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Corrosionofweldedcomponentsinmarineenvironments(April2003)
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CorrosionofWeldedComponentsinMarineEnvironments
StuartBond
MICorr,NACESeniorCorrosionTechnologist,TWI
Preparedfor:PreventionandManagementofMarineCorrosion,London,23April2003.LloydsListEvents.

Summary
Weldinginfluencesmaterialpropertiesandmustbeconsideredintermsofdesignandinitialfabricationandany
subsequentrepairduringthelifeofavessel.Additionally,newfabricationprocessesarebeingdevelopedsuchaslaser
andlaserhybridwelding,frictionstirweldingofaluminiumalloysandimprovedwetunderwaterrepair,necessitating
understandingofthecorrosionperformanceofsuchnewweldmentswhichmaybeusedinthemarineshipping
industry.
Theissuesinfluencingthecorrosionperformanceofweldedcarbonandlowalloysteels,corrosionresistantalloysand
aluminiumalloysarepresented.Possibleissuesrelatedtowetunderwaterrepairweldsforpermanentsolutionsare
highlighted.Coatingofweldmentscanbemoredifficultthanparentmaterialduetotheweldprofileandaccessibility,
whilstfatigueatweldsmaycausecoatingfailure.Futureapplicationsofimprovedcoatingsbasedonthermallysprayed
aluminiumtoprotectcarbonsteelsandcorrosionresistantalloysinthemarineenvironmentisdiscussed.
Recommendationsofareasforfurtherassessmentintermsoflongtermcorrosionperformanceofweldsandcorrosion
fatigueinsouroilstoragetanksareprovided.

Introduction
Weldinginfluencesmaterialpropertiesandmustbeconsideredintermsofdesignandinitialfabricationandany
subsequentrepairduringthelifeofavessel.Additionally,newfabricationprocessesarebeingdevelopedsuchaslaser
andlaserhybridwelding,frictionstirweldingofaluminiumalloysandimprovedwetunderwaterrepair,necessitating
understandingofthecorrosionperformanceofsuchnewweldmentswhichmaybeusedinthemarineshipping
industry.Commentismaderegardingtheavailabilityofinformationrelatedtocorrosionperformanceofsuch
weldments.Theseareasarediscussedintermsofthepresentknowledge,orexperienceinothersectorsandthe
potentialareasforfuturedevelopmenttoenhancecorrosionmitigationmeasuresavailableinthemanagementof
marinecorrosionintheshippingindustry.
Generally,ifthecorrosionmitigationmeasuresarecorrectlyappliedandgoodinspectionandmaintenanceadheredto,
thenweldsshouldnotposeanyincreasedriskofcorrosionfailure,butownersmustunderstandthepotentialissues
associatedwithweldsandlikelihoodofcorrosione.g.coatingfailureatwelds.Inoptimisingmaintenancestrategies,it
isessentialthereforethatconsiderationbegiventothelikelihoodofcorrosionratesatweldmentsbeinghigherthan
theanticipatedrateforunweldedparentmaterial.
Corrosionmitigationviabarriercoatingsremainsthelargestcorrosionrelatedcosttoallindustrialsectorsworldwide,
withorganiccoatingsaccountingfor88%(US$107billion)oftheannualUSAexpenditureoncorrosioncontrolmethods
andservices,andmetalliccoatingsaccountingforUS$1.4billionperannumin2002.[1,2]Theestimatedannualcostof
corrosionfortheUSmarineshippingindustryin2002wasUS$2.7billion,withsomeUS$1.1billionexpendedonnew
build,US$0.8billiononmaintenanceandrepair,andUS$0.8billionduetodowntime.Improvedcoatingsdesignedto
lastthelifetimeofavesselofferopportunitiesforreducedwholelifecosts.Developmentsintheoil$gassectorusing
thermallysprayedaluminiummaybeapplicabletotheshipbuildingandshippingsectortoproducecoatingswith
improvedprotectioncharacteristicsandlifetofirstmaintenance.
Corrosionresistantalloys(CRAs)areusuallyselectedbasedontheirinherentresistancetoattackinmarineexposure
ortoavoidadditionaloperationalcostsassociatedwithcorrosionmitigationofsteel.Additionally,andprobablymore
frequently,CRAsmaybechosenforthecontainmentofprocessconditionsrelatedtooilandgasproductionfacilities,
transportationofchemicalsetcbutmaybesubjecttoexternalexposuretothemarineenvironment.Whensuch
exposureiscombinedwithresidualstressandhighoperatingtemperatures,itcanleadtolocalisedcorrosionand
environmentallyassistedcrackingatweldments.

Weldedcarbonsteelandlowalloysteelsinmarineenvironments
Introductorycomments
Whilstweldingcanhavesignificantinfluenceuponthecorrosionperformanceofmaterials,forcarbonsteelsexposed
tomarineenvironments,itisrecognisedthatbestpracticeinmitigationofgeneralcorrosionthroughcoatings,
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cathodicprotectionorinhibitionwillusuallyalsoavoidanyenhancedattackatweldments.However,wherethese
measuresfail,orareinadequate,thecorrosionbehaviourofaweldmentcanbesignificantlydifferenttothatof
unweldedparentmaterial.
Theuseofhigherstrengthsteelsforoffshoreandshippingapplicationshasbeenstudiedforoverfourdecades,
primarilywithconcernformechanicalperformanceincoldwatersandalsowithregardtotheissueofpreferential
weldmentcorrosionwhichisdiscussedlater.Increasingthestrengthofthestructuralsteeloffersthebenefitof
reducedsteelweight/physicaldimensionsandhenceallowsincreasedvesselcapacity.[3]Higherstrengthsteelssuch
asthoseproducedbyTMCP(thermomechanicallycontrolledprocessing)orlowalloysteelscanbeused.TMCP
processingallowsthederivationofhigherstrengthcomparedwithnormalisedproductfromtheidenticalsteel
chemistry,throughthedeformationandstrainingoccurringduringmanufactureofthesheet.[4]Conversely,ifaTMCP
materialofidenticalstrengthtoanormalisedproductwereselected,theformerwouldhavealeanercomposition.
TMCPsteelsmanufacturedwithacceleratedcoolingareweldable,providedcareistakentouseamoderatelylowheat
input(<2.5kJ/mmfor15mmplate)suchthatthecoolingrateishighandthereforethefinegrainsizingleadingtothe
desiredpropertiesdevelopedduringmanufacturecanberetained.TMCPsteelsmanufacturedwithoutaccelerated
coolingaremorereadilyweldableasthereislessconcernregardingheataffectedzone(HAZ)softening.
Themajorissueassociatedwiththeuseofhigherstrengthsteels,suchasTMCPgrades,intheshippingindustry
relatestothefactthatdesignallowsthematerialtobethinner.Consequently,whenthesamemaintenancestrategies
havebeenappliedasforcarbonsteels(whereacertainamountofcorrosionlossofwallsectioncanbetolerated),this
canleadtothroughwallpenetrationofthethinner,higherstrengthmaterial.Itisessential,therefore,thatfull
considerationbegiventothelikelihoodofcorrosion,thecorrosionrateandconsequencesofthroughwallfailurewhen
consideringcorrosionmitigationandselectionofcoatingsystem.Higherstrengthsteelsalsoleadtosomeconcerns
regardingthelossofrigidityofthevesselstructure[2]andtheapparentincreasedcorrosionratesreportedforsuch
steelsmaybeascribedtothespallingofcorrosionproductsduetotheflexingmovementofthesubstrate.This
spallingremovestheoverlyingironoxides,etc,andhenceeliminatesthediffusionratecontrollingstepforoxygen
accesstotheregion,allowingcorrosiontooccuronfreshlyexposed,activematerial.
EarlierdevelopmentsonhigherstrengthsteelsfocuseduponimprovedstrengththroughMnadditionsandretentionof
HAZtoughnessviatheadditionofalloyingelementssuchasNb,TiandVetc.[5]Suchsteels,intheunwelded
condition,haveacorrosionperformanceforimmersedconditionsverysimilartothatforcarbonsteel.[3]Inaddition,
weldmentsinhardenablehigherstrengthgradesofsteelcanbesusceptibletopreferentialcorrosionwhenimmersed,
sothatinregionswherelossofcoatingcanoccurthroughabrasion,impactorwear,additionaleffortisrequiredto
ensurepreferentialcorrosionwillnottakeplace.

