Final - Thesis April 2016 - Sexual Violence and Technology

Final Thesis: Applying digital affordances as a new lens to explore sexual violence on college
and university campuses in Ontario.
Applying digital affordances as a new lens to explore

Sexual Violence on college and university campuses in
Ontario.
Allison Hector-Alexander
University of Ontario Institute of Technology
Thesis 2 AEDT4200U
April 10, 2016
Table of Contents
Thesis Proposal........3
Abstract............3
Introduction......4
Theoretical Framework........8
Research Questions................11
Literature Review...12
Research
Methodology.
..20
Data
Collection...
....22
Data Analysis.....23
Findings.25
Discussion..35
Conclusion.43
References......47
Abstract
This study explored the impact that digital technology plays in formulating
perceptions of sexual violence on campuses. The goal is to provide the perspective that
technology whether it be the use of social media or mobile devices can be a contributing factor to
incidents of sexual violence while simultaneously providing tools for resource information for
survivors. Research on dating violence and the use of dating apps were utilized to argue that
technology has changed the way that people relate to each other socially with tools that make it
easier to harass and perpetrate sexual violence. The term sexual violence was used in the broad
sense to cover incidents of coercion, harassment, touching, assault as well as the nonconsensual
distribution of unauthorized images online. The implications of the absence of a standard
definition in relation to the demographics of the student population and the correlation to
reporting was also introduced in this study. Survivors of sexual violence do not always report
their assault and so this study also explored how non-disclosure can have an impact on how
healing happens. Finally, the study explores how the use of digital technologies can be viewed as
a viable lens with which to increase awareness, education, and create tailored resources and safer
spaces for students.
Keywords:
Sexual violence, digital technologies, rape culture, disclosures
Introduction
In its February 2015 article, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) noted that
there were over 700 reports of sexual assault documented by Canadian colleges and universities
over a five year period. This number varied from institution to institution without much
consistency between them in how these numbers were collected and reported. The CBC reported
that these numbers were worryingly low given the demographics of the student population and
the dynamics on campus.
The Government of Ontario, through its Sexual Violence Task Force, reported that there
are 460,000 sexual assaults reported in Canada each year and it is estimated that between 20% to
25% of North American college and university-aged women will experience some form of sexual
assault during their academic career (Lichty, Campbell, & Schuiteman, 2008). Ninety percent or
more of victims of sexual violence on college campuses do no report the assault for fear of
embarrassment from publicity, not wanting family and friends to know, fear of nothing being
believed, etc. (Fisher et al., 2000). Cantalupo (2010) recognized that the consequences of this
overwhelming unreported violence are massive, for surviving students, the campus community
as a whole and even perpetrating students. For the purpose of this research, the World Health
Organization (2014) definition of sexual violence will be used which refers to any sexual act,
attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic, or
otherwise directed; against a person sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their
relationship to the victim, in any setting, including but not limited to home and work.
Following the production of the CBC article, the provincial government under the
leadership of Premier Kathleen Wynne unveiled their Its Never Okay plan in March 2015 with
a roadmap to reduce sexual violence and harassment with a focus on colleges and universities.
Colleges and universities were tasked with personalizing policies and protocols that were
provided by the government with a directive to educate their members and develop resource
information utilizing the most effective mediums to communicate this to their communities.
Given the demographics of the student populations, it makes sense that most colleges and
universities employ a variety of technological affordances to share information and procedures
with their students.
Recent advancements in the use of technology and the affordances it allows have created
new ways for people to relate to one another socially, and new tools for those involved in dating
violence to harass, control and abuse their partners (Zweig et al, 2013). Given the high frequency
at which youth use technology, it is not surprising that technology use plays an important role in
how youth interact with dating partners, and that these interactions may not always be positive
(Picard 2007). Internet daters reported being able to reach a larger pool of potential partners and
experiencing increased freedom of choice among partners which raises new issues of negotiating
risk and establishing trust (Lawson & Leck, 2006).
Powell (2010) explores sexual violence within the context of the increasingly concerning
distribution of unauthorized sexual images which may be still or moving using a variety of
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digital devices. Oksman & Turtianinen (2004) stated that the escalating trend of user-generated
content, particularly among young adults, is demonstrative of young people as the leaders of new
forms of social interaction and new media cultures. It is these cultures that are facilitating the
reproduction and representation of young individuals selves and identities including sexual
identities.
The goal of this study is to explore the relationship between technology and sexual
violence in the campus setting. This will be looked at within the context of the role technology
plays, specifically the use of smartphones, as a contributor to sexual violence while
simultaneously used as a resource tool. This study will also focus on how technology is being
used as an education tool to debunk rape culture myths and encourage survivors to report
experiences of sexual violence.
This study is relevant at this time given that key stakeholders are focused on campus
safety and gaining a better understanding as to why survivors of sexual violence do not disclose
their assault. Wente (2013) defined rape culture as the systemic attitudes that diminishes,
dismisses, deflects and normalizes sexual violence. Recently, there have been displays of rape
culture on Canadian campuses. At Saint Marys University in Halifax in 2013, student leaders led
several hundred first-year students in a chant that applauded unwanted touching and days later
came reports of a similar cheer, this time at the University of British Columbia, a school that was
in the midst of coping with a series of frightening sexual assaults (Tamburri & Sampson, 2014).
In 2014, McMaster University suspended an engineering student group over a songbook
containing what the university calls sexist, violent and degrading material rife with
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misogynistic and homophobic slurs (Chapman & Ruf, 2014). Rape culture isnt only visible on
campuses. In October 2015, a group of faculty members at the University of Calgary brought
forth a complaint against Justice Robin Camp for comments he made during a sexual violence
trial that could be considered victim-blaming when he directed the survivor on how she should
have positioned her body to prevent her assault and informing his courtroom that sex and pain
sometimes went together (Hoper, 2015).
Ullman (2010) expounds on this culture of normalizing sexual violence and victimblaming where women are held responsible for their experiences of sexual violence with no
supports while the perpetrator is excused or ignored throughout this process. This perspective is
further supported by Fisher et al. (2010) who cites not wanting family and friends to know, not
thinking that what happened was serious enough to disclose, fear of embarrassment from
publicity, fear of retribution from the perpetrator, and a belief that no one will believe them are
other reasons for not reporting. Ullman (2010) points out the fact that we still live in what has
been termed a rape culture which refers to the fact that North American society often holds
women responsible for being rapes, frequently ignores or excuses rapists, and fails to support
victims afterward.
There is an expectation that every college and university in Ontario will have different
and unique needs. In this light, the intention of this study is to provide broad recommendations
since its plausible that not all concepts will work for all student groups and institutions. This led
to the research of smartphone applications, educational tools, and other digital resources that are
intended to support survivors at the various colleges and universities. The institutions were also
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studied to understand how they have engaged with technology to make these resources available
and relevant to their communities. Although other parties have been mentioned throughout this
research, this study will not explore their specific protocols and processes.
Theoretical Framework
For the purpose of this study, I have explored the theories of social constructivism,
connectivism and self-care management. According to the 2007 APA Dictionary of Psychology,
constructivism is the theoretical perspective that people actively build their perception of the
world and interpret events that surround them in terms of what they already know. Their current
state of knowledge guides processing, substantially influencing how and what new information is
acquired. This state of knowledge will play a key role in how survivors qualify and understand
the assault that has been perpetrated against them, the implications of reporting the assault, and
whether they access support for healing.
Social constructivists claim that each one of us is shaped by our experiences and
interactions. These experiences can also shape our perspective and behaviour. Survivors who
connect with other survivors are able to build and participate in groups wherein members
construct knowledge for one another, collaboratively creating a small culture of shared learning
items with shared meanings (Bobelle, 2008). When one is immersed within a culture like this,
one is learning all the time about how to be a part of that culture, on many levels. Within this
framework, survivors can be considered active agents in finding, sharing, and processing
information and building on their knowledge rather than wait for supports to reach out to them.
The survivor who is aware that they have been harmed and understands the impact that this harm
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poses on their health and wellbeing, is able to tap into networks of technology, information, and
other humans to reduce that harm.
Connectivism is based on the principle that all learning starts with a connection (Siemens,
2004). Tschofen and Mackness (2012) recognized that learning in connectivism terms is a
network phenomenon; influenced, aided and enhanced by socialization, technology, diversity,
strength of ties, and context of occurrence and usually in response to a perceived increasing need
to derive and express meaning, and gain share knowledge.
This study will put forth the notion that technology has a role to play in supporting
survivors of sexual violence. Within the theory of connectivism, the survivor has personal
agency to make decisions about their well-being and how they negotiate healing through
networks. They can do so by connecting with or accessing information through technological
networks of their choice that speaks to their individual situation and needs. Learning can be
created by engaging in personal learning environments and the activities of aggregating,
remixing, repurposing, and sharing information (Kop & Fournier, 2010). At their disposal are
social networking sites, discussion boards, smart phone applications, institution specific groups,
etc. By including a social element in learning, active learning is encouraged, in effect supporting
participation, dialogue and engagement with one another and digital resources (Conradie, 2014).
Dorsey and Murdaugh (1999) defined self-care management as engaging in specific
therapeutic behaviours and implementing social actions to access resources to improve health
status and quality of life in chronic illness. Orem (1991) defines self-care as the practice of
activities that individuals initiate on their own behalf in maintaining life, health, and wellbeing.
Survivors of sexual violence are all unique and come from different social locations.
Experiences of trauma and healing will be unique to each survivor. Within this theory, survivors
are able to take personal agency to construct a plan of care for healing which will be shaped by
the willingness to create a plan, resourcefulness to connect to the digital resources and coping to
manage this process.
Dorsey and Murdaugh (1999) identify intra-personal factors of assertiveness, coping
behaviour, and knowledge as key contributors to health. They classify knowledge as information
that an individual has available to influence self-care decisions while recognizing the
implications of illness as an important ingredient to assume responsibility for the day-to-day
management of their conditions. Lazarus (1966) defines coping behaviours as cognitive and
behavioural strategies used to master conditions of harm, threat, or challenge when a normal
response is not available. Assertiveness is defined as a set of behavioural techniques that allowed
individuals to stand up for their rights without infringing on the rights of others (Gorman,
Raines & Sultan, 2002).
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Research Questions
The goal of this study is to explore the relationship between digital technology use and sexual
violence in the campus setting.
Is there a relationship between digital technology use and sexual violence in the campus
setting?
How can digital technology be used to encourage reporting and disclosures of
sexual violence?
How can digital technology be used to support survivors of sexual violence?
How can a standard definition of sexual violence be used to encourage disclosures
of sexual violence?
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Literature Review
This literature review explored the following themes: (i) how sexual violence is defined,
(ii) how Web 3.0 digital affordances have transformed how we will socialize and access
assistance, (iii) how technology has created environments where sexual violence can occur, (iv)
how institutions have made education tools and resources on sexual violence available to
students, and (v) the theories that inform how the use of Web 3.0 digital affordances to promote
wellbeing for survivors of sexual violence.
Definition of Sexual Violence

