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From top management to

entrepreneurship: womens next
move?
Helena Knorr

From top
management to
entrepreneurship
99

School of Business, Point Park University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA

Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide better understanding of womens career
advancement to top management and their future aspirations to become entrepreneurs.
Design/methodology/approach The papers approach is qualitative research hermeneutic
phenomenology.
Findings Womens career experiences predisposed them to find an alternate route,
entrepreneurship, despite having achieved top management.
Research limitations/implications Understanding factors that successfully contribute to the
development of women entrepreneurs from a career development perspective is a critical endeavor for
any type of organization. This qualitative research is limited to US for-profit organizations.
Originality/value The value of this paper is that it provides a unique way to look at the career
development for women from those who reached top management and their motivations to become
entrepreneurs.
Keywords Senior management, Women, Career development, Entrepreneurialism,
United States of America
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
A glance at the history of women at work indicates that there has been a radical shift
over the past decades. Womens role in American society has changed enormously in
terms of workforce, social acceptance and expectations (Bowler, 1999). By 1998,
approximately three out of every five women of working age were in the labor force
This figure will continue to increase reaching nearly 63 percent by the year 2015 (US
Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2006). Indeed, the workforce has
witnessed more women occupying positions of leadership, management, and
entrepreneurship as compared to the past (Clarke, 2003) even in the international
arena (Hill et al., 2004).
In the USA the number of women entrepreneurs has increased dramatically over the
past decades. Future trends predict that by the year 2025, the percentage of women
entrepreneurship will increase to over 55 percent (US Census Bureau, 2008). According
to Baron (2002), entrepreneurship involves a complex process in which specific
individuals recognize opportunities and then act to convert them into tangible
economic benefits (e.g. by creating new ventures). In addition, women entrepreneurs
and female business networks will both remain dominant, comprising of over 50
percent of all business in the USA in the next several years.
Furthermore, in the global environment, female entrepreneurship has become one of
the major driving forces of the economic development in many nations. According to
the global entrepreneurship monitor (GEM) report on women entrepreneurs (Allen

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et al., 2007), about 73 million people are active entrepreneurs in the 34 nations of those
40 percent are women. According to this source, entrepreneurship is one of the best
indicators of a countrys economic success and a good way to accelerate the pace of
entrepreneurial activity is to encourage women to participate.
Businesses owned by women are increasing in terms of quantity, diversity, and
impact on the US economy. First, women-owned businesses employ over 19 million
people in the US (Center for Womens Business Research, 2008). Second, an indicator of
their contribution to wealth is that job growth provided by women-owned businesses
has exceeded the national averages in almost every major industry. Among the
industries that have experienced the most dramatic growth in women-owned
businesses are construction, manufacturing, wholesale trade, transportation, and
communication (Lanier, 2008). Third, at a time when corporate America is downsizing
and laying off thousands of employees, women owned business are aggressively hiring
more employees (Mallory, 1996).
From a human resource management (HRM) perspective, the rise in female
entrepreneurship is vital for the economy. According to Alvarado and Lynham (2005),
as organizations become diversified, they will have to pay attention to women and
ethnic minorities to serve better their future needs and remain competitive. In addition,
research has demonstrated that economies and organizations suffer when skilled and
talented women leave their jobs (Hewlett and Luce, 2005).
This study draws upon recent scholarship on women entrepreneurs and data from a
phenomenological study on women who reached top management. This study
identifies factors that facilitated the career development of women in top management
and examines the link to entrepreneurship as their future career aspiration. Lessons
learned are used to illustrate a unique way of looking at the career development of
women entrepreneurs. Specific recommendations for human resources professionals,
government agencies, organizations, and women entrepreneurs along with future
research in this field are provided.
Theoretical framework
The theoretical construct for this study is career development for women. A review of
womens career development literature indicated that there are a number of contextual
micro-level and macro-level factors that help shape womens careers (Phillips and Imkoff,
1997). Various studies have addressed the development needs of women in
organizations, and it has been argued that the nature of womens development is
different from that of their male counterparts (Bierema, 1998; Tharenou, 1999). Womens
career paths do not follow traditional career models (Mainiero and Sullivan, 2005; Cook
et al., 2002). As Bierema (1998) suggested, womens development is different from mens
because women experience more interruptions in their careers. Interruptions are mostly
due to family responsibilities that women face being the primary child and elderly
providers (Albrecht, 2003). The nature of womens development is changing and
contextual (Bierema, 1998). This changing nature can be attributed to changes driven by
the information age, shifts in careers, demands for work-life balance, and inequalities in
the workplace (Bierema, 1998). For women, the demands of work-life balance and the
existence of gender inequalities are critical factors affecting success. Among these
inequalities remains the still controversial topic of unequal pay. The US government
enacted the Equal Pay Act in 1963, which prohibited gender-based compensation