Corrosionandcorrosionfatigueinseawaterandsplashzone
Themostcommoncorrosionissueassociatedwithcarbonsteelsinshippingistheexternalcorrosionofthehull,and
corrosionratewillbedependentuponconditionsofoperation.Ingeneral,nocorrosionallowanceismadeinshipping
design,[2]primarilyduetoexpectationofmitigationviacoatingsandcathodicprotection(CP).Theaveragecorrosion
rateforparentcarbonsteelunderconditionsoftotalimmersioninseawaterisestimatedas0.1mmperannum,[2,3,6]
and0.40.5mmperannuminsplashzones[6]duetohigheroxygenavailability.Initialratesinshorttermexposure
willbehigherandincreasedtemperaturecanhaveasignificanteffect.Thevelocityofthewaterwillhaveanimpact
andaflowrateof1.5m.s1willincreasebythreetimesthecorrosionrateinquiescentconditions.[6]However,as
discussedlater,thecorrosionrateofanimmersedweldmentcanbeconsiderablyhigherthanparentmaterial,and
cautionisneededinestimatingthelikelycorrosionthatwilloccurintheeventofcoatingfailureifCPisinadequateor
theweldisinthesplashzone.
CorrosionfatiguecrackpropagationforTMCPsteelsinseawaterwasstudiedbyNakanoetal[7]regardingcomparison
ofTMCPandnormalisedsteelgradesinartificialseawateratfreecorrosionpotentialandwithcathodicprotection,but
significantlyweldswerenotassessed.Theyconcludedthattherewasnodifferenceinthecrackpropagationrate
betweenthesesteelsinseawater,orintheaccelerationmeasuredundercathodicprotection.Weldsareinvariablythe
pointofconcernforfatigueandcorrosionfatigue.TWIhasworkedonthesubjectofcorrosionfatigueofweldsunder
CPanddemonstratedthatcrackpropagationratescanbehigherinhardenedweldareamicrostructuresthanthe
parentmaterial.[8,9]

Atmosphericcorrosionofweldedsteelsanddegradationinullagespaces
Atmosphericcorrosionofsteelinmarineenvironmentscanrangefrom0.03mmperannumintemperatezonesto
0.07mmperannumintropicalcoastallocations,[10]attributedtoincreasedtemperatureandhumidity.Atmospheric
corrosionratesforshippingwouldbeexpectedtobefaster,necessitatingcoatingsthatcanprovidelongterm
protectionandhavegoodresistancetoundercutting.Corrosioninoccludedareasandullagespaces,whenoxygenis
present,canbefasterthanonexternalsurfacesespeciallywherethetanksarehotorambienttemperaturesarehigh.
Typically,basedontheArrheniusrelationshipfortherateofreaction,a10Cincreaseintemperaturecandoublethe
corrosionrate,thusprovidingparticularconcernforshippingoperatingintropicalandequatorialwaters,orcarrying
hotoilcargo.Acidiccondensatefromoilcargocanalsoacceleratecorrosionintankullage.[2]
Whilstpreferentialweldmentcorrosionisnotbelievedtobeaconcerninmarineatmospheresorullagespacesdueto
thepresenceofonlythinaqueousfilmsthatlimitthearearatioofanodetocathode,weldmentscanbeareasof
corrosionsusceptibilityintheseconditionsduetoissuessuchas:

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Difficultyingoodsurfacepreparationpriortocoatingatfabricationandentrapmentofweldingslag,crevice
formation,etc
Inaccessibleregionsleadingtodifficultyinobtaininggoodcoatingapplication,difficultyininspectionanddifficult
maintenance/recoating,
Weldsarelocationswherefatiguedamagetothesubstratewilloccurpreferentiallyduetothestressconcentration
associatedwiththegeometryoftheweldtoe,leadingtocrackingoftheprotectivecoating
Jointdesignmayleadtoformationofcrevicesorregionswheredebriscanaccumulateleadingtomorecorrosive
conditions.

Copperalloyingadditiontosteelhasbeenshowntobebeneficialinatmosphericcorrosion,forminganadherent
patina,e.g.weatheringsteelssuchasCorTen,buttherearenobenefitsderivedfromlongtermimmersion [10,11]and
theyarenotsuitableforsalineconditionsduetothedetrimentalinfluenceofchlorideions.[3]Further,reference[3]
proposesthatlowalloysteelsinatmosphericcorrosionmayoffersomebenefitoverthecarbonsteelsduetothe
formationofmoredenseandtightlyadherentcorrosionproducts,whichthuswillnotcausesignificantundercutof
protectivecoatings.However,itisunknownwhetherpracticaladvantagehasbeengainedfromsuchaneffect.

Corrosionfatigueinoilstoragetanks
Wheresteelsareusedforthetanksholdingsour(hydrogensulphidecontaining)oilsthentheremaybeconcernabout
corrosionfatigueundersuchconditions.Therearelimiteddataavailableoncorrosionfatigueofmaterialsinsour
service,evenfortheoilandgassector,whichisnowgeneratingsuchinformationfordeepwaterriserapplications
[12,13]forweldedpipelinegradesteelssuchasAPI5LX65.However,fortheshippingindustrytheconcernrelatesto
thehandlingofcrudeoilinstoragetanksonFPSOandoncrudeoiltankers,andtheperformanceofweldedsteelplate
usedforthehullandstoragetanks.Watanabeetal[14]studiedthefatigueperformanceofTMCPsteels(yield
strengthsapprox.415MPa),acarbonmanganesesteel(yieldstrength291MPa)andweldedjointsincrudeoilwith
400ppmH2Sandconcludedthataccelerationofcrackgrowthratefortheweldoccurredinbothsteelstothesame

extentcomparedwithair(approximately7XtherateforparentsteelsatK30MPa.m1/2)andincreasingfurtheras
Kincreases.Thisiscitedasconsistentwithothersteelsinsimilarconditionsandindicatesconservativelythat
corrosionfatiguelifeofsteelinsourcrudeoilmaybeabout1/10ththatinair,butisnotapparentlydependentupon
thesteel.Forweldedrisers,thereductioninfatiguelifemaybeasmuchas20X.[13]However,thistopicasnoted
above,issubjecttoongoingassessmentforoil&gasriserapplicationsandthefindingsmayindicateneedfor
generationofsimilardatafortheshippingindustryforcrudeoilcargotankersandshipshapedproductionvesselsdue
tothedifferentfatigueloadingregimeandtemperatures.

