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SCIENCE
Vol.
January
Jaur13,
3 1950,
90
o.11SINE2
23
von
Bertalanffy
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24
January
24SCIENCE
x=
K+ k.
Let
outflow
dx=
K(X- xl) klxl + k -k3Xl = X,
dt
(-K-ki -k3 ) +k2X2+ KX
-
k2X2
111
111
us assume
that
disturbance from
k,
and equations:
kelx
VoL
dt
_=
1950,
versible reaction a b:
k2
K
dA
a,
dx2
13,
(4)
dt
_= k3Xl - X3'
K(5)
]
=F-] KiXa*RTlf
KFR~K,
(6)
where xa* is the concentration in the steady state,
K, the reaction velocity in the steady state, K = kl/k2
the equilibrium constant, I' = K1/1K2 the steady state
constant. A similar expression applies to systems of
n reaction partners (6).
Though at present this expression can hardly be
used quantitatively in respect to cell problems, some
general considerations are not without interest. Even
the resting cell, performing no perceptible work, needs
a continuous energy supply, as demonstrated by the
fact that a deprivation of oxygen stops life in the
(aerobic) cell. This maintenance work of the living
cell is, of course, partly physicochemical, as in maintenance of osmotic pressure, and of ion concentrations
different from those in the environment (17). But
the chemical side must also be taken into account.
Apart from photosynthesis, which needs considerable
energy that is yielded by sun radiation, the anabolism
of cell materials consists mainly of processes of dehydrosynthesis, such as the building up of proteins from
amino acids and of polysaccharides from monosaccha-
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25~~~~~~~~~~
26
SCIENCE
January
13,
1950,
Vol.
111
111
111
SCIENCE
BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS
Generally speaking, the basic fundamental physiological phenomena can be considered to be consequences of the fact that organisms are quasi-stationMetabolism is maintenance in a
ary open systems.
steady state. Irritability and autonomous activities
are smaller waves of processes superimposed on the
continuous flux of the system, irritability consisting
in reversible disturbances, after which the system
comes back to its steady state, and autonomous activities in periodic fluctuations. Finally, growth, development, senescence, and death represent the approach
to, and slow changes of, the steady state. The theories of many physiological phenomena are, therefore,
special -cases of the general theory of open systems,
and, conversely, this conception is an important step
in the development of biology as an exact science.
Only a few examples can be briefly mentioned.
Rashevsky's theoretical cell model (27), representing a metabolizing drop into which substances flow
from outside and undergo chemical reactions, from
which the reaction products flow out, is a simple case
of an open system. From this highly simplified abstract model, consequences can be derived which correspond to essential characteristics of the living cell,
such as growth and periodic division, the impossibility of a "spontaneous generation," an order of ntagnitude similar to average cell size, and the possibility
of nonspherical shapes.
Permeation of substances into the cell, leading to
a composition of the cell sap different from that of the
surrounding medium, to the selective accumulation of
salts, and to volume increase, was studied by Osterhout and his co-workers (23, 24) in large plant cells
and physical models. The conditions are again those
of open systems, attaining a steady state. The mathematical treatment of this system, as given by Longworth (22), is interesting because it agrees with and
confirms the inferences, drawn from quite different
physiological considerations, in von Bertalanffy's
theory of growth (6).
27
28
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CIECEJanar
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190,VoL11
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References
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W
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Technical Papers
Structure of the Earth's Crust
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B. Gutenberg
Seismological Laboratory,
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