectx, Emeraldcityserendipity, Modernist, WriterArtistDC, Marika Herskovic, Bus stop, Nono64, J.delanoy,
CFCF, Salmon1, Manseldatron, Balthazarduju, Ironie, STBotD, Je G., Kyle the bot, Pulsar06, Ethicoaestheticist, FinnWiki, SieBot, Mazdakabedi, Lara bran, Coldcreation, Jlpinar83, Deniz22, SchreiberBike, Addbot, CarsracBot, Otbon, OlEnglish, Taxisfolder, AnomieBOT,
Ulric1313, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Jatpennclub, Hartopp, Omnipaedista, Artblogs, Thehelpfulbot, FrescoBot, Briefcrossing, Haeinous, JJ Charlesworth, Lotje, TjBot, John of Reading, Dcirovic, Noodleki, Mlang.Finn, BioPupil, Warrenking,
OurArtCriticism, ClueBot NG, SunRiddled, BG19bot, BattyBot, GallonGalleon, NorbertMarszalek123, Quirkify, Hmainsbot1, Johnkishore, Sosthenes12, YiFeiBot, Julie Kurchinski, Midisparks, FelixRosch, Monkbot, Andrew.t.power, Louisebutler1974, Curator20024
and Anonymous: 57

8.2

Images

File:Gabriel_Cornelius_von_Max,_1840-1915,_Monkeys_as_Judges_of_Art,_1889.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Gabriel_Cornelius_von_Max%2C_1840-1915%2C_Monkeys_as_Judges_of_Art%2C_1889.jpg
License:
Public domain Contributors: First uploaded to de.wikipedia 9 May 2005 by de:Benutzer:Luestling. Original artist: Gabriel von Max
File:John_Ruskin_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13103.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/John_
Ruskin_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13103.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Jonathan_Richardson_by_Jonathan_Richardson.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Jonathan_
Richardson_by_Jonathan_Richardson.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
National Portrait Gallery: NPG 706
Original artist: Jonathan Richardson
File:Roger_Fry_self-portrait.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Roger_Fry_self-portrait.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: www.epdlp.com : Home : Info : Pic Original artist: Roger Fry
File:tienne_Carjat,_Portrait_of_Charles_Baudelaire,_circa_1862.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/
16/%C3%89tienne_Carjat%2C_Portrait_of_Charles_Baudelaire%2C_circa_1862.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: British Library: Image; Metadata Original artist: tienne Carjat

8.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0