discrimination. There is evidence that, during the 1990s, women on average have
significantly increased their wages relative to men (Waldfogel, 1998). But despite the
improvement in womens wages, some authors have argued that women in management
positions and top corporate positions still face unequal pay (Bertrand and Hallock, 2001).
Furthermore, women with children receive less pay than women without children
(Waldfogel, 1998), and women in general have fewer job promotion opportunities
(Tharenou, 1999). However, one recent study revealed that when women and men do the
same type of work, women earn more than men (Farrell, 2005). In this study Farrell
(2005) examined other aspects like marital status and children and the titles women and
men hold, but job responsibilities were not examined.
The controversy suggests that there is some complexity in examining the gender
pay gap issue. Factors such as company size, seniority, and the number of women in
top management positions have all been found to influence the compensation of women
(Bertrand and Hallock, 2001). Other factors that account for the gap in pay are related
to occupational choice and accumulated work experience (ONeill, 2003).
Career development for women in management
Women constitute nearly half of the US labor force and occupy a growing number of
entry and middle management positions (Ragins et al., 1998). The US Department of
Labor, Womens Bureau (2004), reveals that women represent 46 percent of the total
nations workforce. A survey by Catalyst (2004) revealed that, although women hold
50.3 percent of all management and professional positions, they represent only 7.9
percent of Fortune 500 top earners and 1.4 percent of Fortune 500 CEOs.
Barriers to womens career development
The literature on career development of women managers in general has referred to the
existence of a glass ceiling (Wirth, 2001, p. 4). The term, first used in 1986 by the Wall
Street Journal in an article about women in corporate America (Hymowitz and
Schellhardt, 1986), was adopted to designate barriers that restrict the advancement of
women to top executive positions (Igbaria and Wormley, 1992). Among others, major
barriers to advancement reported by women executives include stereotyping,
discrimination, the existence of male-dominant cultures in organizations, less access to
career development opportunities, and their exclusion from networking (Catalyst, 1998;
Ragins et al., 1998). In the information technology field (IT), organization cultures
represent a barrier for women advancing to upper management positions (Lemons and
Parzinger, 2001). In addition, Bae (2002), in a study on women in the US found that
women have less access to relevant training and are less likely to be trained than men.
Contributing factors to womens career development
To a lesser extent, literature has also addressed factors that have contributed to
womens development in organizations. The existence of family-friendly policies
(Rogier and Padgett, 2004), top management commitment (Catalyst, 1998),
organization support systems (Culpan and Wright, 2002; Morrison et al., 1987),
mentoring (Henning and Jardim, 1977; Kanter, 1977; Mattis, 2001; Tharenou, 1999),
networking (Edwards et al., 1996), training and development programs (Loutfi, 2001;
Wirth, 2001), and organization cultures that support women (Bajdo and Dickson, 2001)
have been found to be critical for womens advancement to management positions. In

