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A Literature Review
Heriot-Watt University
January 2007
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ABSTRACT
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to review literature relating to vehicle utilisation,
transport optimisation and the implementation of green transport management
measures within the freight industry with a view to minimise the negative impact of
road freight transport on the environment.
Design/Methodology/Approach
This report first reviews the key constraints on vehicle utilisation, before examining
opportunities to optimise transport operations. Within the remit of this report, three
key areas for improved efficiencies within the industry are identified: logistical
efficiency, vehicle utilisation and driver training and behaviour.
Search terms: green logistics; transport management; vehicle utilisation; transport
optimisation.
Findings
Environmental issues will increasingly influence the way transport managers do
their jobs. Currently, there is a growing field of governmental literature offering
advice and guidance.
Research Limitations/implications
The scope of this review is limited by the availability of literature and time. As a
broad study, it does not present the full range of literature on the state of green
transport management, but attempts to give an overview of the main concerns and
areas for improvement. The text and case studies are illustrative of the previous
work done in this field.
Practical implications
This report highlights limitations faced by transport managers in attempting to
operate vehicles efficiently and draws together environmentally-related literature
that offers guidance to transport managers.
Originality/value
As a literature review it aims to synthesise previous work rather than develop new
perspectives. It should provide a foundation for future research in this field.
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... - 2 CONTENTS....................................................................................................... - 3 TABLES............................................................................................................. - 5 FIGURES........................................................................................................... - 5 1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... - 6 2. KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS & ISSUES: Measuring vehicle utilisation
& efficiency ........................................................................................................ - 7 2.1 Measures applicable to both macro- and micro-level data ...................... - 7 2.1.1 Tonne-kilometres per vehicle per annum (tkm) ................................ - 7 2.1.2 Weight-based loading factor............................................................. - 7 2.1.3 Empty running .................................................................................. - 8 2.1.4 Lading factor................................................................................... - 10 2.2 Measures applicable to micro-level data ............................................... - 11 2.2.1 Space-utilisation / vehicle fill........................................................... - 11 2.2.2 Productive time............................................................................... - 12 2.2.3 Efficiency of vehicle usage (tkm/mkm) ........................................... - 13 2.2.4 Overall Vehicle Effectiveness (OVE) .............................................. - 13 3. KEY CONSTRAINTS / ISSUES FOR VEHICLE UTILISATION.................. - 14 3.1 Sourcing, distribution and delivery ........................................................ - 14 3.1.1 Demand fluctuations....................................................................... - 14 3.1.2 Just-in-Time (JIT) delivery .............................................................. - 15 3.1.3 Postponement ................................................................................ - 16 3.1.4 E-commerce and the growth of home delivery ............................... - 17 3.1.5 Priority given to the outbound delivery service ............................... - 17 3.1.6 Unreliability of delivery schedules: congestion .............................. - 18 3.2 Unitisation: unit loads ............................................................................ - 19 3.2.1 Vehicle size and weight restrictions................................................ - 19 3.2.2 Incompatibility of vehicles and products: procurement ................... - 19 3.2.3 Warehouse configuration and interface interactions....................... - 20 3.2.4 Handling and packaging requirements ........................................... - 21 3.3 Industry pressures................................................................................. - 23 3.3.1 Lack of support from Senior Managers........................................... - 23 3.3.2 Government regulations: ................................................................ - 23 4. POTENTIAL EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS IN THE FREIGHT INDUSTRY:
LOGISTICAL EFFICIENCY ............................................................................. - 25 4.1 Sourcing, distribution and delivery ........................................................ - 25 4.1.1 Local sourcing ................................................................................ - 25 4.1.2 Backloading ................................................................................... - 26 4.1.3 Postponement ................................................................................ - 27 4.1.4 More transport-efficient order and sales cycles .............................. - 27 4.1.4 Unattended delivery........................................................................ - 28 4.1.5 Telematics ...................................................................................... - 29 4.2 Collaboration & relationships ................................................................ - 29 4.2.1 Use of primary consolidation centres.............................................. - 29 4.2.2 Data sharing: collaboration & network sharing ............................... - 30 -3-