In order to create some context of how Web 3.0 can be applied to awareness and
prevention initiatives and resources for survivors of sexual violence, it is important to understand
what constitutes sexual violence. Basile et al. (2014) provided an overall definition of sexual
violence as a sexual act that is committed or attempted by another person without freely given
consent by the victim or against someone who is unable to consent or refuse. Included in this
definition is forced or substance facilitated penetration, intentional sexual touching, non-contact
acts of a sexual nature or coercion where someone is pressured verbally or through intimidation.
The World Health Organization Report on Violence and Health (2014) also referred to sexual
violence as a sexual act or attempt to obtain a sexual act using coercion by any person regardless
of their relationship to the victim. Incidents of sexual violence that usually make the news are
those ones that are seemingly most brutal in nature. Like with most of the literature on the
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definition of sexual violence; rape, physical force, confinement, and penetration seem to be at the
forefront of this research with very little to no mention of how sexual violence can be perpetrated
using technology. This could encompass online threats about sexual violence, harassment, or
rape jokes through social media.
Powell (2010) takes the definition a bit further and asks that we consider video voyeurism
and the distribution of unauthorized sexual images on the continuum of sexual violence. Barak
(2005) describes a variety of acts that range from humiliating sexual comments made on social
media, page-hacking that leads the user to sexually explicit pages and intentionally emailing or
posting erotic or pornographic images and video. To limit the definition of sexual violence to
penetration and physical assault would be to overlook a significant narrative of survivors
experiences with technology.
Digital Affordances
Miranda, Isaias & Costa (2014) defines Web 3.0 as the intelligent web, where users can
effectively and quickly be directed to the information that they require, when they require it. This
will transform the internet from a platform of global interactivity and information sharing, to an
intelligent and efficient tool for information management. Although the connection is not directly
made within the article, these information management system can also be applied to our
intimate relationships. Jiang (2014) acknowledges that with technology development, many
digital devices will be connected to the internet directly, which means that students will get more
intimate with the network and will increase the reliance on the network whether in socializing,
playing or learning. The focus of both these articles were on the learning environment with little
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mention to socializing or relationship building online. However, the reader could make the
connection that relationships are created where we learn and work.
One of these digital affordances is the smartphone. Smartphones are increasingly popular
mobile devices that allow users to use their phones to access the Internet, including email, GPS,
and search engines for just in time information (Richman, Webb, Brinkley & Martin, 2014).
Randsford (2013) tracked smartphone use among college students and found that the vast
majority own smartphones (73%) and that this rate has increased dramatically in recent years
(27% in 2009). Technology is becoming increasingly important in disseminating information to
college students, including health, recreation, program and institution wide notices. With the
popularity of smartphones on the rise, phone applications have become increasingly popular to
provide smartphone user with information in real time. There are smartphone applications to
assist college students with time management and studying for quizzes (Richman, Webb,
Brinkley & Martin, 2014).
Technology & Sexual Violence