Preferentialweldmentcorrosionofcarbonsteel
Introductoryremarks
Theinfluenceofweldingonthecorrosionperformanceofsteelshasbeenstudiedformanyyears,reference[15]from
1959citingearlierworkonthesubjectofpreferentialcorrosionandapplyingmethodsofgalvanicmeasurement
betweenweldmetalandparentsteels.Suchcorrosionhasbeenreportedinarangeofdifferentenvironmentsfrom
arcticseawater,pipeworkhandlingseawaterforinjectiononoil&gaswells,toexamplesinoil&gasproduction
conditions,miningandchemicalprocessingandhasbeensubjecttoevaluationforsome40years.Corrosionhasbeen
observedingirthweldsandseamweldsinpipeandinweldsbetweenplatesinships,formanyfusionwelding
processes.Asdescribedbelow,preferentialweldmentcorrosioncanbegalvanicallyinduced,orrelatedtothe
microstructureassociatedwiththeHAZandweldmetal.
Afactwhichisfrequentlyoverlookedinthecaseofgalvanicallydrivenattack,particularlywhenengineersmaybe
morefamiliarwithconsideringthetypicalgalvanicseriesforselectionofdifferentmaterialswhicharecompatiblein
dissimilarcouples,isthatthepotentialdifferencebetweentheparentsteelandtheweldment(weldmetalorHAZ
beinganodic)mayonlybeabout1015mV.Insuchcasesthereisalargeuncoatedcathodicareaofparentsteelanda
smallanodicarea(weldmetalorHAZ),whichthenleadstothepreferentialweldmentcorrosion.Thereasonforthe
influenceofsurfaceareaisthatthecathodicreduction(dissolvedoxygenforminghydroxylions),whichoccursonthe
parentsteel,requiresabalancingoxidationattheanode(steelcorrosion).Toalargeextenttheefficiencyofthe
cathodicreactionwillgovernthecorrosionrateoftheanodicmaterial.
TheprobableexistenceofagalvaniccouplewasnotedinearlyworkonHAZcorrosionofweldedsteelcarryingacid
minewatersin1960,[16]buttheexpectationRobinsonnotedatthetimewasthatapotentialdifferenceofabout
100mVwasthoughttobeneeded,whichsubsequentlyhasbeenshownnottobethecase.HeattributedtheHAZ
corrosiontolocalhighresidualstressandhardenedmicrostructure,butlaterwork[17]notesthatthecauseismore
likelymicrostructuredependentbecausenormalisingcaneliminatetheproblembutstressreliefdidnot.
Interestingly,inthislattercasereferredtobyRobinson,[16]theexternalconditionsofconstantcondensationonthe
pipeworkalsoledtoenhancedattackatthewelds.TWIdoesnotbelievethatsimilarproblemshaveoccurredin
marineatmosphericconditions.Therefore,thisprobablyreflectsthespecificconditionsofalowpHacidicminewater
capableofinducinghighcorrosionratesandsolublecorrosionproducts,whereasthecorrosionproductswouldbe
moreadherentinmoistmarineconditions.
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Itishighlightedthatpreferentialweldmentcorrosiondoesnotimplythattheparentsteelisgalvanicallyprotectedby
thecorrodingweldment,butrather,theparentsteeliscorrodingatitsintrinsicrateandtheweldmentcorrosionis
acceleratedabovethisvalue.Accelerationofthecorrosionrateforsteelinseawaterservicemaybebetween23
timestherateforparentsteelalone,hencetheneedforcautionwhenconsideringthelikelihoodofcorrosionofhull
andtanksonshippingbasedsolelyondatapublishedforparentsteels.
Theeffectsoffusionweldingonsteelsandnonferrousmaterialsintermsofcorrosionbehaviourhavebeen
summarisedinmanypapers,[1721]andthekeyaspectstoconsiderforcarbonandlowalloysteelsare:
Theweldmetaliseffectivelyachillcastingduetotherapidcoolingrate,unlikethewroughtstructureofthe
adjacentparentmaterial,alsodifferinginbothcompositionandinclusioncontent.
Theparentmaterialexperiencestemperaturesrangingfromambientatsomedistancefromtheweld,uptothe
meltingpointatthefusionboundarywiththeweldmetal.Theconsequentialmetallurgicaltransformationsacross
theHAZsoformedcansignificantlyaffecttheintrinsiccorrosionrate.
Thethermalhistorywilldependonmanyinteractingfactorsincludingtheweldingheatinput,preheat,material
thickness,weldbeadsizeandsubsequentreheatfromadditionalweldpasses.
TheasdepositedhardnessoftheHAZwillbedependentuponthecarbonequivalentofthesteelandtheheat
input,withhighheatinputprocessessuchassubmergedarcwelding(SAW)leadingtolowhardnesswhilstlow
heatinputwithfastercoolingrateswillresultinincreasedhardness,e.g.manualmetalarc(MMA),tungsteninert
gas(TIG)andmetalinertgas/metalactivegas(MIG/MAG)processes.Thearcefficiencymustbeconsideredwhen
comparingtheheatinputfromdifferentprocesses.
TheweldmetalandHAZwillbecoveredbyanoxidescale,weldingslagandfluxresidue,andthesurfaceofthe
weldmetalwillberough,allofwhichcanaffectcorrosionbehaviourandcoatingadherence.
Theweldwillbeastressraiserinconsiderationoffatigueorstresscorrosionperformanceduetogeometric
featuressuchasflawsandtheweldprofile.
Duetothethermalexpansionandcontractionassociatedwithsolidificationoftheweld,residualstresseswill
remainafterweldingtypicallytensileandclosetotheyieldstrengthinthemostseverelocations.