4.2.3 Reverse Logistics ........................................................................... - 30 4.3 Efficient unit loading .............................................................................. - 31 4.3.1 Packaging....................................................................................... - 31 4.4 Enhanced status of transport managers within the supply chain .......... - 32 5. POTENTIAL EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS: VEHICLE EFFICIENCY ... - 33 5.1 Fuel consumption.................................................................................. - 33 5.1.1 Alternative Fuels............................................................................. - 33 5.1.2 Driver Efficiency.............................................................................. - 34 5.2 Aerodynamic features ........................................................................... - 36 5.2.1 Rolling Resistance.......................................................................... - 36 5.2.2 Aerodynamic Styling....................................................................... - 37 5.3 Vehicle design....................................................................................... - 39 5.3.1 Enhanced capacity within current EU regulations: Double-deckers (DD) 39 5.4.2 Increasing permitted EU weights & dimensions: Longer, heavier
vehicles .................................................................................................... - 41 6. CONCLUSIONS & KEY OUTSTANDING ISSUES..................................... - 44 REFERENCES ................................................................................................ - 45 -
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FIGURES
1. Weekly demand pattern for one of the major UK-based producers ...- 15 -
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1. INTRODUCTION
Offering the greatest flexibility in terms of timings and destinations compared with
other modes, road transport dominants freight distribution in the UK (64.4% of all
goods transported (tonne-kms) in 2005 was carried by road) (Department for
Transport, 2006a). In moving this amount of freight by road, companies use 11
billion litres of fuel and produce 28 million tonnes of CO2 each year (Freight
Transport Association, 2003), or approximately 5% of total CO2 emissions in the
UK (McKinnon, 2007). Aside from the direct negative effects of greenhouse-gas
emissions, freight traffic contributes to increased noise levels, congestion and
accidents. Current forecasts suggest that the number of truck-kms will increase
by 10-11% between 2000 and 2010 (Department for Transport, 2006a).
Within this context, the European Commission highlights five main approaches to
the adoption of environmental concerns in freight transport (European
Commission, 2001).
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This report considers the first three EC approaches, and will examine the
optimisation of transport, the utilisation of vehicles and associated transport
management decisions. The rest of this report is organised as follows: Section 2
outlines key performance measures associated with vehicle utilisation; Section 3
highlights constraints on the optimisation of freight transport; Sections 4-5
considers various efficiency measures aimed at either reducing fuel consumption
or maximising vehicle use and Section 6 draws conclusions and makes
suggestions for future research.
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this country from 63% in 1990 to 57% in 2005 (Department for Transport, 2006a).
Again, a limitation of this ratio is that being exclusively weight-based, this ratio can
only be described as a partial measure. The use of vehicle space / deck area
should be considered to give a more realistic assessment.
Yet it seems that empty running is inherent in the freight industry (Gorkie, 2006).
Not only does the returning empty vehicle represent a wasted resource in
economic terms, but such a journey is increasingly seen as having an
environmental consequence (Department for the Environment, Transport and the
Regions, 1999a). For instance, Table 1 illustrates that empty running for all
goods vehicles in 2005 was 27.4% (Department for Transport, 2006a),
representing 6,103 million kilometres when vehicles were driven unladen, but
were contributing to noise and air pollution, congestion, and health and safety
issues. Although fewer in number than other types of truck, over a third of
journeys undertaken by rigids over 25-tonnes are run empty.
Table 1 Percentage empty running by vehicle type in 2005
Vehicle type & size (gvw
% empty
tonnes)
running
Rigid vehicles
Over 3.5 to 7.5
27.5
Over 7.5 to 17
23.6
Over 17 to 25
25.0
Over 25
35.3
All rigids
28.4
Articulated vehicles
Over 3.5 to 33
23.6
Over 33
26.8
All artics
26.5
All vehicles
27.4
Source: Department for Transport, 2006a
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Over the last 30 years in the UK the proportion of empty running by trucks has
steadily declined, with resultant economic and environmental benefits (McKinnon
& Ge, 2006); although in the last couple of years this downward trend has faltered,
leaving the question as to whether stable levels have been reached. Ultimately
though, some transport practitioners believe that empty running will stabilise at
around the mid- to low 20s% (McKinnon, 2006, per. comm.).