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addition, organizational and government policies are key in ensuring the achievement
of gender equity and womens advancement in the workplace (Shapiro and Olgiati,
2002). Catalyst (1998) found that a major factor contributing to womens retention and
development within organizations is the implementation of work-family programs. In
sum, the implementation of organizational policies to enhance womens development is
an important factor in developing their careers.
Serious commitment to create programs that support these policies and to develop a
better understanding of the conditions under which these policies are successful is
needed (Schmidt and Duenas, 2002). According to Morrison et al. (1987), in a study
conducted with women executives, top management support was found to be among
the factors that contributed to womens career success. Similarly, Catalyst (1998)
suggested that organizations initiatives around equity in the workplace were more
likely to be successful if CEOs recognized the need for women-focused initiatives and
implemented strategies for advancing women. The primary responsibility for creating
a supportive environment rests on organizations (Schmidt and Duenas, 2002). The
authors described a supportive environment as one that provides workers with
friendly workplace policies. However, commitment from top management to gender
equity in the workplace is crucial in implementing such policies. Thus, it is clear that
top management has to be involved in addressing womens issues at work.
The existence of an organizational support system is another factor that facilitates
womens development (Morrison et al., 1987). This system includes an assessment
structure for tracking achievement that measures how well women are advancing.
Such a system monitors pay, promotion opportunities, inclusion in decision-making,
respect, and credibility (Morrison et al., 1987); measures performance and promotion of
women; identifies assumptions; and assesses employees needs, career goals, and
potential discrimination factors (Mattis, 1994). A study of women expatriate managers
revealed that an organizational support system also contributes to their job satisfaction
(Culpan and Wright, 2002).
Other factors that contribute to womens development include mentors and access
to networks (Morrison et al., 1987). Although most studies have concluded that
mentoring is advantageous to an individuals career, mentoring has been considered
crucial for womens development in organizations (Vertz, 1985). This is especially true
for women, who report more barriers to advancement from social processes than men
(Tharenou, 1999). Women executives in the UK and the US reported that they need the
support of mentors to advance (Ragins et al., 1998; Riley and White, 1994). Mentor
relationships help women advance by providing them with self-confidence and
reducing their levels of stress. Edwards et al. (1996) revealed that being visible through
access to experiences, such as sponsorship and networking, is also crucial to womens
development in management.
According to Tharenou (1999), women also rely on networking with other women to
advance to executive levels. Networking contributes significantly to advancement of
women at work (Burt, 1998). Womens networks provide, among other benefits, career
development resources for women. Ibarra (1997) found that women need networking
ties with other women in order to advance. Although the networks vary in terms of
origin, membership, and structure, they share a common goal. Most of the networking
activities focus on career and skills development, networking, and improving
communication among women members and management (Catalyst, 1998). In addition,

networking provides women with more information about the organization system and
options for career advancement. It also gives them the opportunity to strengthen ties
with prospective sponsors (Burt, 1998).
In general, training and development opportunities are believed to enhance
employee overall achievement and performance. A major factor contributing to
womens development and participation in managerial work is access to education and
training and development initiatives (Bae, 2002; Wirth, 2001). This is corroborated in a
study by Burke (2002), who suggested that education, training, and development are
part of the challenge to support women in advancing in organizations. Specifically,
access to formal management training programs, access to the appropriate and
relevant training, tailoring of training to the needs of women, and training in gender
equity are believed to be factors that positively influence womens advancement in
organizations (Loutfi, 2001). Training and development initiatives are crucial to
womens development in organizations because they provide women with the skills,
credentials, and knowledge they need to succeed in their jobs. Tharenou (2001) found
that only training and development, along with education and challenging
assignments, predict advancement into middle management. However, as stated
earlier, a study conducted by Bae (2002) found that women in the US are less likely to
be trained than men.
Finally, a study conducted by Bajdo and Dickson (2001) on organizational culture
and womens advancement in organizations revealed that organizations that maintain
cultures that promote gender equity are important predictors of the increasing
numbers of women in management positions. Therefore, successful career
development of women depends highly on the context in which it takes place.
Research on women entrepreneurs
Several gaps still exist in the research of women entrepreneurs. A number of
deficiencies exist, which include an often one-sided empirical focus (Carter et al., 2003),
lack of theoretical ground, neglect of structural, historical, and cultural factors (Chell
and Baines, 1998; Nutek, 1996), the use of male-gendered measuring instruments
(Moore, 1990), the absence of a power perspective, the lack of explicit feminist analysis
(Mirchandani, 1999), and the lack of understanding on models or theories for female
career entrepreneurship (Winn, 2004).
For instance, scarce research exists about women and equity capital, even though
women business owners make a significant contribution to the US economy (Brush
et al., 2002). Few attempts to address this existing gap have been made. Brush et al.
(2002) found that women were being left out of the wealth creation process from the
perspective of both equity suppliers and seekers. The limited participation influenced
their ability to build personal and family assets and had other social and economic
ramifications. Female entrepreneurs generally have lower levels of credit available to
them than businesses owned by men (Brush et al., 2002).
Other studies on women entrepreneurs have focused on demographic data and the
reasons for becoming entrepreneurs. Women seek entrepreneurship various reasons
that include flexibility, independence, satisfaction, personal growth, income and
prestige (Goffee and Scase, 1985; Scott, 1986; Winn, 2004). Many women report
frustration with demanding and inflexible work environments (Hewlett, 2002), failure
to break through the glass ceiling to higher-paid managerial positions (Weiler and