Itshouldbenotedthattheweldmetalisinvariablyselectedforthenecessarymechanicalproperties,butwhereweld
metalcorrosionisaproblem,suitablecorrosionresistingconsumablescanbechosentoovercometheissuewhilst
retainingjointintegrity.
Casesofpreferentialweldmentcorrosionintheshippingindustrywerereportedandstudiedfromthe1960sonwards.
Originallyissuesrelatedtotheoccurrenceofattackonicebreakersandvesselsoperatinginicywaterswherethe
paintsystemwouldberemovedandoftentheCPsystemwasalsocompromised.Thiswasstillnotedtobeofconcern
forshippinginCanadianarcticwatersinthe1980s.[22]Thesubjectofpreferentialweldmentcorrosionofsteelhas
continuedtobestudiedthroughthe1960stothepresentday,[11,2234]bothintermsofthespecificissuesfor
shipbuildingandmoregenerallytogainunderstandingofthephenomena.Inthepastdecadehowever,mostresearch
dealingwiththisissuehasrelatedtotheoccurrenceoftheproblemintheoil&gassectorinsweetproduction
environments.[35]

Preferentialweldmetalcorrosion
Theoccurrenceofpreferentialweldmetalattackinmarineenvironmentshasbeenshowntorelatetothegalvanic
differencebetweentheweldmetalandtheparentsteelwhichcanbeinfluencedbythecompositionofthetwo
materials.However,evenwherethecompositionandstrengthareverysimilar,acceleratedweldmetalattackcantake
place[19]withthefluxtypeaffectingthelevelofacceleration,suchthattheratecanvaryfrombetween1.5to3
timestherateontheparentsteelwherebasiccoatedelectrodesareused.Lessaccelerationoccursifrutilecoated
electrodesareused.Thiswasattributedtotheinclusioncontentintheweldmetalandwhilstrutilecoatedelectrodes
performedbetter,thecorrosionratewasstillinexcessofthatoftheparentsteel.Highsiliconcontenthasbeen
establishedasdetrimentaltoweldmetalcorrosionperformanceinsomeprocessenvironmentsbutreference[36]
determinedthiswasnotthecaseinseawater,andsupportedtheunderstandingthatinclusioncontentwasthe
controllingfactor.Themostfrequentlysuccessfulremedyhasbeenselectionofweldingconsumablesthathaveasmall
alloyingcontentsuchthatthedepositedmetalwillbeslightlycathodictotheparentsteel,whilstnotinducing
enhancedHAZcorrosion.Typicallyelectrodeswithabout1%Nior0.6%Niplus0.4%Cuhavebeenfoundtoeradicate
theprobleminbothpipelinesteelshandlingseawaterandweldedplatesforshipshulls.

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Fig.1.Preferentialweldmetal
corrosionincarbonsteel

Fig.2.PreferentialHAZcorrosionintrialbeadonplateweldsinAISI
4130steel

PreferentialHAZattackisnotfrequentlyobserved,despitetherangeofmicrostructurespresentintheweldment.
However,itisbelievedthatthecathodicreductionratewillgovernthecorrosionrate[18]andthatthemicrostructure
willhaveasecondaryrole.ThereisatendencyforpreferentialHAZattacktooccurinacidicconditions,wherethe
hardenedmicrostructureorthepresenceofcarbidesenhancethecathodicreactionofthereductionofhydrogenions.
Therefore,materialselection,weldingprocessesandproceduresleadingtoasofterHAZ,throughlowercarbonand
alloycontentsanduseofhighheatinputweldingparameterswillgenerallyresultinmoreuniformcorrosionandno
enhancedHAZattack.Avoidanceoflowtemperaturetransformationproductswillassistinmitigatingsuchattack.[20]
Inaddition,theweldthermalcyclecaninfluencetheinclusionsintheHAZandthisisknowntobeaproblemin
electricalresistancewelded(ERW)linepipe,wheretheinclusionscanbeexposedattheseamweld.Improved
chemistrycontrolonthesteelsourcehasreducedtheoccurrenceincombinationwithheattreatment.[19]Despitethe
longhistoryofassessmentoftheproblem,eventodaydoubtremainsoverthemechanisms[34]forCMnsteels,but
generalagreementexiststhatavoidingtheuseofhighstrengthsteelwithincreasedMnisonemeansofreducingthe
likelihoodofpreferentialHAZattack.TheworkofBrighametalonsteelsforarcticwaters[22]confirmedthatMn
contentlessthan1%tendedtoresultinnogavepreferentialHAZattack,1.01.2%gavesometendencyandsteels
with1.4%MnledtoHAZattack.IncreasedheatinputcanhelptoreducepreferentialHAZattack,butitwasnot
possibletocorrelatetospecificmicrostructures.
ItwasnotedearlierthattoavoidpreferentialHAZcorrosion,highheatinputsduringweldingarepreferred,butitwas
alsostatedthattoretainthepropertiesofacceleratedcooledTMCPsteels,lowheatinputisnecessary.Kumakuraetal
[31]studiedthecorrosionperformanceofweldsinTMCPsteelswithstrengthsinexcessof350MPainorderto
demonstratetheacceptabilityofthesematerialsinshipbuildingapplications,recognisingtheconcernsforpreferential
weldmentcorrosionperformance.TheconclusionswerethattheTMCPparameterscouldbesuitablyadjustedtoresult
inbainitemicrostructuresforHAZandtheparentsteel,andthatweldingconsumableswithcontrolledCuandNi
contentwerenecessarytogiveimprovedresistancetopreferentialweldmentcorrosioncomparedwithaconventional
normalisedCMnferritepearlitesteel.Heatinputrangesfrom2to13kJ.mm1wereassessedforsubmergedarc
welding,(SAW),manualmetalarcwelding(MMA)andfluxcoredarcwelding(FCAW)bytestingforsixmonthsinan
artificialseawaterat50Cwithspecimensrotatedat3.65m.s1.Theresultsindicatedthattheparentsteelcorrosion
rateexceededthatforHAZorweldmetal,thusavoidingpreferentialcorrosion.
Theshipbuildingindustryistakingadvantageofnewfabricationtechnologysuchasfluxcoredarcwelding(FCAW)
andCO2laserweldingandhybridlaserarcweldingoffersfurtherbenefits.Withanychangeinweldingprocess,itis
particularlyimportanttorecognisehowitmayinfluencetheweldareamicrostructuresandtheirlikelyproperties.Due
totherapidcoolingandabsenceofreheatingforlaserandlaserarchybridwelding,higherHAZandweldmetal
hardnessmaybeanticipatedcomparedtoconventionalarcprocesses,soahigherlikelihoodofpreferentialweld
corrosionmightbeexpected.However,lowweldmetalinclusionlevelswillaffectthiseffectfortheweldmetal.Itis
recommendedthatthecorrosionperformanceofsuchweldmentsbeexploredinparallelwiththeirmechanical
performance,toadequatelydemonstratefitnessforpurpose.