Within these overall figures there can be wide variations between sectors, even
when different fleets are engaged in similar delivery patterns. Lonardi &
Baumgartner (2004) found that in Germany the container transportation business
recorded almost half their truck kilometers as running empty (48%), whilst in
Britain the retail sector tends to have slightly lower than average empty running of
vehicles (McKinnon, 2004). This may possibly be explained by the sector using
dedicated equipment, such as roll cages that are not necessarily classed as
empty running when returned from supermarkets (Department for Transport,
2003a). Despite being essential to the retail logistics operation, dedicated
equipment could be consolidated into returns of fewer trips, thereby freeing-up
vehicle capacity for other deliveries (Department for the Environment, Transport
and the Regions, 1999b).
Causes of empty running are numerous. ECR Europe (2000) list the following:
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Generally, the heavier the vehicle, the greater the lading factor, with the road
freight sector as a whole having a lading factor of 57% in 2005 (Table 2). This
overall value though has fallen in recent years, reflecting the trends towards the
carriage of lightweight goods, notably food and electronics (Skills for Logistics,
2005).
Table 2 Lading factor by vehicle type in 2005
Vehicle type & size (gvw
% lading
tonnes)
factor
Rigid vehicles
Over 3.5 to 7.5
41
Over 7.5 to 17
39
Over 17 to 25
46
Over 25
64
All rigids
53
Articulated vehicles
Over 3.5 to 33
43
Over 33
59
All artics
58
All vehicles
57
Source: Department for Transport, 2006a
Combining the ratio of empty-running and the laden factor suggests that on the
average km travelled in 2005 UK trucks carried only 45.7% of the total possible
load. Compared with other EU countries, the UK has average payloads a third
below the EU-wide average, at just 9-tonnes, although this figure is increasing
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year-on-year (Eurostat, 2006). These ratios indicate that there are considerable
opportunities to improve overall vehicle utilisation in the UK.
Assessing vehicle fill for the industry as a whole is problematic as analysis of the
available data for the UK reveals that there is no systematic collection of
volumetric data on road freight flows. McKinnon (2003) commented that collecting
such volumetric data would be hard on a consistent basis. As a result, only a few
studies have been undertaken on the cube utilisation of vehicles, and these tend
to be one-off surveys (Mackie & Harding, 1983; McKinnon & Campbell, 1997;
Samuelson & Tilanus, 1997; Department for the Environment, Transport and the
Regions, 1999b).
In a 48-hour survey examining the trips undertaken by 46 vehicle fleets across the
UK, just over a half (54%) of the journeys carried pallets to an average height of
1.5-1.7m (Department for the Environment, Transport and the Regions, 1999b), a
height that corresponded to approximately the maximum slot height of most
warehouse racking systems.
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Deck-area is usually the confining factor when there are tight limits on the stacking
height of products. Again, using the data from the 48-hour survey, when average
height utilisation (65%) was multiplied by average deck-area coverage (78%) an
estimate of 50% for the cube utilisation of vehicles on loaded trips was calculated
(Department for the Environment, Transport and the Regions, 1999b).
According to the food transport KPI survey, the average truck spent just over a
third of its time (28%) running on the road. Loading and unloading adds an
additional 16% to the time, whilst it remains empty or idle for 28% of the time.
(McKinnon and Ge, 2004). IGD (2003) found that this idle-time was considerably
greater, at up to 47% of a typical day (IGD, 2003).
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Taking these five aspects into account, the use of a vehicle is assessed on its
availability, performance and quality of delivery. For instance, if a vehicle fleet has
an availability of 87%, a performance of 55% and a quality of 100%, as in the case
of the company examined by Simons et al. (2004), the OVE is 48% (87x55x100).