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Bernasek, 2001), or the belief that working for a large corporation will not
accommodate their personal situations or satisfy their professional goals (Moore and
Buttner, 1997).
Entrepreneurship is believed to enable women to balance work and family
commitments at home while fulfilling their business objectives. According to
Wellington (2006) findings from a study conducted on self-employment and balancing
family and career for women, suggest that married women with greater family
responsibilities are more likely to be self-employed, and that in turn the impact is
stronger for more educated women. According to GiSeung (2007), self-employment
increases with age and education and is higher for men, whites, and married women
when compared to other groups. Among the variables that positively affect the
entrepreneurship activity is human and social capital venture (Eisenhardt and
Schoonhoven, 1990).
Finally, Terjesen (2005) suggested that human capital and social capital as critically
relevant to women managers career advancement and their transition to
entrepreneurship. Dobrev and Barnett (2005) noted that entrepreneurship is an act
of an individual whose actions are influenced by the socio-demographic context as well
as social capital, organizational roles, job and labor market experiences. There is also a
need to come to a deeper understanding of how entrepreneurs develop their careers
identities, and how they cope with the complex personal, family, and business
dilemmas that they encounter (Dyer, 1994). In this context, research that addresses the
perspective of entrepreneurship as part of the career dynamics is scarce (Carroll and
Mosakowski, 1987). Past studies on what motivates women to become entrepreneurs
have often ignored more subtle factors such as womens previous conditioning
experiences (Birley, 1989).
Significant changes in the nature of careers have occurred over the past decade.
However, a clear limitation of most entrepreneurship career models is the fact that they
rely on male subjects, therefore weakening their applicability to women (Winn, 2004).
The area of female career entrepreneurship remains under-developed in that there is
lack of cumulative knowledge and a failure to adequately conceptualize and develop
explanatory theories (Carter et al., 2003). An existing gap in the literature of women
entrepreneurs is the link between and individuals prior career work experiences and
their entrepreneurial career motivations (Carter et al., 2003). The purpose of this paper
is to provide a better understanding of womens careers through the experiences of
those who reached top management and their motivation to transition to
entrepreneurship.
A major challenge to career scholarship in general includes new thinking.
According to Walsh and Osipow (1994), career theory and research tend to investigate
the person and the environment as independent, failing to recognize that environment
influences careers and vice versa. Collin and Young (1992), have argued that there is
another side of careers that is linked to internal matters related to individuals which
shows individuals perspectives on their lives and its meaning. An opportunity exists
to demonstrate the multidimensional quality of careers and to fill the gap that captures
the richness and complexity of individuals lives (Leong, 1991).
Career development studies have addressed the need for phenomenological
approaches (Young and Valach, 1996), narratives and hermeneutics (Savickas, 1995).
These approaches are concerned with the development of meaning in social