Repairofdamageunderwater
Damagemaybesustainedfromcorrosion,greenwaterimpactorcollision,anddrydockingforrepairiscostlyoutside
ofscheduledmaintenanceduetolossofrevenue.Additionally,forfloatingproductionsystems,whichremainatthe
fieldlocationformanyyears,thecostsassociatedwithunplannedsuspensionofproductionanddrydockingofaship
shapedfloatingproductionstorageandoffloading(FPSO)vesselwillbesignificant.Therefore,forfixedstructuresand
FPSOs,longtermdurabilityofanyrepairweldisarequirement,whichmayalsobebeneficialtoacommercialvessel,
whichneednotthenbedockedformaintenanceuntilthescheduleddate.
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Wetunderwaterrepairinthemarineenvironmentoffersthepossibilityofrepairofshipswithoutneedfordrydocking
orcostlycofferdamsetc.Withthepresentrequirementsforregularmaintenanceofcoatings,theneedtorepair
damagesuchasareasofhighcorrosionrate,replacementofpreferentiallycorrodedweldmentsetc.canbescheduled
tofitwiththeplannedintervalsforcommercialshipping.However,ifdamageoccursnecessitatingrepair,orcoatings
providingmuchlongerintervalsbetweendrydockingbecomewidelyadopted,thenwetunderwaterweldingmay
provideafinanciallyattractiveoptionforrepair.Similarly,forshipshapedFPSOs,thevesselisrequiredtoremainon
stationformanyyearsduetothehighdowntimecostsassociatedwithlossofproduction,andunplannedshutdown
wouldpotentiallyincurcostsbetweenUS$0.51millionperday.
UnderwaterrepairtechnologyhasbeencontinuouslydevelopedovermanyyearsandNixonprovidesanoverviewof
theavailabletechnologiessuitableforrepairinthesplashzoneandshallowwaterdepthfortheoil&gassector,which
alsohavepotentialapplicationintheshippingindustry.[37]AsnotedbyNixon,wetunderwaterweldingdatesbackto
WorldWarIandismainlymanualmetalarc(MMA),butuntilrecentlythetechniquehadlimitationsregarding
applicationtosteelsinoffshoreapplicationsduetotheriskofhydrogencracking.Developmentssuchastheuseof
nickelbasedelectrodesandtemperbeadtechniques(wheremultipleweldpassessoftentheHAZoftheprevious
deposits)haveprovidedthepromiseofwiderapplication.ThetechnologyisusedintheUSA,andtheAWSStandard
AWSD3.6providesdesignguidance,butapplicationintheUKNorthSeahasbeenrestrictedtononcriticalparts.
Manyofthereportedapplicationsrelatetotherepairofstructures,typicallyboatloadingplatforms,[38]piling
supports[39]andoffshoreplatforms.[40]However,therearepapersdealingwiththeapplicationofwetweldsforthe
shipindustryallowingvesselstocontinueinserviceandthusprovidingsignificantbenefitstotheirowners.[41]The
objectivewastoproducehighqualitywetweldswhichcanbeacceptedaspermanent.Hydroweldhavebeen
developingelectrodesoveranumberofyearsandclaimthattheirproductisacceptedbytheBritishRoyalNavyfor
permanentrepairstowarships.[42]TrialsonperformanceofcommercialwetelectrodesbyTWIandMODassessedthe
handleabilityfromthediverwelder'sperspectiveincombinationwithassessmentoftheweldquality.[43]Ongoing
workatTWIonthecommercialisationoftheunderwaterFCAWprocessfromthePatonInstituteinKiev,Ukraineand
otherconfidentialstudiesprovidepromisethatthisapproachmaybeevenmorewidelyapplicableinfuture.
However,therearelittledatapublishedonthecorrosionperformanceoftheweldsproducedbywetunderwater
welding,orindeedbyotherunderwatertechniques.SavichetalreporttheassessmentofhighMnfluxcoredwire
depositsmadeunderwater.[44]Intheirjudgement,therewasapotentialdifferenceof8590mVbetweentheweld
metalandtheparentsteelbutitwasclaimedthattheweldmetalwascathodicandthereforenotsubjecttolocalised
corrosion.InviewofthepossibleproblemsofHAZattackinhighMnsteels,dataonlongtermcorrosionperformance
wouldbebeneficial.
ThemajorconcernsregardingcorrosionrelatetotherapidcoolingandthushardeningofanunderwaterweldHAZ.
Thereforeitmaybeexpectedthatpreferentialcorrosioncouldoccur.Alsotheweldsaredifficulttoproducewithgood
profileandcoatingsneedtobeappliedbelowthewaterline,allleadingtopossibleconcern.Industrywillneedto
demonstratethatsuchrepairweldsarenotpronetopreferentialattackoverlongexposureperiodsaswellasthe
necessarymechanicalintegrity,butofcourse,muchbenefitcanbetakenfromCPinthosecasesentirelybelowthe
waterline.

Corrosionofweldmentsincorrosionresistantalloys
Introductorycomments

Fig.3.Pittingattackofweldmetalin
superausteniticstainlesssteel(2001
51153457003)

Corrosionresistantalloys(CRA)includematerialssuchastheausteniticstainlesssteels,duplexstainlesssteels,
nickelbasealloysandtitaniumalloys.Theirapplicationinshippingisrelativelyrestrictedtoitemssuchaschemical
tanksandassociatedprocesspipework.However,fortheoil&gasexplorationandproductionsectorthesealloysare
inmuchwideruseduetotheneedtohandlethecorrosivefluidsproducedfromthefieldsand,inthecaseoftitanium
alloysforstructuralweightsaving.WithincreasinguseofFPSOsforeconomicproductionsolutionsformarginalfields
andthedevelopmentofdeepwaterfields,theshipbuildingindustrycouldconsiderthebenefitofdevelopingnecessary
expertisetoallowinstallationoftheprocessequipmentinadditiontotheconstructionofthestructure/hull.
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Asforcarbonsteels,theweldingthermalcyclecaninfluencethecorrosionperformanceofweldmentsinCRA,and
thereforedueconsiderationisrequiredatfabrication.Inadditionvesselownersandoperatorsshouldbeawareof
potentialareaswherethelikelihoodofcorrosionmaybehigherduetophysicalconfigurationandpresenceofwelds,
andthustoplanforsuitableinspectionandmaintenanceactivities.
Thesealloyswillnormallybeselectedfortheirresistancetotheprocessenvironment(corrosivegasessuchasCO2
andH2S,highpressure,hightemperature)andmaybeselectedforseawatersystemsbutwillobviouslybeexposed
totheexternalmarineenvironment,andassuchconsiderationmustbegiventotheimpactofweldingonthe
corrosionperformance.Thepotentiallydeleteriousimpactonbehaviourinsourserviceisbeyondthescopeofthis
article,butiswidelyrecognised.Inconsiderationofthebehaviourinachloriderichatmospherewithinthehulloron
thetopsideofships,theexternallimitationsofthematerialwillusuallybedictatedbytheinternalprocessfluid
temperature.CRAwhilstusuallyresistanttogeneralcorrosion,aresusceptibletolocalisedcorrosionsuchaspitting
andcreviceattackwhichcanbemoreprevalentatwelds,particularlywhentheenvironmentisclosetotheoperating
envelopeoftheparentmaterial.Theymayalsobesubjecttostresscorrosioncracking,whichisfrequentlyassociated
preferentiallywithweldsduetoresidualstress.Hydrogenembrittlementofduplexstainlesssteelsandmartensitic
stainlesssteelsunderCPhasbeenencounteredrecentlyandguidanceisbeingdevelopedforoffshorepipelinesto
mitigateagainstthisphenomenon.
ReviewsoftheinfluenceofweldingoncorrosionperformanceofstainlesssteelsandCRAexist[1821,45]butin
summarythekeyconcernsinmodernmarineapplicationsare:
Metallurgicalvariationacrosstheweldmentduetothermalhistory,differentweldmetalcompositionand
microstructureduetoapreferencefornonmatchingcompositionconsumables,alloyelementsegregationor
formationofintermetallicprecipitatesinhighalloygrades.
OxidationleadingtodepletioninthechromiumcontentinthesurfaceoftheHAZ(andweldmetal)reducing
corrosionresistance.
Crevicecorrosionunderoxidationscaleoratweldingflaws
Sensitisationtointergranularcorrosion
ResidualstressandhencepossibleincreasedriskofSCC
HydrogenembrittlementunderCP.