The rigorous combination effect of this ratio led the authors to state that the OVE
is a severe test and provides a full measure of the vehicles effectiveness and
productivity, and they recommended its use both by government and individual
companies for assessing overall transport effectiveness.
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Figure 1
Weekly demand pattern for one of the major UK bread
producers (no of loafs)
Thousands
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
SUN
MON
TUE
WED
THU
FRI
SAT
A case study of one of the largest bread and morning goods manufacturers in the
UK has shown great variations in the daily sales figures and resulting
transportation needs (Figure 1). Additionally, due to the nature of the productsmainly bread and rolls- all customers require deliveries in the morning to have the
merchandise ready on shelves at the store opening time. This prevents the
company from optimising its transportation resources and the vehicles run
inevitably only partially loaded on the less busy days. Keeping this spare capacity
is necessary, as the final demand for transport is not known until the late
afternoon of the day proceeding the delivery date, which make transportation
planning very challenging.
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larger vehicles (Copper et al., 1994) and produce more pollution. The average
small van (1.5- tonnes) generates around 4.6 times more CO2 per tonne km
moved (Department for Transport, 2003a).
With regard to overall transport efficiency, JIT has the effect of depressing vehicle
load factors (McKinnon, 2000b), and in the absence of buffer stocks, production
and distribution, operations become much more vulnerable to departures from the
delivery schedule (Cooper, 1994).
Low inventory policies and JIT delivery are now the norm in many industrial
sectors and road transport operations have largely adapted to the related
scheduling requirements. Recently there have been calls for the abandonment of
JIT on environmental grounds. For example, Goricks has pleaded that we need
to step back from this approach or we will never optimise vehicle fill (Gorick, 2006,
pp.26). Increasing transport costs and declining delivery reliability on congested
infrastructure may also force a relaxation of JIT replenishment.
3.1.3 Postponement
Postponement involves delaying the customization of products and/ or the
dispersal of inventory as long as possible, preferably until the customer has
placed an order. It has been motivated primarily by the desire to reduce inventory,
though can also have the effect of improving transport utilization (van Hoek & van
Dierdonck, 2000). It often results in processes which add volume and weight to a
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product (such as packaging) being delayed until they reach a point close to the
final customer (McKinnon and Forster, 2001; Twede et al., 2000) It can also
entail holding inventory back at a central location until a consolidated load has
accumulated. On the other hand, logistics postponement (Pagh and Cooper,
1998), like JIT delivery, can involve using less-than-truck load deliveries to
minimise response-times from the initial order to delivery. The dispatch of orders
from central locations (such as factories or national distribution centres) directly to
customers also increases the amount of packaging requiring, adversely affecting
vehicle utilisation (Garnett, 2003).
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This is a prediction, that Fernie et al. (2000) state, has not gone unnoticed by retail
logistics managers in the UK, who perceive traffic congestion to be a future issue
for the retail grocery industry. In recent years, greater priority has been given,
particularly in the FMCG sector, to transport optimisation (e.g. ECR UK, 2005).
This has been partly motivated by concern about increasing traffic congestion.
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average ages of articulated and rigid vehicles about 4.6 and 6.2 years
respectively (DVLA, 2006) (Appendices A & B).
PM10
277
141
86
71
CO2
361
361
361
361
407
371
224
185
591
523
483
483
29
40
31
22
101
107
88
61
981
1173
809
560
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The transport KPI surveys in the food supply chain also found evidence of
refrigerated lorries being pre-loaded many hours before they were due to leave in
order to smooth workloads in the cold store. This improved staff productivity in the
warehouse, but at the expense of vehicle operating efficiency and energy
consumption. Usually much more energy is required to keep loads refrigerated in
a truck than in a cold storage.
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Euro
pallet
40
15
25
0.83
24.17
Slip sheet
40
15
25
0.17
24.83
No Tertiary
Item
40
15
25
0
25
96.7
99.3
100
Also, as is evident from Table 5, the very presence of teritiary packaging impacts
on vehicle utilization by reducing the available product payload (ECR Europe,
2000). Many companies trade-off poorer vehicle utilization for more efficient
loading and unloading. It appears therefore, that in optimizing the trade-off
between transport, handling and damage costs the under-utilisation of vehicle
space is almost inevitable (McKinnon, 2003a).