People increasingly turn towards technology to facilitate encounters with others, from the
friendly to the sexual, to the romantic (Rosenfeld & Thomas, 2012). Online dating and the use of
dating apps have become the new normal for meeting people. The Internet is a new social
institution that has the ability to connect people who have never met face-to-face and is thus
likely to transform the dating process. Even though interacting with strangers online introduces
many unknowns, a lack of a friendship network drives people to become involved in dating
(Lawson & Leck, 2006). The work of Lawson and Leck was particularly insightful because the
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survey provides vision into the motivation for participating in Internet dating and also speaks to
how users negotiate risk and establish trust in that setting. The authors identified physical danger
as a possible risk of participating in online dating but fall short by not making a direct correlation
to the specific risks of exposure to sexual violence.
The popularity of dating apps and the emergence of a hook-up culture, which Garcia et al.
(2013) defines as brief uncommitted sexual encounters between individuals who are not romantic
partners or dating each other, have also created a very interesting dynamic in how young adults
navigate the dating scene and their experiences of sexual violence. Dating apps like Tinder and
Plenty of Fish have created a new culture of super-fast digital dating. McKeon (2015) describes
experiences using these apps as fun and freeing but also dangerous and disposable. She goes on
to describe an online world where delicious sex-positive empowerment often comes with gagworthy harassment, sexism and disrespect filled with unsolicited and many times unwanted
pictures of male genitalia. Although most of the experiences highlighted in this article speak to
Tinder, McKeon recognizes that dating apps have somehow normalized sexual violence in a
world where the swipe of one finger determines whether a meet-up or casual sex is possible.
Though this article is not filled with scholarly research, McKeon does a wonderful job in
presenting the experience of the average user of dating apps in a simple and relevant way.
A Canadian Broadcasting Corporation report back in February 2015 brought to light the
concerning low numbers of disclosures of sexual violence at Canadian colleges and universities.
Ninety percent or more of victims of sexual violence on college campuses do not report the
incident (Fisher et al., 2000). Cantalupo (2010) noted that the main reason survivors do no report
is that they think no one will believe them and that medical and legal authorities will be hostile
towards them. She also notes a cycle where perpetrators may commit acts of sexual violence
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because they think that they will not get caught, and, because survivors do not report the
violence, perpetrators are not caught and left to continue the violence. Although Cantalupo
highlights an important correlation between the non-reporting of campus sexual violence and the
challenges that administrators face to prevent it, her work is focused mostly on the perpetrator
and the legal liability to the institution and not what mechanisms can be put in place to
encourage survivors to report.
It is Ullman (2010) who expounds on a culture of victim-blaming where women are held
responsible for their experience of sexual violence with no supports, while the perpetrator is
excused or ignored throughout this process. This perspective is further supported by Fisher et al.
(2010) who cites not wanting family and friends to know, not thinking that what happened was
serious enough to disclose, fear of embarrassment from publicity, fear of retribution from the
perpetrator, and a belief that no one will believe them are other reasons for not reporting. Both
Fisher and Ullman work provide critical context into sexual violence on campus, an entrenched
rape culture and understanding why survivors do not report. Makin and Morczek (2015) make a
correlation between mass media and popular culture found on the Internet and how this
reinforces a rape culture. They note that veiled undertones of sexualized violence and women
sexual subservience encouraged violence against women and is common in mainstream popular
culture, especially found in pornography. While their article makes a key correlation between
rape culture and technology, their focus of sexual violence is predominantly on the violence in
pornography.
Back in March 2105, the Wynne government launched the Its Never Okay plan to end
harassment and sexual violence with direct mandate to Colleges and Universities to create
policies, resources, and education tools for their members. Recent studies, however, demonstrate
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that resources directed at survivors of sexual violence on campus range in content and
availability (Hayes-Smith & Hayes-Smith, 2009). And where resources were available on
campus it was still not clear whether those resources or programming efforts actually reach or
affect the student population. Are students paying attention or are they actively engaged?
Hayes-Smith and Hayes-Smith (2009) suggest that institutions need to consider a new
dissemination strategy to ensure that students have the information and are actively engaged in
learning these resources and suggests using the Internet as a primary source of dissemination.
What the Wynne Government appears to be suggesting is the use of a web 1.0 and 2.0 model
where the information is made available on the web and shared through social networking sites
but no mention of engaging students to help create these resources or in the least, create their
personalized repository of resources. Indeed, research has shown making information more
personally relevant to students increases the likelihood they will pay attention to the message and
therefore change relevant attitudes and behaviours (Grube, Mayton, & Ball-Rokeach, 1994)
Hayes-Smith & Levett (2010) noted that information on a sexual assault awareness
program should be geared towards issues of alcohol and drug consumption, the prevalence of
acquaintance sexual violence, and debunking rape myths. I do think that alcohol consumption
should be included in awareness efforts on campus and the correlation to the prevalence of
sexual violence however, the majority of this article focused predominantly on this area and
neglected to go in-depth to other areas. There was no mention of reporting processes as a key
area of measuring sexual violence education on campus.
Technology has changed the way business is conducted, including self-care. Most
institutions already incorporate technology in how they make information and resources
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available to students. My research examines how technology could be better used to effectively
engage students to create their own supports using the theories of constructivism, connectivism
and self-care management. Bobele (2008) names the essential feature of constructivism as the
notion that reality construction is the result of meaning-making activities that taken place in
relationships with other people and in cultural/environmental/linguistic contexts. Bell (2011)
places great emphasis on the fact that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts and
knowledge becomes a cultural artefact, associated with groups within a specific context.
Emphasis is place on the significance of social interactions in affecting the individuals generation
of knowledge or facts about the world. The context here can be classified as the knowledge
creation between survivors and those tasked with providing support to survivors.
Connectivism theorizes that knowledge is not a thing that exists, but rather is a
relationship that exists within complex networks (Downes, 2007). Drexler (2010) hypothesizes
that a student utilizes networks within four main domains and all these domain should be
addressed in a holistic approach: information management, contacts, synchronous
communication and RSS through blogs, wikis, and social networks. Siemens (2005) identified
eight core principles of connectivism which includes: (i) learning and knowledge rests in
diversity; (ii) learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes or information sources; (iii)
learning may reside in nonhuman appliances; (iv) capacity to know more is more critical than
what is currently known; (v) nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to facilitate
continual learning; (vi) ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core
skill; (vii) accurate up-to-date information is the intent of all connectivist learning activities; and
(viii) decision making is itself a learning process. These concepts all speak to meeting students
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where they are and encouraging them to be independent designers of their wellbeing with those
digital resources that are available to them.
Vulnerable populations are social groups who experience health disparities as a result of a
lack of resources and increased exposures to risk (Anderson, Fullilove, Scrimshaw, Fielding,
Norman, & Zaza, 1999). A student who has been exposed to situations of sexual violence may be
considered as belonging to a vulnerable group. The Theory of Self-Care Management for
Vulnerable populations recognize that people with illnesses encounter modifiable and nonmodifiable factors that may increase their vulnerability (Dorsey & Murdaugh, 2011). Factors for
student survivors of sexual violence may include access and cost to healthcare, knowing what
mental health supports are available and the impact of not being believed. Although this theory
emphasizes the role of the individual in self-care management, self-care management is
influenced by contextual factors, including the community values and availability of resources
(Flaskerud & Winslow, 1998).
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Research Methodology
For this study, I have employed secondary research methodology through a variety of
books, articles, journals, presentations, new stories and policy documents to analyze the theories
of constructivism, connectivism and self-care management in the context of creating resources
and supports for survivors of sexual violence.
This secondary research paper adopts a meta-synthesis approach where studies were
analyzed to explore a correlation between sexual violence and technology use on Ontario
colleges and universities campuses. Qualitative meta-synthesis is part of a tradition of metaresearch that involves synthesizing the results of qualitative studies to gain a better
understanding of the general nature of a given phenomenon (DeWitt-Brinks & Rhodes, 1992;
Thorne et al.; 2004; Au, 2007)
The purpose of this approach is to include relevant primary studies offered by broader
research bodies that would help identify specific data related to sexual violence and its
correlation to technology use by students on campuses. This research study involved collecting
academic and peer reviewed articles and books related to sexual violence as well as other
relevant information from Government of Ontario plans and legislation, scholarly articles, cases
studies, surveys and conferences to identify associations. The researcher was also able to engage
in direct conversation with primary researchers who were able to provide guidance on subject
matter research techniques.
The main research databases used for this study were Google Scholar and those accessed