Stainlesssteels
Stainlesssteelsgaintheirresistancetocorrosionfromtheformationofapassivelayerofchromiumoxide,butthis
canbesusceptibletolocalisedbreakdowninthepresenceofchloridesresultinginpittingcorrosionorcrevice
corrosion,whichthenpropagatesasthematerialcannotreformthepassivelayer.Additionsofmolybdenumand
nitrogencanenhanceresistancetobreakdownofthepassivefilmbychlorideionsinausteniticstainlesssteels.A
rangeofalloycompositionshavebeendevelopedforcorrosionresistance(pittingorSCC)and/orimprovedstrength,
andthustheserviceenvironmentmustbeconsideredcarefullytogetherwithlikelyweldmentpropertiesinselecting
thematerialgrade.Weldingcanresultinareductionincorrosionresistanceandthereforetheweldingconsumable
compositionisusuallymorehighlyalloyedtomitigateagainstlocalisedcorrosion.Inthedualphaseduplexstainless
steelsitisimportanttomaintainthephasebalanceofferritetoaustenitetoaround3565%intheweldmentto
ensureadequatecorrosionperformanceincombinationwithresistancetoSCCandnecessarytoughnessforjoint
integrity.
Stainlesssteelsarefrequentlycomparedonthebasisofthepittingresistanceequivalentnumber,PREN,anempirical
compositionalparameter,indicatingthebenefitofMoandNasmentionedabove,derivedfrom:
PRE=%Cr+3.3%Mo+16%N
Goochreviewedindetailthefactorsaffectingweldmentsinstainlesssteels.[45]Segregationofelementswilloccurin
theweldmetalduringtherapidcoolingofthemoltenweldpool.Duetothissegregationofelementssuchas
chromiumandmolybdenumtheweldmetalwillhavealowercorrosionresistancethantheparentmaterial.Thisisan
issueinparticularforsuperausteniticalloys(e.g.2025%Cr,2025%Ni,6%Mo,0.2%N)wheretheMocontentcan
decreaseto4%insomepartsoftheweldmetal.Thereforeitiscommonpracticetouseanickelbasedfillermetal
witharound915%Mobutattackattheunmixedzoneattheedgeoftheweldmetalcanbeexperiencedatmuch
lowertemperaturesthanexpectedbasedonweldmetalcomposition.Intermetallicprecipitationcanoccurinhighalloy
austeniticstainlesssteelsandduplexstainlesssteels,leadingtoareductionincorrosionresistance.Weldingheat
inputistypicallyrestrictedtoavoidpracticalproblems.
Sensitisation('welddecay')duetotheformationofchromiumcarbidesatthegrainboundaries,particularlyin
austeniticstainlesssteels,wasaproblemseveraldecadesago.Themodernsteelproductionmethodsusedforthelow
carbon'L'gradeshavegenerallyreducedthecarboncontentandthuseliminatedthisproblem.Themostlikelycause
offailureofthesealloysintheshippingsectorinmarineexposurewillbepittingandcrevicecorrosion,andSCCif
temperaturesareaboveabout55C.Locationswheresaltaccumulationcanoccur,crevicesassociatedwithweldflaws
andpoorpaintadherencewillbetheareasofmostconcerninthelimitedapplicationofthesealloysintheshipbuilding
andshippingsector.
Intheshippingsector,CRAsaremostlikelytobeusedabovethewaterlineandthereforeconcernsover
microbiologicallyinfluencedcorrosionwillnotoccur.Inseawaterhandlingsystems,thehighergradealloyscanbe
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usedandmuchdataexistsontheirselectionandsensitivitytocrevicecorrosionetcinheatexchangerapplications.
[46]

Fig.4.SCCinduplexstainless
steelweldment200051810
4522003

AusteniticstainlesssteelAISI316Lhasbeenusedforoffshoretopsidestubingandpipeworkapplications,butdueto
localisedcorrosionwassubjecttoreplacementbyduplexstainlesssteels(both22and25%Crgrades)andsuper
austeniticstainlesssteels(containing6%Mo).[47]316Lmaybeamarginalalloyselectioninconditionsofdirect
exposuretochloridesfromseawaterandspray/mist,buttheadditionalcostsofnickelbasealloysmeansthatforthe
shippingandoffshoresectorsausteniticandduplexstainlesssteelsrepresentthemostcosteffectivematerialchoice.
Ifthematerialswillbeoperatingattemperaturesinexcessofabout50C,316Lwillnotnormallybeusedwithout
paintprotectionduetotheconcernsofSCC.Ifthetubing/pipeworkisinsulatedthengoodpracticeinvolvespaintingas
thereareconcernsthatmoistureingresstotheoccludedregionwillresultincorrosionunderinsulation.Bondingof
adhesivesandpaintstostainlesssteelscanbedifficultandthereforethermallysprayedaluminium(TSA),couldbe
consideredasameansofprovidingprotectionatholidaysetc,asdescribedlater.
Inoffshoreapplications,duplexstainlesssteelsandsuperduplexstainlesssteelshaveoftenbeenusedat
temperaturesuptoabout80Cwithoutconcernforcoating,althoughinmanycircumstancespaintswillhavebeen
applied,particularlyforinsulatedcomponents.However,itappearsthatthereareconsiderableproblemsingaining
satisfactorycoatingperformanceatelevatedtemperatures(110130C)andthustheO&GmpGindustryis
consideringtheuseofTSAasameanstomitigateagainstlocalisedcorrosionorSCCasdiscussedlater.[48]SCCcan
propagateveryrapidlyonceinitiatedandthereforegoodcorrosionmitigationisaprerequisiteforreducingthe
likelihoodofanylossofcontainmentduetopinholesorcracking.

Titanium
Titanium(commercialpuritygradealloys,Grades14)isoftenfavouredintheoffshoresectorforseawaterhandling
andheatexchangerdutiesduetoitsparticularresistancetocorrosioninseawater.OtheralloysareavailablewithAl
andValloying(e.g.Ti6Al4VGrade5)andRutheniumorPalladiumadditionstoenhancecorrosionperformancefurther
ifneeded,e.g.forhightemperatureoperation.Weldingisrelativelystraightforwardprovidingexcellentinertgas
shieldingpracticeisadheredtoandthusthealloysareattractiveforalongterminstallation.[49]Thematerialisalso
likelytoretainsomevalueatendoflifeandonalifecyclecostbasiscanbeacceptedoverlessexpensivematerials
duetotheavoidanceofmaintenanceandreplacement.Therearesomeconcernsoverthepossibilityofsustainedload
crackingforhighergradealloyswhichmayrequirefurtherinvestigationbyindustryparticularlywherethealloysare
beingusedforstructuralandpressurecontainmentapplicationswithlongtermloading.Thephenomenais
characterisedbyfailuresoverextendedperiodsincaseswherethestressintensityfactorKISCCislessthanthecritical
valueforKlcthatnecessaryforacracktopropagateunderimpactload.