interaction, the involvement of inter-subjectivity, the place of context, and the

construction of career (Young and Valach, 1996, p. 364). Hence, it is now argued that
career is an overarching construct that serves to frame and organize the complex
pattern of intentional actions over longer segments of life (Young and Valach, 1996,
p. 364).
Phenomenology offers the possibility to look at career development from a different
perspective. The individual is seen as an active and reflexive person who is able to
discuss development from the past to the anticipated future (Giddens, 1991). This
approach can provide new understandings of the context of careers as the pool of social
meanings on which individuals draw to construct their careers. Some studies have
effectively used phenomenology as a research approach to explore career development.
Brooks and Daniluk (1998) explored the lives and careers of women artists, Teixeira
and Gomes (2002) studied career changes and paths among a group of women and men
who had changed their professions at a certain point in their lives, and Sullivan (2002)
explored career choices of women who opted for nontraditional careers.
From top management to entrepreneurship
A positive and significant relationship exists between holding a top management
position and transitioning to entrepreneurship (Dobrev and Barnett, 2005). Indeed, a
growing body of literature addresses the massive exodus of women out of Corporate
America into the realm of entrepreneurship (Delaney, 2003). Progressively, women
from top management are breaking away from the constraints of corporate life in
record numbers to seek professional fulfillment in their own ways (Moore, 2000).
Kephart and Schumacher (2005) reported that at least 44 percent of high growth firms
have CEOs less than 45 years of age. Fisher (2004) suggested that a new generation of
highly educated women with top managerial experience is breaking through the
entrepreneurship line.
Several reasons for this exodus are explored next. According to Moore and Buttner
(1997), womens exodus from organizations to entrepreneurship is motivated by their
desire for challenge, self-determination, the need to balance work and family
responsibilities, and the encounter of blocks to their career advancement.
Entrepreneurship seems to be an alternative to confronting the glass ceiling,
creating new opportunities for success and career development (Lanier, 2008). It has
been argued that organizational contexts either retard or stimulate entrepreneurship
activity and hinge on the roles of individuals (Dobrev and Barnett, 2005). For example,
a study by Catalyst (1998) reported that 29 percent of women business owners with
prior private-sector experience cited glass-ceiling issues as the major reason for leaving
corporate positions.
Several studies have indicated that the desire of attaining a better balance between
family and work motivates many individuals to start their own business (Caputo and
Dolinsky, 1998; DeMartino and Barbato, 2003; Jennings and McDougald, 2007).
Although some studies revealed that the achievement of work-family balance is an
important goal for both male and female entrepreneurs (Fisher et al., 1993) the
consequences of the family domain over the work domain have a greater effect on
women (Edwards and Rothbard, 2000). For instance, Marlow (2006), considered
entrepreneurship as potential career opportunity for dependent mothers but found that
self employment was limited in terms of meeting their economic needs.

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Understanding factors that successfully contribute to the development of women

entrepreneurs from a career development perspective is a critical endeavor. The value
of this paper is that it provides insight and a unique way to look at career development
from the experiences of women who reached top management and their motivations to
become entrepreneurs.
This study addressed the following research questions:
.
What was the career development experience like of women who reached top
management?
.
What influenced these women to explore the entrepreneur route?
.
What lessons can be learned?
Method
Research methods
Two approaches were followed. First, a literature review was conducted in two steps
following a phenomenological perspective by van Manen (2001), in which the
researcher conducted an exploratory review to provide background to the study and
then, as data were analyzed and themes emerged, a more comprehensive literature
review was conducted to gain deeper understanding. The literature review was
conducted using the descriptors women entrepreneurs, women in management and
women career development. With the exception of seminal works, most of the
sources cited were less than five years old. The databases used were Academic Search
Complete, PsycArticles, Business Source Premiere, ERIC, government documents, and
key journals related to human resource management, entrepreneurship, career
development, and organization development. The literature search yielded books,
conference papers, refereed and non-refereed articles, and online sources. Sources were
chosen based on scholarly relevance from peer reviewed journals and an equally
balanced use of theoretical and empirical studies. Additionally, manuscripts
themselves often revealed additional sources for research, which were pursued using
the method noted above. The emergence of patterns and themes resulted from an
inductive analysis of the literature, and the initial research questions went through
iterations of refinement as part of this process. The first literature review confirmed the
need for more research into the nature of womens career development and found that
traditional models of career development do not explain womens careers. The
literature also identified barriers that women face in advancement and factors that
contributed to their career success, and the need to utilize research methodologies that
address the experiences of womens career advancement.
Second, data driven from a qualitative phenomenological study on women who had
reached top management positions and their career development experiences was
used. A summary of the study is presented next with a post analysis literature review.
Study on women who reached top management
The purpose of this qualitative study was to gain a deeper understanding of the lived
experiences of women in top management positions towards their career advancement,
the focus being on the meaning of the phenomenon of career advancement. Qualitative
research allows the researcher to go deeper into an understanding of complex
phenomena within an organizational context. It provides insights into what