library from the University of Ontario Institute of Technology (UOIT). The primary databases
accessed through the UOIT library were as follows:
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Scholars Portal
ERIC
Academic OneFile
Sage Publications
Gale
JSTOR
Elsevier
The book titled Male Peer Support and Violence against Women by Walter Dekeseredy
and Martin Schwartz was also consulted since both authors are considered experts in this area
and continue to conduct research in the area of sexual violence on campus. Sarah Ullmans
book, Talking about Sexual Assault: Societys Response to Survivors, was also checked since it
provides an in-depth background on disclosures and rape culture (Ullman, 2010).
The process began by using sexual violence and sexual assault as the main key search words
but was expanded to include:
Rape
Web 3.0
Digital Affordances/ Digital technology
Dating Violence
Sexual Violence Resources
Consent
Sexual Harassment
Rape Culture
The results from the initial searches provided direction to other sources and the use of other
search terms by browsing through the abstract, key topics, discussion and conclusion sections. If
a key search area was identified in the content, it would be organized by themes identified by the
researcher and saved to be read later. The number of studies were then narrowed down given its
relevancy to my area of enquiry.
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Data Collection
A search conducted between September and December 2015 using key search terms
sexual violence, sexual assault, and related topics produced 112 articles and other materials. The
primary research databases were Google Scholar and those accessed by the University of Ontario
Institute of Technology (UOIT). This search provided new information sources which led this
researcher to explore other relevant terms. This produced another 48 articles which introduced
new research direction and information. This large initial pool of articles was then narrowed to
studies that (a) were conducted after 1994, (b) excluded a focus on other forms of violence, (c)
excluded sexual violence at the elementary or secondary level, (d) excluded community based
studies on sexual violence, (e) excluded a focus on institution policy and procedure, (f) included
a focus on student behaviour on college and university campuses, and (h) included content that
discussed sexual violence and technology use. After applying these criterion, 29 articles were left
to code and review.
Data Analysis
The coding system was developed based on the themes identified by this researcher. The
researcher made use of a specific form of qualitative meta-synthesis known as template analysis
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(Crabtree & Miller, 1999; King, 1998, 2006; Au, 2007) where textual data are coded using a
template of codes. The codes used were as follows: SVDO (Sexual Violence Definitions &
Overview), RC (Rape Culture), SVC (Sexual Violence on Campus), RSV (Resources & Sexual
Violence), and TRSV (Technology, Relationships, & Sexual Violence). The articles were then
sorted and codes utilized to categorize their main themes.
Table 1
Research Articles and Codes
Articles
Armstrong, Hamilton, & Sweeney (2006)
Basile (2014)
Cantalupo (2010)
Day (1994)
DuMonk & White (2007
Glass et al. (2015)
Garcia et al. (2011)
Hayes-Smith & Levett (2010)
Jiang (2014)
Lawson & Leck (2006)
Littleton, Buck, & Rosman (2011)
Logue (2015)
Maier (2008)
Makin & Morczek (2015)
McKeon (2015)
Miranda, Isais, & Costa (2014)
Moors & Webber (2012)
Owen et al. (2010)
Powell (2010)
Rentschler (2014)
Sinozich & Langton (2014)
Sutton & Simons (2015)
Ullman (2010)
Webber & Moors (2015201)
Webber & Wilmot (2013)
Weisz & Black (2001)
Codes
RSV, SVC
SVDO
SVDO, RC, SVC, RSV
SVC, SVD, RSV
SVDO
TRSV, RSV, SVC
SVC, RC, SVDO
TRSV, RSV, RC, SVC
SVDO, TRSV, RSV
TRSV, SVDO
TRSV, RC, RSV, SVDO
SVC, TRSV
SVDO, RSV, RC
RC
RT, SVDO
TRSV
RC, SVDO, RSV, TRSV
SVDO, RC, SVC, TRSV
SVDO, TRSV
RC, RSV
SVDO, SVC
SVC, SVDO, TRSV
SVDO, RSV, RC, SVC
TRSV, RSV, SVDO
TRSV, RSV
SVDO, RSV
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World Health Organization (2014)
Yung (2015)
Zweig, Dank, Yahner, & Lachman (2013)
SVDO
SVC, SVDO, RSV
TRSV, SVDO
Findings
Sexual Violence: A social problem
The acknowledgement of sexual violence as a social problem and crime has evolved over
time, and definitions have varied historically and continue to do so even to this day. Definitions
vary depending on whether they are legally based or used for other purposes such as research and
treatment (Ullman, 2011). DuMont & White (2008) know that sexual violence is a common
public health issue that affects the lives of millions of women worldwide while the World Health
Organization (2009) recognizes sexual violence can have a profound impact on physical and
mental health. Cantalupo (2010) notes that incidents of campus peer sexual violence is
staggering and deeply upsetting and Sutton & Simons (2014) writes that sexual violence has
been recognized as a major public health problem on college campuses for several decades. Day
(1994) recognizes sexual violence is an urgent and pervasive problem on college and university
campuses and defines it as attempted or actual sexual contact or intercourse obtained through
force or threat of force or through impairment or control of ones judgement for the purpose of
preventing resistance, perpetrated both by strangers and by people that are known to the victim.
Definitions
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Other definitions of sexual violence explored were similar in nature with the exception of
a couple studies where narrow definitions of sexual violence were used to only include
penetration, use of threat or physical force (Jaschik, 2015). Other authors considered consent and
technology in conceptualizing the definition of sexual violence. Basille (2014) defines sexual
violence as a sexual act committed or attempted by another person without freely given consent
of the victim or against someone who is unable to consent or refuse. Some acts of non-contact
unwanted sexual experiences occur without the victims knowledge and can occur in different
venues including through technology. It was also argued that the unauthorized taking and
distribution of images of an otherwise consensual sexual encounter is similarly part of a
continuum of gendered sexual violence (Powell, 2010). Barak (2005) describes a variety of acts
ranging from active harassment, emailing or posting pornographic images and video to the
practice of page-jacking can also be characterized as sexual violence. Moors & Webber (2012)
advises that an important first step in disclosure is the ability to name the incident as sexual
violence.
Myths
It was also observed that within the framing of what constitutes sexual violence,
researchers made a point to dismiss learned myths. Maier (2008) says that the stereotypical
image of a real rape victim in someone who was raped by a stranger which Hayes-Smith &
Levett (2010) find problematic given that evidence continues to show that the majority of sexual
assault is committed by someone known to the survivor. The data suggests that over 65% of
sexual violence incidents are perpetrated by someone known to the victim (Dumont & White,
25
2008). The World Health Organization (2014) notes the concern where survivors of sexual
violence are blamed for their assault and Day (1994) points out that historically, there has been
an onus on survivors to keep themselves safe.
Statistics
It is important to note that the Ontario Womens Directorate reported that in 2009 there
were 472,000 sexual assaults reported in Canada. Statistics Canada (2009) estimated that about
one in three Canadian women will experience sexual assault in their adult life. An estimated 2025% of undergraduate women are survivors of peer sexual violence (Benson, Gohn & Gross,
2007). Sinzich & Langton (2014) noted that for the period 1995-2013, females ages 18 to 24 had
the highest rate of rape and sexual assault victimizations compared to female in all other age
groups. 90% or more of victims of sexual assault on college campuses do not report the assault
(Fisher et al. 2000). Studies show that if survivors do disclose, it is initially informally to friends
and family (Fisher et al, 2003) rather to formal support providers (Ullman, 2011).
Disclosures
There happen to be concerns among researchers regarding care for survivors given the
high numbers who do not disclose their experiences of sexual violence. Moors & Webber (2014)
cite feelings of shame, embarrassment, fear of blame, self-blame, uncertainty about other
reactions, negative attitudes towards the justice system and other help providing professionals,
26
concerns about confidentiality, and lack of experience with the health care system as reasons for
not disclosing. Ullman (2010) recognizes the importance for survivors to disclose which is to
make sense of the victimization and begin a healing process while empowering them to access
needed supports. Moors & Webber (2012) acknowledged that non-disclosure is detrimental to
health and appropriate disclosure and help seeking decreases psychological distress and renders
the survivor less vulnerable to re-victimization. They also identify four types of online selfdisclosure: name the incident as sexual violence, recounting ones experience, expressing
emotions and help-seeking.
Rape Culture
Other researchers cite a rape culture as an explanation for high rates of sexual violence on
college campuses (Armstrong et al., 2006; Burnett et al. 2009). Makin & Morczek (2015) note
one of the most important factors leading to sustainment of rape culture is the intergenerational
transmission of rape supportive beliefs which encourages, trivializes and romanticizes male
aggression and female subservience. The result of rape supportive cultural attitudes included, but
are not limited to, marked underreporting of sexual violence incidents, less compassion or
support for victims, and lenient treatment of offenders.
The Canadian public has been privy to some displays of rape culture on campuses over
the last few years. At Saint Marys University in Halifax in 2013, student leaders led several
hundred first-year students in a chant that celebrated the sexual assault of intoxicated under aged
students (Tamburri & Sampson, 2014). In 2014, McMaster University suspended an engineering
student group over a songbook containing what the university calls sexist, violent and
27
degrading material. The songbook contained around 25 cheers and included multiple references
to violent rape, murder, incest, bestiality and sex with underage females (Chapman & Ruf,
2014).
In January 2015, 13 male fourth-year dentistry students at Dalhousie University posted
vile, misogynistic comments on a Facebook page which included expressions of desire to
perpetrate sexual violence against female classmates until they were unconscious (Kingston,
2015). References were made to wean and convert lesbians and virgins into useful, productive
members of society. In November 2015 a group of faculty members at the University of Calgary
brought forth a complaint against Justice Robin Camp for comments he made during a sexual
violence trial that were considered victim-blaming. Camp informed the survivor that she should
have keep her knees together and situated herself as to not be positioned for the assault. He went
on to inform his court that sex and pain sometimes went together which could be interpreted as
dismissing the survivors experience (Hoper, 2015).
Sexual Violence & Technology