Corrosionofweldmentsinaluminiumalloys
Aluminiumalloysinthe5xxxseriesofAlMgalloysarereadilyweldable,havegoodcorrosionresistanceinmarine
conditions,butwithhigherMgcontentcoldworkandageingcanleadtosensitisationtoSCC.[50]Alloy5083canbe
usedinmarineenvironmentswithoutcoatingsetcprovideditisnotsensitisedtocorrosion.Thestudyassessedthe
performanceofweldsinalloy5454(2.6%Mg)and5083(4.6%Mg)producedbyMIGweldingwithconsumablesof
differentMgcontentandautogenousweldsfromelectronbeamwelding.ThematerialsweretestedforSCCasUbend
specimensimmersedin3%NaCl,includingsomesamplesheattreatedtosensitisethem.Localisedcorrosionoccurred
inbothMIGweldedaluminiumalloygradesrelatedtosegregationofMgtotheweldtoe.Stresscorrosionoccurredin
5454sensitisedweldsmadewithfillerwithMg3.7%butnotinsensitisedplate,HAZorweldmetalswithMg2.8%,
orinanyspecimenswhichwerenotsensitised.WeldmetalpittingoccurredinallMIGweldsin5454platewherethe
Mgcontentoftheweldmetalwasgreaterthanthe2.6%oftheplatematerial.Usingamatchingconsumable(Mg
4.8%)with5083alloyresultedinSCCofsensitisedMIGweldmetalandHAZbutnottheelectronbeamweldmetalor
HAZ,norindeedtheunsensitisedMIGweld.Itwasconcludedthatsensitised5083shouldnotbeusedinconditions
likelytoleadtostresscorrosionand5454maybeusedinweldedformifweldedautogenouslyorwithamatching
fillermetal.
Inthepastdecade,significantdevelopmentshavebeenmadewithnewweldingprocessesinvolvingfrictionstir
welding(FSW)whichwasinventedbyTWIin1991andthisprocessisnowcommerciallyappliedforwelding
aluminiumalloysintheshipbuildingindustryandmanyothersectors.[51]Scandinavianaluminiumextruderswerethe
firsttocommerciallyapplytheprocessforthemanufactureofhollowaluminiumpanelsfordeepfreezingoffishand
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formakingpanelsforshipdecks.Frictionstirweldedstructuresarenowrevolutionisingthewayinwhichhighspeed
ferryboatsandcruiseshipsarebuiltfromprefabricatedlightweightmodules.Itisbelievedthatnospecificproblems
ofcorrosionofFSWweldmentshavebeenreportedinalloysofinteresttotheshippingsectortodate(5xxxand6xxx
series).
TherearefewdataavailableinthepublicdomainoncorrosionofFSWweldsin5xxxand6xxxseriesalloys.Frankel
andXia[52]examinedweldsin5454(inOandH34tempers)andReynolds[53]alsoreportedon5454O.Inboth
instances,theycomparedresultswithTIGwelds.Noappreciableattackwasnotedinthefrictionstirwelds,which
performedaswellasorbetterthanTIGwelds.FrankelandXiareportedsusceptibilitytoSCCinanodicallypolarised
slowstrainratetests.However,thisresultshouldbeviewedwithsomecautionasthetestingconditionswerevery
severeFrankelandXiadopointoutthatSCCtestsrepeatedonUbendspecimensdidnotrevealanysusceptibility.
TWIhasperformedcorrosiontests(saltsprayandalternateimmersionSCC)on5083O,aspartofaconfidentialJIP.
Thereisonlyonepublishedstudyonafrictionstirwelded6xxxseriesalloybyReynolds[53](alloy6061T4).Tests
showedthatthefrictionstirweldwaslesssusceptiblethanitsTIGweldedcounterpartinanintergranularcorrosion
test.TWIhasalsoperformedconfidentialtests(saltspray)on6082T6inthesameJIPasstatedabove.

Mitigationofcorrosionbythermalspraying
Consideringthesteelstructuralcomponentsandstoragetanksinships,paintsystemsarerequiredtoprovide
protectionagainstthemarineenvironmentandmuchdevelopmentisfocuseduponorganicbasedorsilanesystems
tailoredtomeetthevaryingdemandsfromtotalimmersion,splashzone,decking,ullagespace,ballastwaterand
crudeoilstorageetc.Forimmersedconditions,itisnormalpracticetoincorporateacathodicprotectionsystemas
well,eitherimpressedcurrent(externalhull)orsacrificial(withinstoragetanks,orformarinestructures/pipelinesand
risers).Paintsactpurelyasbarriercoatingsinmitigatingmarinecorrosionexcludingtheantifoulingsystemswith
functionalpropertiesforselfpolishingorcontrolledreleaseofbiocidesetc.TheneedforCPisduetotheanticipated
degradationofthecoatingsystemduringoperation,whichwouldotherwiseallowcorrosionofthesubstratesteelto
occurunchecked.
Selectionofpaintsystemstoprotecttheprocessequipmentonoil&gasproductiontopsidesandfloatingproduction
systems,orrisersmaybeinappropriatewhenoperatingtemperaturesarehigh,orthereisneedforcoatinglifeto
matchthatofthefielddevelopment.Insuchcases,theapplicationofTSAmayoffertheabilitytoenhancethe
mitigationprovidedbyapaintbarriersystemwithaugmentationbygalvanicprotection,possiblyincombinationwith
cathodicprotectionforimmersedcomponents.Thebenefitsofsuchcoatingsystemshavebeendemonstratedoncivil
structuresandoffshorejackets,andmayprovideenhancedopportunitiestoextendthelifetofirstmaintenancefor
coatedsteelonshippingabovethewaterline.Thereispotentialalsoforconsiderationofusebelowthewaterlineand
inoccludedregionssuchasstorageandballasttanks,doublehulledtankersetcandintheullagespace.Withthe
likelihoodofprotectionfor20years,thermallysprayedaluminiummayoffertheavoidanceofneedforrecoatingthe
topsidesonavesselwitha25yeardesignlife.
Asnotedabove,thepreferentialweldmentcorrosionofcarbonsteelscanbeavoidedwheresuitablecorrosion
protectionisapplied,inspectedandmaintained.Therearealsocaseswhereitmaybeadvantageoustoprotect
corrosionresistantalloys.Forallcoatingsystems,theinitialsurfacepreparationiscriticalandthiscanbemademore
difficultatweldsduetotheirphysicallocation,geometryandroughenedsurfaceprofileincontrastwithplatematerial.
Coatingswhicharemoretolerantofholidayssuchasthoseusingthermallysprayedzincoraluminium,whichimpart
galvanicprotection,maybemoresuited(incombinationwithasealant)toapplicationinsuchareasthanpaint
systemsalone.
Thermallysprayedzinc(TSZ)oraluminiumcanbeappliedtoprotectsteel,butinacidicorneutralconditions
aluminiumisfavoured.Inareaswherestainlesssteelsareused,thereareconcernsaboutthepresenceofzincdueto
thepotentialforliquidmetalembrittlementinthecaseofafireandthusaluminiumisagainfavouredinthisrespect.
Thermallysprayedaluminiumoffersthebenefitofprovidinglocalgalvanicprotectionofthesubstratesteelandhas
beenusedinthecivilengineeringandoil&gassectorssuccessfully.Inthecivilsectorengineeringsector,TSAhas
beenusedtoprotectbridgesandfortheoil&gassectorithasbeenappliedtooffshorestructures.Insplashzoneand
atmosphericexposure,theTSA(andTSZ)allowcoatingstoremainprotectiveeveniftheorganicsealantisdamaged
duetoabrasionorimpact.Immersionallowsthecoatingtoprotectthesubstratewherelargerholidaysarepresent
andthegalvaniccoupledareacanprotecttheexposedsteel.Areductioninconsumptionratesofsacrificialanodesis
alsoanticipated.
WorkbySwidzinski[54]assessedthecoatingprotectionofatypicaloffshorestructure.Hedemonstratedthatthe
initialcostofapplicationforazincprimerandpolysiloxanecoatingsystemwas21.50persquaremetre(assumedas
baselinecosti.e.1),andthereforetherelativecostsforTSAandsealantsystem(1.15)wassimilar,butslightlyhigher,
thanthatforafourcoatzincepoxyandpolyurethane(1.10),whilsttheadditionofafinishcoattotheTSAand
sealantraisedthecosttoafactorof1.25.However,majorcostsavingsoccurredwhenconsiderationwasgiventothe
totalcostforapplicationandthenecessarymaintenanceover20years,whereapaintsystemwasdoublethecostof
theTSAsystem.
TheseTSAcoatingsaredamagetolerantandassuchcanbeusedonareassubjecttoimpactorwear.Alcan
Aluminiumproducedavarianttoenhancethewearandabrasionresistancethroughincorporationofaluminainthe
wire,asanaluminiummatrixcomposite,whichcouldbethermallysprayed(Duralcan90/10).TheseTSAcoatingsmay
provideenhancedprotectiontosuperstructureanddeckingetc.