individuals experiences are, why they do what they do, and what they need in order to
change (Rowan and Huston, 1997). Qualitative research is concerned with explaining
the meaning of human interactions and with exploring individuals interpretations and
beliefs, and when meaning is involved phenomenology is the method that best answers
the research question (Denzin and Lincoln, 1998). Therefore, phenomenology was used
as the research methodology for this study. Phenomenology seemed to be the most
appropriate type of inquiry for this study because it aims at understanding lived
experiences and will help the researcher understand the ways women in top
management experience the world of top management as women. As van Manen (2001,
p. 12) suggested:
In order to understand what it means to be a woman in our present age is also to understand
the pressures of the meaning structures that have come to restrict, widen, or question the
nature and ground of womanhood.

Participant selection. In pursuing the understanding of women in top management,

nine women who were regarded as successful in their top management professional
practice were selected. The process of selecting participants in top management was
complex. In order to maximize participation, two techniques suggested by the
literature were used in this study. The first technique to attract participants was topic
salience, in which individuals are more likely to answer questions if the topic is
personally or professionally appealing to them (Cycyota and Harrison, 2002). The
approach consisted of selecting a professional organization with women in top
management positions who, as members, had common goals and aspirations and
would be interested in the research topic. The types of organizations chosen were
for-profit organizations because historically women in this organizational type have
not been represented in top management. A process of selecting professional
organizations located in Minnesota was initiated, such as women executive network,
women venture, and others. Women venture was chosen because it had women in top
management as members and was a large organization.
The second technique was the use of social networks to gain access to a professional
organization, an approach that has been found to provide access to top management in
a context in which they feel more inclined to participate (Cycyota and Harrison, 2002).
Professional peers and colleagues provided access to a woman member of the selected
organization, women venture, and she served as a key informant. Initial conversations
with the key informant led to a discussion of the criteria for prospective participants.
Then criteria for selection based on the purpose of this study was developed.
Therefore, and because the focus of this study was on the experience of advancing
through their careers, the criteria established were women who identified themselves
as currently or formerly active in a top management position in large for-profit
organizations and who were willing to share their stories. After obtaining IRB
approval contact was initiated with the participants.
The population included working mothers and women from diverse ethnic
backgrounds, ages, and marital status because these factors have been regarded as
having an impact on womens careers (Tharenou, 1999; Wirth, 2001). Three
participants were African American, one Asian, and the other five Caucasian. Ages
ranged from the mid-30s to the mid-60s. Among these nine women there was a range of
marital status with divorced and/or remarried, others were single; some had children or