Zweig et al. (2013) surmise that technology use such as social networks and smartphone
use is an integral part of youth lives and something that will evolve and change but not cease to
exist. Technology has also opened up a new avenue for romantic interaction between students
which raises new issues of negotiating risk and establishing trust (Lawson & Leck, 2006).
Mckeon (2015) discusses the prevalent use of dating applications like Tinder, Plenty of Fish,
OKCupid, and Craiglist on campuses. She qualifies the nature of these applications as creating a
28
culture of a super-fast, super-fun digital dating that sometimes normalizes sexual violence and
harassment. Picard (2007) acknowledges that given the high frequency at which youth use
technology, it is not surprising that technology use plays an important role in how youth interact
with dating partners, and that these interactions may not always be positive.
Quadara (2010) also states that mobile phone technologies, such as file sharing of
photographs and video recordings, are also emerging as key sites of communication used by
young people. As people increasingly use mobile phone technologies to communicate and
socialize with each other, their use as tools for the perpetration of sexual violence has become an
issue of significant concern (Powell, 2009). There is an increasing trend where perpetrators of
sexual violence are using their smartphones to record their assault. In one of the most highly
publicized sexual violence cases in the United States, the Steubenville Rape Case, members of
the high school football team recorded the sexual assault of an incapacitated girl which resulted
in twitter posts, videos and photographs being circulated online. James (2014) and Benson
(2014) also speak to perpetrators who were arrested and further convicted because of recordings
of sexual violence found on their cellphones.
Owen et al. (2010) identify a hooking-up culture which they define as a specific type of
casual coupling that has grown in popularity among college students. Hooking-up has been
defined as a physically intimate encounter ranging from kissing to intercourse that occurs
without the expectation of future physical encounters or a committed relationship. The hook-up
culture on college campuses represents a pattern of behaviours and attitudes, including high
levels of socio-sexuality and alcohol use in addition to hook-up behaviour, which fosters sexual
violence. Researchers have also recognized that the hook-up culture may be conducive to the
occurrence of sexual violence (Adams-Curtis & Forbes, 2004; Flack et al., 2007).
29
Technology as a Resource
Prensky (2001) reasoned that todays students, the digital natives, represent the first
generations to grow up with this new technology. They have spent their entire lives surrounded
by and using computers, videogames, digital music players, video cams, cell phones, and all the
other toys and tools of the digital age. Miranda et al. (2014) declares that the digital affordance of
Web 3.0 will entail the transformation of the internet from a platform of global interactivity and
information sharing, to an intelligent and efficient tool for information management. Digital
affordances will provide semantic content that will allow the user to access, personalize, extract,
interpret, analyze and structure information. Jiang (2014) articulates that the semantic web has
the capabilities of understanding the user, helping to sort through information based on
preferences from large numbers of dynamic resources and providing a report made with different
types of multimedia. The semantic web plays like an intelligent agent between user and network.
Technology can also be harnessed as a form for providing information and support to
young people and adults who have experienced sexual violence as well as centralizing
information to provide an alternative to much of the misinformation that exists online (Powell,
2010). One of these affordances is through an online program for survivors. Littleton et al (2012)
conducted a pilot study of an online program for survivors of sexual violence as a way of
providing alternate supports. The program is an online, cognitive behavioural, therapist30
facilitated program with content tailored to address specific difficulties often reported by
survivors, including thoughts of self-blame and personal safety. The program leverages
affordances of online interventions such as the inclusion of multiple media and integration of
written feedback to interactive exercises by program therapist.
Smartphone Applications
Another way of leveraging technology for support is through the use of smartphone
applications. There are a number of smartphone applications aimed at providing assistance to
survivors of sexual violence. Sex Positive is an application aimed at sex education, including
consent and sexual rights, for college students (Buhr, 2015). iMace is another application that
allows the user to shake their smartphone when encountering assault. The smartphone will then
produce high-pitch alarms to fend off the attacker while quickly notifying friends and law
enforcement of the users location (Chang et al., 2010). U of Nine helps college and universities
to educate students and employees about sexual violence, sexual harassment, intimate partner
violence, alcohol abuse and stalking (Atixa, 2015). Obesity, Fitness & Wellness Week (2012)
recognizes the Kinsey Reporter as a global mobile survey platform that collects and reports
anonymous data about sexual and other intimate behaviours. The Fight Back smartphone
application sends a text with the users GPS location to up to five people, including the police,
and as a post on Facebook and Twitter (Williams, 2012). Similarly, the Safety Siren application
works to connect young women with vital safety, health and wellness information in an
immediate, personal and user-friendly way. It allows access to sexual health information, where,
31
when and how users need it. The application geo-locates users with maps and directions to over
300 resource centers across Canada (Obesity, Fitness & Wellness Week (2012).
The most recent of these applications is Callisto. Singer (2015) explains Callisto as
having the affordance to provide users with the option to record details of an assault
anonymously. The site saves and time-stamps those records which allows students the options of
submitting a formal report at the time they log-on or a later date. The site also offers a matching
system in which a user can elect to file a report with the school electronically when someone else
names the same assailant.
While many of these applications serve different purposes and act as different resources
for survivors, there still exists capacity for a connected population to be supported in one way or
another. However, not all of these applications were easy to find or were clear in communicating
exactly how the resource worked. Many of them used outdated language and definitions of
sexual violence which may make it challenging for survivors to access the application if they are
not sure that violence has been perpetrated against them.
Campus Resources & Initiatives