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AsnotedintheCostofCorrosionsurveyfortheUSAin2002[2],thereappearstobeabarrierintheshippingsector
toacceptingtheinitialhighercostforanimprovedcoatingsystem,drivenbychangeinownershipetc.However,as
thereareconcernsregardingthecorrosionwithindoublehulledtankers,coatingsystemswithadditionalgalvanic
capabilitiesmayofferimprovedconfidenceincorrosionmitigation.
Presentlytheoil&gasindustryhasconcernsabouttheabilityoforganicpaintsystemsonsteeltowithstandelevated
temperatureoperationandtolastthe>35yearsneededforasubseadevelopment.Assuch,TSAmayofferthe
opportunityforextendedcoatinglifeandispresentlythesubjectofaJointIndustryProjectatTWI[55]toassess
performanceonsteelriserswhichcanoperateattemperaturesuptoabout90Cinthesplashzone.Inthiscase,TSA
isbeingconsideredtoextendthecoatinglifetothatofthefielddevelopmentwhichcanbeupto50years.
Asnotedpreviously,corrosionresistantalloyssuchasausteniticandduplexstainlesssteelscanbesubjectto
corrosionproblemsatweldsinthemarineenvironment.Inthecaseofthelattergroupof22%Crand25%Cralloys,
thereisnowaconcernabouttheperformanceoforganicpaintsunderinsulationonhotprocessequipmentonthe
topsidesofoil&gasproductionfacilities.Thesealloyscanfailduetostresscorrosioncrackingstresscorrosionor
pittingandcrevicecorrosionatelevatedtemperatureinmarineoperation,perhapswithsaltaccumulationetc.Stress
corrosioncrackingpropagatesrapidlyandsoitisvitalthatthecoatingsystempreventsmoisturecontactingthe
substrate.Paintsonlyofferabarrierprotection,andareasofdamagemayallowlocalisedcorrosion/crackingtooccur.
TWIisassessingtheperformanceofTSAasasystemtoprovideimprovedmitigationagainstsuchattack,wherebythe
galvanicprotectionofthealuminiumallowsthecoatingtomaintainprotectionevenatlocationswheredamagehas
occurred.[48]
Similarly,thebenefitofaTSAorTSZbasedcoatingsystemwithsealant,appliedinhotcrudeoilstoragetanksin
transporttankersorFPSOs,mayallowthecoatingtolastconsiderablylonger.Theimmersedregionatthebottom
ofthetankisproblematicaswater,debrisandheavyoilcanaccumulate,possiblyimpactinguponthesacrificialanode
performanceandthemoistullagespacecanbeanaggressiveenvironmentalso,particularlyduetotheheat
generatedbythecrudeoilandthepresenceofacidiccondensate.Improvedcoatingperformancewillallowa
reductioninthefrequencyofmaintenanceandrecoating,andifthecoatingissufficientlyrobust,itcouldprovide
significantcostsaving.
Thermallysprayedmetalliccoatingsinvolvingthesprayingofcorrosionresistantalloysmayalsobeconsidered.These
coatingscanincludetitanium,alloy625andsimilar,butduetotheporousnatureofthedepositedlayerrequiresa
sealanttoavoidgalvaniccorrosionofthesubstratesteel.Presently,itseemsunlikelythattherewillbemany
applicationsintheshippingsectorforsuchcoatingsotherthaninchemicalstoragetanksetc.

Conclusions
Weldingtypicallyreducesthecorrosionandstresscorrosionperformanceofmaterialsanditisessentialthat
appropriatemitigationmeasuresareemployedtoweldmentsintendedformarineapplications.
Whenthecorrosionmitigationmeasuresarepoorormayfail,suchasdegradationofcoatingswithoperational
life,itisessentialthatthelikelihoodofcorrosionisreviewed,particularlyatweldmentsandthustheresultantrisk
offailureiscorrectlyassessed.
Whilsttheunderlyingprinciplesofpreferentialweldcorrosionarebroadlyunderstood,smallchangesinweld
metalchemistryandhardnessmaybesignificant,anditisessentialthatthebehaviourofjointsproducedby
improvedproductivityornewprocessesarecharacterised.Particularexamplesofpotentialrelevancetothe
marineindustryarelaserandlaserarchybridweldingofsteels,underwaterrepairsandfrictionstirweldingof
aluminiumalloys.
Thermalsprayingtechnologiesprovidingcoatingswithimprovedcorrosionmitigationshouldbeassessedfortheir
abilitytoextendcoatinglifeandtimetofirstmaintenanceforsteelsandtheirabilitytomitigatelocalised
corrosionandSCCofduplexstainlesssteels.

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