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stepchildren and some did not. There were at least two who were grandmothers. Seven
participants were in active top management positions that ranged from senior
managers and directors to vice-president (VP) or senior vice-president positions. One
had retired from a VP position and the other was a president who had quit her job to
become an independent entrepreneur. All were or had been in for-profit organizations.
Analysis. Interviews were conducted, then transcribed and analyzed using
hermeneutic phenomenology. Triangulation was used to assure rigor, reliability and
validity. Themes and sub-themes emerged as part of the process that dealt with the
nature of the career advancement, values, energizing and de-energizing aspects. For the
purpose of this paper specific data that discusses factors that facilitated the career
development and future career aspirations of these women will be discussed. In
addition, lessons learned from the experiences of these women will be discussed in
relation to women entrepreneurs.
Summary of findings. The career advancement of women who reached top
management was characterized by a fast-paced progression and a somewhat
unplanned nature. Participants values around work, family, and leadership were
present throughout their careers. Often work and family values could not be separated
and transcended situations. Womens values around leadership in this study tended to
focus on a humanistic perspective dominated by the view that there is a need to
develop the whole individual and utilize a more collaborative approach to leadership
than that usually used by men. Womens values in this study were in conflict with the
values of corporate America that, as some participants suggested, focus on more
authoritarian leadership styles and individualistic goals.
Several themes that emerged as contributing factors for the career advancement of
these women are presented next: inner strength, learning, looking into the future,
nature of work, personal growth, personality, support systems.
Inner strength. Women in this study relied on their inner strength, defined by
self-confidence, passion, emotional intelligence, and resilience, to help them cope with
daily challenges, deal with change, adapt, be flexible, and make their way to top
management.
Learning. Learning was a critical component in their career advancement.
Education helped the women in this study prepare for their future careers because it
provided them with the credentials needed and gave them a sense of achievement.
Women considered themselves lifelong learners, and this helped them use every
opportunity to learn new things that they could incorporate into their professions.
Although explicit connections with continuing education were not made, participants
suggested that learning was an integrative part of their careers.
Looking into the future. Women talked about their professional future that was
motivated by a change in priorities or needs. Discussing their future provided them
with the hope of finding meaning, fulfillment, and more balance in their lives.
Surprisingly, although these women held top management positions, they suggested
that the titles and financial reward did not define who they were. These women aspired
to become involved in a much more fulfilling job that provided them with meaning and
a sense of contributing to something bigger than themselves. Indeed, in their minds
they had not reached the top. Entrepreneurship was discussed as part of their future
career choices as well as part of their past career experiences.

Nature of work. Participants often sounded positive and enthusiastic about the
nature of their jobs. Specifically, participants felt excitement about being involved in
new projects, getting things accomplished or making things happen, being recognized,
or achieving something they had pursued.
Personal growth. Education was also identified by participants as part of their
personal growth; this gave them a sense of achievement or accomplishment. When
training and development programs were mentioned by participants, these programs
seemed to have a positive impact on their career development.
Personality. Women in this study portrayed themselves as being extremely positive,
high achievers, hard workers, flexible, and risk takers. Others used the word
workaholic to describe themselves and stated that they had a tendency to be
controllers. In this study, it was obvious that hard work, flexibility, the ability to take
risks, and an overall sense of positiveness helped women advance.
Support systems. Insights into the support systems that help women advance were
gained. Informal mentoring was a relevant component of their advancement but other
developmental relationships were mentioned by participants as being very relevant in
their career advancement experience. These included the role of family, friends, and the
use of books as mentors.
The post analysis literature revealed that the following themes were supported by
the literature: inner strength, learning, and support systems. However, themes that
were not addressed in depth by the literature include personal growth, looking into the
future, nature of work, and personality.
Discussion and limitations
This article proposes that a relationship exists between the career experiences of
women who reached top management and their motives to move to entrepreneurship.
Women in executive and top management positions are choosing other options as their
future careers (Collins and Walton, 2006). The literature shows that entrepreneurship is
among the alternatives for women leaving the corporate world (Catalyst, 2003). In
addition, the number of women executives resigning from their positions is
significantly higher compared to their male counterparts (Institute of Management,
1994).
In this study women who reached top management suggested that
entrepreneurship was an alternative for their future careers, or that
entrepreneurship had been part of their career experiences in the past. In discussing
their future career aspirations, women who reached top management talked about the
underlying motivations which included the encounter of road blocks through their
corporate careers, a profound change in their priorities and needs and the hope of
finding meaning, fulfillment, and more balance in their lives. These results address an
important area in the study of women entrepreneurship which has been neglected in
the literature. Most performance studies only consider the economic elements (tangible)
and not deal for instance, with levels of satisfaction (intangible); which should be
specially taking into account in women-owned businesses, since women consider them
as very important factors, even more than economics factors (Valencia, 2005).
Critical factors that facilitated the career advancement of women in top
management include the following: looking into the future, inner strength, learning,
nature of work, personal growth, personality, and the role of support systems. Singh