Before the mandate by the provincial government for colleges and universities to create and
communicate sexual violence policies and procedures to its members, supports on campuses
have included education campaigns of various kinds, prevention and awareness campaigns,
initiatives and events, distribution of rape whistles, development and staffing of hotlines, training
of security staff (Armstrong et al., 2006). Programs in Ontario include the Bringing in the
Bystander, Yes Means Yes, and the Draw the Line campaign. The primary focus has always been
32
on education. However, Ullman (2010) articulates that education should shift in emphasis from
educating women on preventative measures to educating both men and women about consent,
coercive behaviours, and the sources of victim blaming. Armstrong et al. (2006) also notes that
education should begin before students arrive on campus and continue throughout college. It may
also be most effective if high-status peers are involved in disseminating knowledge and
experience to younger college and university students.
Despite attempts by universities and colleges to prevent and respond more effectively to
sexual violence, the high rates of sexual violence among college students indicate that current
policies and procedures may not be very effective. The inadequacies of many colleges and
universities in addressing sexual violence has resulted in increased pressure on these institutions
to prioritize efforts aimed at reducing individual, situational, and cultural risk factors for sexual
violence on campus (Wade et. Al, 2014)
Logue (2015) noted that students are not always aware of what supports are available to them
or complained of not receiving information about these supports. Hayes-Smith & Levett (2010)
established two possibilities that may explain why so many students reported not receiving
information: the university or college may not be uniformly distributing the information, or
students may not be paying attention or actively engaged when they receive the information. The
university may need to consider a new dissemination strategy to ensure that the students have
knowledge of all the resources available to them and are actively engaged in learning from those
resources. In a study conducted by Hayes-Smith & Levett (2010), 24% of students indicated that
disseminated information about sexual violence and resources through the Internet may be the
best way to reach the student body. A more involved program should be considered created to
raise visibility and awareness.
33
Discussion
Standard definition of Sexual Violence & Disclosures
One of the most pressing issues facing Canadians today is the high rate of sexual violence
against women. In recent highly publicized cases, the public has been privy to the happenings in
the Gian Ghomeshi case to our now Prime Ministers response to allegations of sexual violence
by members of an opposing party. The spotlight has also been shun on the University of British
Columbias response to year-long allegations made against a PhD candidate and other cases of
sexual violence on college and university campuses. While of personal concern to individual
women given the profound physical and emotional implications, the predictability and patterning
of sexual violence makes this an urgent social issue (Benoit et al., 2014). The issue of sexual
violence against women and girls in the online environment is emerging as a growing concern in
Canada and elsewhere.
Sexual violence in Canada is gendered and socially-patterned (Benoit et al., 2014). The
literature is clear that women are more likely to experience sexual violence than men and this is
persistent across time and jurisdictions. At the same time, some women are clearly more
vulnerable than others due to factors that include their cultural and ethnic background, immigrant
status, income and education level, age, sexual orientation, and other marginalized social
locations. This is information that should be utilized when considerations are being made
regarding creating resources for survivors.
34
The literature reviewed provided many variations of the definition of sexual violence
contextualized through a lens of attempted or completed sexual acts through force or coercion.
However, a gap does exists with this since not many researchers included the notion of consent
or technology facilitated violence to present a spectrum of how survivors experience these
incidents. There seems to be a focus on violence in the form of cyber-bullying or the sexual
exploitation of minors online but not as it relates to young adults on campuses. Given the
demographics of the college and university student population and the dynamics that occur in
these spaces, this supports the argument that there is work to be done in crafting a standard
across the board definition of sexual violence.
It is therefore important that those individuals who may have experienced sexual
violence but not certain, understand that sexual violence exists on a continuum from obscene
name-calling to completed assault and/or homicide, and includes on-line forms such as social
media or text threats, unauthorized sharing of photos and messages, and harassment. In terms of
lack of clarity, some people who experience verbal forms of sexual assault, or online sexual
violence, may be unaware that this is a form of violence. Others have indicated that sexual
violence may be experienced so routinely by some and has been so normalized that it is no
longer seen as a violation (Ahmad et al., 2004). This cannot bode well for capturing the true
number of incidents which is the criteria commonly used when making decisions about new or
expanded funding or supports for survivors.
The trajectory of intimate encounters within the student population has also shifted. There
has been an upsurge in a hook-up culture mostly facilitated by a growing number of dating
applications. Intimate encounters occur without the expectation of future physical encounters or
a committed relationship (Owen et al. 2010). Situations like this may have the potential to create
35
opportunities where students are left vulnerable and safety is jeopardized. Researchers recognize
that the hook-up culture may be conducive to the occurrence of sexual violence on campuses
(Flack et al., 2007).
Digital technology and disclosures of sexual violence?