Even so, it should be noted that an inadequate logistical interface will lead to poor
handling times within the warehouse, at the despatch bay and in stores, and
under-utilisation of vehicles, resulting in additional vehicle journeys and increased
stop times.
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Importantly for transport scheduling, the WTD also state a maximum of 10-hours
work in any 24-hours, if night-time working is included (Department for Transport,
2005a; Lowe, 2007). Although already implemented, the Road Transport
legislation will not come into effect fully until 2009 when owner-drivers must
adhere to the regulations.
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It was feared that the WTD would reduce the take-up of backhauling opportunities
within the industry. It is not yet known to what extend the WTD has had this effect.
Clarke and Smeeton (2003) also argued that the introduction of the WTD,
particularly its effects on night working, would mean more vehicles travelling at
peak times, causing more congestion and an increase in pollution. It may also
make it difficult for some companies to take advantage of the proposed relaxation
of current night delivery curfews, outlined in a recently-issued guidance note
(Department for Transport, 2006c; Freight Transport Association, 2006).
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Logistical Efficiency
Vehicle Efficiency
Driver Efficiency
Route Efficiency
Saunders et al. (2006), on the other hand, has argued that to use the concept of
food miles alone in comparisons is spurious as it does not consider total energy
use especially in the production of the product. Similar views have been
expressed by Mason et al. (2002) and DEFRA (2005). Full life-cycle analysis is
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4.1.2 Backloading
Backloading is a key priority in reducing inefficiencies in vehicle utilisation (whilst
increasing overall vehicle load factors) (McKinnon & Ge, 2006; Sankaran et al.,
2005; Department for Transport, 2005b). The result, when employed effectively,
is overall improved operational efficiency, reduced emissions and lower road
congestion. As such, backhauling in the grocery retail sector became a key
feature in retailers logistics strategies (Fernie et al., 2000). Rather than a vehicle
returning empty from delivery to a store, where possible, it would return via a
suppliers factory or warehouse.
During the mid-1990s, Tesco implemented such a system with its Supplier
Collection and Onward Supply Schemes, thereby eliminating primary and
secondary return journeys. The result was considerable fuel savings and vehicle
usage was reduced by around 3 million journeys per annum (Department for the
Environment, Transport and the Regions, 1998b).
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4.1.3 Postponement
Such initiatives as Just-in-Time, Efficient Consumer Response, Quick Response
and Supply Chain Management strategies all assist in shortening order lead times
and reducing inventory. Twede et al. (2000) argued that waiting until the last
moment to add packaging could have substantial benefits through reduced
inventory and transportation costs. In spite of concerns regarding transport
implications, logistics postponement can help to remove uncertainty in product
demand across geographical markets. It is less likely that items will either stockpile at one location or stock-out at another, as finished inventory is kept at a
central location, and shipped directly only on demand.
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levels of load consolidation, drop density and vehicle utilisation, thus leading to
cost savings and reduced overall environmental impact of the transport operation
(McKinnon, 2006).
However, introduction of NDDS meets often a great opposition for sales and
marketing managers, fearing that the imposition of ordering constraints will
weaken the companys competitive position and jeopardise sales. Nevertheless,
the experience of companies operating NDDS contradicts this view (McKinnon,
2000a). Furthermore, research conducted by Zografos and Giannouli has shown
that a substantial increase in NDD is expected in all sectors where this concept is
applicable (Zografos & Giannouli, 2001).
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boxes to domestic users have so far proved unsuccessful, causing their suppliers
to re-orient their marketing from the B2C to the B2B sector. Unattended delivery
of spare parts, sales catalogues and business parcels is increasing.
Recent
innovations in the unattended delivery solutions (e.g. Shopbox) are likely to further
support managers in optimising their resources in the future (Anon, 2006a).