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and Vinnicombe (2003) in their research on executive women proposed that the factors
that make women successful in the corporate world are no different than the ones
needed to become a successful entrepreneur. These include: self-confidence, ability to
take risks, having visibility through work assignments and responsibility, the ability
seek career opportunities, mentoring and being mentored, having relevant work
assignments, using their career experiences as building blocks and developing their
own leadership style.
While women in this study did not plan their career paths, the critical factors that
facilitated their progression to top management as well as their work experiences
prepared and motivated them for future career endeavors such as entrepreneurship.
Limitations of this study must be acknowledged. First, the study was conducted in
the US, therefore geographic location may influence results should the study be done in
another country. Second, the type of organizations selected was for profit, if the study
was to be conducted in non-profit organizations results may have varied.
Conclusions and implications for future research
This study shed light on understanding womens career development and their
transition from top management into exploring the entrepreneurship route. The
underlying motives and experiences of women who attained top management
positions prepared them to seek such alternative. However, moving from top
management to entrepreneurship will not avoid the challenges women will continue to
face (Winn, 2004). Specific recommendations for human resource professionals,
government agencies, organizations, and women entrepreneurs are outlined next. First,
regardless of womens future career choices, organizations who wish to be successful
should attract and retain women, be proactive and devise strategies to enhance their
career advancement experiences (Heilman and Chen, 2003). Second, career exploration
opportunities should be provided within organizations. Fostering the corporate
entrepreneurial mindset can attract, retain and give alternatives for women who wish
to move on (Thornberry, 2006). Third, assessments are of vital importance to evaluate
the individuals potential, motivation and power within. Assessments would help
identify women professionals and managers with entrepreneurial abilities and
interests early in their careers (Catalyst, 1998). Fourth, lifelong learning should be
incorporated as a philosophy and as part of womens career goals. Education and
training are key success factors for women entrepreneurs (Center for Women Business
Research, 2008); graduate education along with training (Pardo del Val and
Ribeiro-Soriano, 2007), and work experience gives confidence to investors (Carter et al.,
2003). Next, meaningful and challenging work assignments should be encouraged. The
participation of women in international assignments is an area of significant potential
not fully utilized (Scullion et al., 2007). Catalyst (1998), recommended that organizations
recruit female entrepreneurs to corporate boards and senior line positions, because
women business owners can offer their entrepreneurial firsthand knowledge and
insight (Catalyst, 1998). Elements such as risk taking should be promoted because it is
linked to innovation (Knight et al., 2001).
Finally, a future challenge of HRM includes the utilization of social capital between
employees (Dyer and Nobeoka, 2000). Social capital plays a fundamental role in the
facilitation of knowledge flow that in turn affects the development of entrepreneurial
activity (Burke and Cooper, 2004). HR practices such as networking that aim at

promoting knowledge are useful in developing or redirecting existing talent (Burke and
Cooper, 2004). HR practices should focus on the entrepreneurial exchange using
support systems that are either formal or informal. Finally, because womens careers
and motivations are affected by contextual factors, future research can address culture,
history, legislation, industrial, financial and educational structures, work-life issues,
and family policy (Ahl, 2004).

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About the author
Helena Knorr is an Assistant Professor in the School of Business at Point Park University,
Pittsburgh, PA (USA). Her research focuses on women career development, leadership, ethics,
organization culture, organization development, and work-family balance. Helena Knorr can be
contacted at: hknorr@pointpark.edu

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