Canadians are talking more about sexual violence. Whether it be because of government
mandates (Its Never Okay plan or Bill 132), incidents on campuses or in the workplace, or
through the medias coverage of highly sensational cases, this has become a hot topic. What has
not changed, is that survivors are still made to feel that their assault could have been prevented if
they had done something differently. Researchers highlight that responsibility is still placed on
survivors to keep themselves safe; dont leave drinks unattended, dont walk alone at nights and
dont wear provocative clothing.
Victim-blaming lends itself to a rape culture that dismisses or trivializes the impact of
sexual violence on survivors. So one could see why 90% of survivors of sexual violence do not
disclose their assault. Moors & Webber (2014) explain that the reasons for this may be feelings
of shame, embarrassment, fear of blame, self-blame, but most importantly, uncertainty about
other reactions or how they will be perceived. These situations pose an opportunity to leverage
the use of digital affordances to allow survivors to directly or anonymously report their assaults,
learn what has been perpetrated against them, and access supports.
One of the primary concerns about online environments and sexual violence is that
technology may result in new opportunities for abusive behaviour to occur (Baker et al., 2013).
Others are more optimistic, highlighting how digital technologies can make sexual violence that
36
might otherwise occur in a hidden environment, more visible (Boyd, 2014). New technologies
can allow for hacking, stalking, impersonation, harassment, and malicious distribution of
personal images. Researchers also speak of strategies to impersonate a person and post
embarrassing, defamatory, or threatening information or images, often of a sexual nature.
Digital technology as a tool to support survivors of sexual violence.