4.1.5 Telematics
Route and load planning are essential to maximize vehicle utilization and reduce
the incidence of empty-running (McKinnon, 2003b), yet little work has so far been
undertaken on transport efficiency and fuel savings that can be achieved from ITbased systems . Most guides to the subject concentrate on the technology
software and its use (Department for Transport, 2003c).
As route and scheduling efficiency are the focus of another report, they will not be
considered further here.
a potential reduction of 28% in the mileage associated with transporting less-thantruckload consignments to RDCs. The number of PCCs in the UK grocery supply
chain increased from 11 in 1998 to over 100 by 2003 (IGD, 2003).
The 500 suppliers of the Co-op Group found considerable savings from the
opening of its National DC in Coventry in early 2005. Fewer trips were made, and
with predominantly full truck loads and full pallets (Rowat, 2006). The end result
for the Co-op Group was that product availability was maintained at 95% plus, and
wine promotion availability increased from the low 90s% to 97% (Rowat, 2006).
A recent study
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(Cranfield University et al., 2004) has suggested that savings of 20-40% could be
made in the reverse logistics channel for returned retail products, many of them in
the transport function.
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decorative opportunities to please the designers and marketers, but it also saves
20% in space, and allows a weight reduction of 15% compared with traditional
cans, thus improving load performance (Sonneveld, 2000).
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Transco National Logistics, when acquiring more tractor units, considered CNG
vehicles, as they were perceived to be cleaner and to produce less exhaust
emissions than diesel-operated vehicles (Department for Transport, 2003a). The
food retailer, Somerfield, already has 300 CNG-powered vehicles in service (Lowe,
2007), and these vehicles are much quieter (anything up to 10dB quieter) than
conventional diesel-powered vehicles, so are more suitable for night-time
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Biofuels
These liquid fuels are produced either from plant materials or organic waste oils
and fats. Within this group, biodiesel is the substitute for diesel, and having
similar physical characteristics to diesel, it is typically mixed with diesel in lowpercentage blends (E5 and E10). Biodiesel performs favourably in terms of
carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions, although emits more
nitrogen oxides (NOx) than conventional diesel (Khare & Sharma, 2003). So far
there have been almost no reported incompatibility issues with the use of blended
mixes (International Energy Agency, 2004), so the appeal of E5 and E10 is that
they can be used in normal diesel engines, without the need for modifications or
engine adjustments. Truck manufacturers are reluctant to approve higher %
biodiesel blends as these could adversely affect engine life and performance and
increase maintenance costs.
AF are making only slow progress in the market place owing to higher initial
procurement costs for AF technology, and in some cases, the fuels themselves
are more costly than conventional diesel (Schipper & Fulton, 2003). To this end
the HM Treasury impose significantly lower fuel tax on AF. From 7 December
2006 ultra-low sulphur petrol and diesel, as well as sulphur-free petrol and diesel
are liable for duty of 48.35 pence per litre (ppl). Biodiesel and bioethanol are
liable for duty of 28.35 ppl. As higher production and distribution costs largely
offset this fuel duty differential, the pump price offers little financial incentive to
switch to biofuel.
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Transport managers may need to convince skeptical drivers of the worth of such
schemes. Any trainer coming into a company will need to be an accomplished
driver themselves, who is able to demonstrate their lessons in practice on the road
(Department for Transport, 2002). Additionally, visible management support will
give credibility to any training schemes, although again reassurances need to be
given that drivers jobs are not being assessed and therefore put at risk.
Strategies may include assessing drivers knowledge and skills at the recruitment
stage, providing on-going training, development and training plans, as well as
giving feedback and league tables on driver and company performance
(Department for Transport, 2005c). Such training is likely to become mandatory
by 2009, under EU Directive 2003/59, when every new driver entering the industry
will have to hold a Certificate of Professional Competence (CPC). Existing drivers
will have to renew their CPC every five years by demonstrating that they have
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undergone the equivalent of 35 hours formal training over that period (Hagan,
2005).
Owing to their reduced tread, energy-efficient tyres may need replacing more
frequently than standard tyres, although using re-treads and remoulds that have
the same resistance as new tyres, may be a cost-effective alternative, at least in
monetary terms (Department for Transport, 2005d). Even the use of
inappropriate standard tyres may affect a vehicles energy-efficient. A UK-based
industrial gas company noticed that two of its vehicles were fitted with wide, single
tyres on the steer axle. By replacing these with standard-width tyres, 3.5% fuel
savings were observed (Department for Transport, 2002). Under-inflation of tyres
also significantly impairs the fuel efficiency of trucks.
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Any potential savings, however, are affected by three key issues (ETSU &
MIRA, 2001).
1. The higher the speed the greater the effect of aerodynamic drag on fuel
economy, with savings being most readily achieved on motorways, where
high constant speeds can be maintained.
2. The larger the cross-sectional area of the front of the vehicle, the higher the
aerodynamic drag.
3. Poor initial aerodynamic design will increase the overall drag, although this
may be overcome by aerodynamic add-on equipment.
Such aerodynamic stylings are generally financially self-funding in the short term.
BOC, the industrial gas company, despite achieving a reasonably modest 4%
improvement in fuel consumption when trialling an Air Flow Deflector kit, found
that the kit paid for itself in fuel savings in five-months (Department for Transport,
2002).
Trailer modification
When there is considerable height differential between a cab (even one fitted with
aerodynamic styling) and the trailer, the boxy vertical front bulkhead of the trailer
offers great resistance and therefore is extremely inefficient. Recently, several
trailer tests have indicated fuel savings with the use of aerodynamically-profiled
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Tractor add-ons
TNT Express reported average fuel savings of 15.8% when they tested
aerodynamic styling equipment fitted to two 32-tonne tractor units over a 10-month
trial period (Department for Transport, 2006d). Not only did CO2 savings amount
to over 29,000kg per vehicle per year, but drivers reported both a smoother ride
and improved performance, especially in head-wind conditions. Importantly, the
cab roof deflector accounted for 85% of the fuel savings, allowing hauliers who do
not operate their own trailers to benefit from aerodynamic adaptations to their
tractor units (Department for Transport, 2006d).
Other issues
The gap between the cab and the trailer significantly affects the drag of a vehicle.
By reducing this cab-gap, fuel economies can be improved by between 1-7%
(Department for Transport, 2004d). The proposed Blade Runner (road-rail hybrid)
vehicle uses a fifth-wheel, turnable coupling that eliminates the gap between the
cab and the trailer all together (Henderson, 2005).
The lighter the vehicles tare (empty) weight, the greater will be its efficiency.
Lonardi & Baumgartner (2004), using the mass-kilometres ratio, calculated that
on the assumption that all German companies below 0.5tkm/mkm bought the
lightest vehicle available (then 11-tonnes), a potential reduction of 20% in CO2
emissions from road freight could have been achieved. No work has been found
on actual case studies.
some devices are not cost effective when their life-cycle cost is estimated and
parameters like additional maintenance, effects on neighboring components, and
reduced accessibility are included.
The routing and timing of journeys can play a part, as two trucks when driven in
tandem always present less drag than trucks operating in isolation. Hammache et
al. (2001) established, using wind tunnel experiments, that total drag savings for
two trucks in tandem could be as much as 30%.
Here in the UK the freight industry is unusual in having no legal maximum height
of trucks, whereas most of the EU operates to a maximum height of 4.2m
(McKinnon, 2005). As a result, British hauliers have tended to adopt a maximum
height of 5m, partly reflecting the height-clearance requirements for DD buses on
UK roads. Consequently, the number of high cube and double-deck trucks has
increased dramatically over the last few years (Adams, 2006, pers. comm.).
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Within the EU, regulations permit a maximum vehicle length of 18.75m including
trailers (EU 96/53 EG). By combining a tractor and trailer and swap body, greater
overall lengths of up to 25.25m can be achieved in a so-called modular system.