Students have also become very intimate with their digital tools, specifically the
smartphone and use them in both constructive and detrimental ways. The Pearson Student
Mobile Device Survey (2015) notes that 86% of college own smartphones and use them at home,
school, and elsewhere. They are encouraged to use these tools to register for courses, access their
program information, institution notices, schedules, and learning management systems. But on
the other hand, we also know photos and videos taken with smartphones have a way of making it
to social media networking sites in record time.
In the context of sexual violence, these photos and videos, usually have the potential to
adversely impact others. Nova Scotia wants the federal government to make distributing intimate
images against someone's wishes a crime under the Criminal Code (Canadian Broadcasting
Corporation, 2013). This comes after Rehteah Parsons completed suicide because she was
sexually violated and a picture of the attack was shared through social media. Perpetrators are
also using their smartphones to record their assault. Phones where used to record assaults in the
2013 Vanderbilt University and 2012 Steubenville sexual violence cases. It makes sense that
Ontario follows suit since this is not unique to Nova Scotia. A move like this may also help
37
reduce the gaps that exists in the literature as it relates to the definition of sexual violence
because posters will be very clear that a crime has been committed.
Alternatively, smartphones are also being used to create informational and prevention
resources as well as supports for survivors. There are smartphone applications aimed at sex
education, including consent and sexual rights for college and university students as well as
those designed to assist this group and their concerned friends with safety decisions. Within these
applications, students are challenged to create individualized safety plans while another acts as a
deterrent by producing high-pitch alarms to fend off an attacker and notify friends and law
enforcement of their location. The most recent application allows a survivor to report the assault
anonymously and submit this report when they are comfortable doing so. Given the speed at
which technology transforms, it is probable that we will see many more comparable applications
in the future. The fact that survivors have access to these affordances should be commended.
However, it cannot be ignored that the applications identified in this research project
speak to specific needs that may be identified by a survivor at different stages of their
experience. If a survivor-centered approach is adopted in responding to a disclosure, we assume
that that the survivor will access those resources that they feel is appropriate for their healing,
when they are ready and at their own pace. Disclosing the incident is often not a static, one off
event but a complicated and cyclical process, characterized by uncertainty, about who can be
trusted, what the consequences will be and the benefits of reporting (Ullman, 2011).
The research did not produce any one application that was multifaceted in support or
holistic in design. So to refer a survivor to a number of different applications for resources may
be overwhelming, confusing, and could act as a deterrence to accessing these same resources.
38
METRAC (2015) identified a holistic spectrum of programs and services that integrate
prevention, intervention, risk assessment, reporting, and crisis response as one out of five
factors that improve safety for students and others at risk of sexual violence and harassment.
While Canada does not currently have a national sexual violence policy, five provinces
(Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Manitoba, and Quebec) have province-wide policies
and/or action plans which specifically address sexual violence through prevention efforts,
enhanced supports, and services for survivors.
Public education campaigns play a critical role, not only in raising awareness of sexual
violence, but also in preventing sexual violence by changing societal norms, organizational
practices, community attitudes and behaviours of potential offenders (Haskell, 2011).
Historically, there have existed a number of campaigns and programs geared towards
ending sexual violence against women. In May 2015, the provincial government launched the
Its Never Okay action plan which focuses on changing the narrative of rape culture, creating
safer spaces, and providing structure in how education institutions and employers respond to
disclosures of sexual violence.
Back in 2011 an activist movement emerged called SlutWalk. It was founded in response
to a comment made by a Toronto Police representative that: women should avoid dressing like
sluts in order to not be victimized (SlutWalk, 2012). The organization draws attention to victim
blaming and slut shaming and how gendered and sexist ideas about women undermine
womens safety from sexual violence as well as their equality as women in Canada. This
movement was introduced on many Canadian campuses and shared through social media but
never really actively engaged students through digital affordances past the march.
39
Another such program is the Bringing in the Bystander that was developed for numerous
contexts, particularly college and university campuses. This is a student-training program that
encourages students to speak out against social norms that promote sexual violence and teaches
them how to recognize and effectively intervene in situations that could lead to sexual violence.
Another notable bystander initiative is the Draw the Line campaign (Draw the Line, 2012). The
campaign uses social media to engage people in dialogue about hypothetical situations of sexual
violence against women and girls and provide them with information on how to safely and
effectively intervene (Ontario Coalition of Rape Crisis Centres, 2012).
Like with the SlutWalk movement, the Brining in the Bystander or Draw the Line
campaigns have not done a great job of advancing their goals of meeting students where they are
and keeping them interested, involved, and engaged with their message. The technology is
available that will allow the users to utilize information and data across websites and connect
with people anywhere anytime. Users are able to collect, organize, aggregate, interpret, and
apply data that best fits their needs within networks that suit their styles.
Historically, colleges and universities provided paper resources and introduced awareness
campaigns which were usually reactive to an incident of sexual violence and did not always
reach the intended audience. Hayes-Smith and Levitt (2010) examined the availability and
adequacy of resources on college campuses and found that there appears to be no uniformity on
response to sexual violence, filing reports, and resource availability. Hayes-Smith & HayesSmith (2009) noted that campus security and health staff were the designated responders and
information providers in response to disclosures. Students were not always allowed to take
control of decisions that concerned their well-being after an assault.
40
This is somewhat shifted with technology. Students have access to as much information
whenever it is needed but do not always how relevant these resource are to them. Hayes-Smith &
Levett (2010) note that the interactive nature of using the Internet may make students more
actively engaged and motivated to process the information meaningfully. Colleges and
universities need to communicate with their community members where they interact, explore,
learn, and play.
Many colleges and universities have incorporated some variation of the above-mentioned
programs and campaigns on their campuses. In addition, they have all have either created or in
the process of creating policies and procedures that guide how they respond to sexual violence,
as mandated by the provincial government.
The theoretical framework introduced in this study coincides with the findings.
Technology has provided us with the capacity to be creative in how students are supported.
Students are connected and engaged with technology through a number of different mediums.
This supports the connectivism learning theory that reasons that learning begins with a
connection that is enhanced by technology, socialization and diversity. Students are also taught to
be independent and to think critically. The constructivism theory supports the idea that students
will interpret events that surround them in terms of what they already know. They will also use
those connections to create and participate in communities of shared learning. These
communities can create opportunities for making disclosures, learning more about what they
experienced, and personal healing all facilitated through technology use. They are also told that
they are individuals with their own sense of self. In this same vein, they should also be
encouraged to take personal agency for their self-care management decisions through the various
networks that exist in the context of sexual violence.
41
Conclusion
The research has shown us that sexual violence is a very real issue for Canadians. The
Ontario government has brought this topic to the forefront of the conversation and invested
heavily in creating safer spaces on campuses. Technology does play a role in how we interact
with each other and with information. It is only befitting that administrators and other
stakeholders take advantage of the affordances of technology to engage students to create
personalized resource tools and supports that best suit their learning and healing needs.
One of the major findings in this research study is that there is no standard definition of
sexual violence whether it be for purposes of research or legal proceedings. In addition, very few
of the definitions identified in this study include technology-facilitated sexual violence. This
creates a gap in correctly qualifying and measuring sexual violence incidents. If there is no clear
understanding of what constitutes sexual violence, then students and survivors alike are not able
to recognize and name sexual violence which in turn has significant implications on the number
of disclosures and whether survivors access resources that are vital to their healing. The same
can be applied to technology facilitated violence. If technology is not included in this definition,
sexual harassment and violence perpetrated using technology is not accounted for, which negates
the significant impact technology plays in the lives of students.
Another significant finding in this study is that technology use can support the reporting
of sexual violence incidents. The research is clear that there are a number of reasons why
survivors do not disclose. These may include shame, fear, embarrassment, not knowing that their
experience meet the requirements of sexual violence, and a rape culture that minimizes the
42
impact of sexual violence on the survivor and goes further, and blames the survivor for the
violence. Traditionally, survivors were expected to report their experience in person to authorities
and service providers. The research indicates that this could prove to be intimidating and in some
situations, evoke feelings of being re-victimized by service professionals. Technology has
provided affordances where survivors are able to utilize smartphone applications, social network
mediums, education institutions reporting systems, and police webpages to disclose. They are
now able to disclose through third party, directly and anonymously using these mediums.
To answer the research question in this study: Is there a relationship between digital
technology use and sexual violence in the campus setting? The research supports that there is.
The relationship is clearly identified in this research. Technology serves the purpose of providing
tools and acting as mediums to support survivors through awareness and prevention resources,
intervention tools, counselling support, healthcare access, etc. However, one cannot ignore the
role that technology use also plays in creating environments where sexual violence can occur.
Whether that be through engaging in the hook-up culture, utilizing dating applications, sharing
unauthorized images and videos, harassment and stalking through the Internet or the use of
mobile devices. Powell (2010) was clear and correct in her analysis that technology has
completely shifted the way in which relationships were created.
This is a pivotal time to be dialoguing about sexual violence. Many stakeholders,
including government, colleges, universities, and business are engaged in this conversation.
Colleges and universities have been tasked to create policies and procedures that provide clear
guidance for reporting and accessing supports. It cannot and should not end there. These policies
should be easily accessible on the institutions website and the language should be current and
student-friendly. It is imperative that students are actively engaged in this conversation as well.
43
Protocols and initiatives for students should not be created in the absence of student
contribution. Input should be sought from students to assess their understanding of what qualifies
as sexual violence as well as how well they feel that their institutions are doing at providing
resources and reporting options.
Institutions also need to engage students through the mediums that they use most. This is
an opportunity for institutions to leverage the digital affordances available to them to support
disclosures and access to resources. The Pearson Student Mobile Survey (2015) indicated that
86% of college and university students own a smartphone and use it at work, school or
elsewhere. Information, resource tools, and reporting options should all be clearly communicated
to all campus members. Awareness and education interventions cannot be one time initiatives.
These should be ongoing initiatives that are regularly updated to reflect the changes in student
dynamics, demographics, and evolving technologies. Supports should be student-centered and
not left to providers to decide when and how survivors access supports.
This research study identifies opportunities for further research in the area of
understanding what constitutes sexual violence, simplifying reporting procedures, and leveraging
technology as more of a positive resource than to be used to harass and stalk. There is also room
for ongoing work to identify and create new resource tools for survivors. There are a number of
smartphone applications that provide assistance in disclosures, awareness, education and access
to support. If an application is created that is all encompassing and holistic in nature, survivors
may be enticed to disclose, access needed support for healing, understand what has happened to
them, and build community with other survivors and allies when and how they want to.
44
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Final - Thesis April 2016 - Sexual Violence and Technology

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Final Thesis: Applying digital affordances as a new lens to explore sexual violence on college

and university campuses in Ontario.

Applying digital affordances as a new lens to explore

How can digital technology be used to encourage reporting and disclosures of

Definition of Sexual Violence

Technology & Sexual Violence

Sexual Violence & Technology

Campus Resources & Initiatives

Digital technology and disclosures of sexual violence?

Digital technology as a tool to support survivors of sexual violence.

Au, W. (2007) High-Stakes Testing and Curricular Control: A Qualitative Metasynthesis.

Bobele, M. (2008) Constructivist theory. Encyclopedia of Counselling. SAGE Publications, Inc.

Bringing in the Bystander (2012) Retrieved on January 18, 2016 from

Conradie, P. W. (2013) Supporting self-directed learning by connectivism and personal learning

Day, K. (1994) Conceptualizing women'sfFear of sexual assault on campus

Hayes-Smith, R. M., & Hayes-Smith J. M. (2009) A website content analysis of womens

Mckeon, L. (2015) Tinder Dicks. Retrieved on November 2, 2015 from

Orem, D. (1991) Nursing concepts of practice. 4th ed.

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