This combination is based on the CEN standardized 7.82m long unit load carrier
and the 13.6m long semi-trailer (Swedish National Road Administration, 1999).
Since 1997, those countries using this modular-concept have been exempt from
regulation (EU96/53 EG), allowing trucks in Sweden and Finland to operate up to
25.25m. Consequently, Sweden, Norway and Denmark have increased their
maximum vehicle weights to 60-tonnes, 50-tonnes and 48-tonnes respectively
(Ramberg, 2004). A Dutch trial, using the Swedish-Finnish truck lengths, has
recently been completed and initial results seem promising.
Nevertheless, the general public are not in favour of bigger trucks. A recent NOP
poll, (commissioned by ASLEF, the train drivers union) found that 67% of those
polled were against their introduction, with 86% of respondents in favour of a rail
alternative (Anon, 2006b). Whilst issues of safety and increased congestion have
been raised against LHVs, supporters of these vehicles claim that LHVs improve
fuel efficiency by an average of 20%, trip frequency is reduced by an average of
32.7% and cost savings are about 23% (Backman & Nordstrm, 2002; Ramberg,
2004).
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It also appears that wear and tear on road surfaces is also reduced, as any
damage is affected by the weight per axle passing over the road (Swedish
National Road Administration, 1999). Trucks of 25.25m have 7 or 8 axles
compared with the 5 or 6 axles on a standard-regulation truck, meaning that
vehicles using the modular system actually have lower average weight per axle,
and therefore, potentially inflict less damage to road surfaces (Ramberg, 2004).
UK experience of LHVs
In the UK, two hauliers, Dick Denby and Stan Robinson, have been promoting the
use of LHVs, and the comparative characteristics of their rigs are displayed in
Table 6.
Table 6 Comparative LHV characteristics for Robinsons & Denbys rigs
Characteristics
Robinsons rig
Denbys Eco-Link
Axles
11
8
Overall weight (tonnes)
84
60
Length
30m approx.
25.5m
Capacity (imperial pallets) 52
42
Capacity (Euro pallets)
78
59
Fuel consumption
4.92mpg
6.42mpg
Source: adapted from Basey (2006) & Anon (2005)
Denbys rig conforms to current EU dimensions and during independent tests,
achieved better fuel consumption than the Robinson rig, yet the Robinson rig is
more practical as it requires only slight modification of the standard tractor and
semi-trailer (Basey, 2006), and although using 54% more fuel than a conventional
44-tonne truck, carries twice the payload (Anon, 2005). In addition, Denbys EcoLink would take up less road space than conventional articulated trucks to carry
the same payload and overall trip frequency would be reduced (Weatherley, 2004).
Based on a major retailers actual weekly deliveries from a NDC to its RDCs, the
Eco-link in combination with DD and conventional single-deck trailers reduced
vehicle journeys by 35% (Basey, 2006).
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This report has highlighted that there is considerable scope for improving transport
efficiency across the freight industry, and transport managers have a plentiful
supply of advice and guidance on measures that can be implemented to make
their operations more efficient, and, therefore, more sustainable.
What is noticeable, however, is that the format of this advice (mostly presented
through the governments Freight Best Practice Programme) is given in a rather
fragmented, piecemeal way. Admittedly, there are some excellent case studies
outlining green champions within the industry, but for a transport manager
making initial enquiries, there is no one source of guidance, nor indeed a
framework for them to systematically work through. Likewise, currently there is a
scarcity of academic studies (with some notable exceptions!) on green transport
management, leaving plenty of possibilities for future work in this area.
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Uncertainty
Although there are some measures to assess the effects of each of the proposed
improvements, there is still uncertainty about the relationships between all the
factors as they are interdependent.
Trends
Likewise, it is difficult to predict future trends because of the complex interrelationships between the various parameters in the system.
Methods/Techniques/Tools
For academic studies, conducted a literature search using library databases
covering the major journals in the logistics and transport field. In addition other
operations management journals were considered. Additionally, guidance advice
notes published by the government were reviewed.
Sectors
All
Geography
Global, with emphasis on the UK
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