Sciencefiction

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Sciencefictionisagenreofspeculativefictiondealingwithimaginativeconceptssuchasfuturisticscienceand
technology,spacetravel,timetravel,fasterthanlighttravel,paralleluniverses,andextraterrestriallife.Science
fictionoftenexploresthepotentialconsequencesofscientificandotherinnovations,andhasbeencalleda
"literatureofideas."[1]Itusuallyeschewsthesupernatural,andunliketherelatedgenreoffantasy,historically
sciencefictionstorieswereintendedtohaveatleastafaintgroundinginsciencebasedfactortheoryatthetime
thestorywascreated,butthisconnectionhasbecometenuousornonexistentinmuchofsciencefiction.[2]

Contents
1 Definitions
2 Characteristics
3 History
3.1 Theterm"scifi"
3.2 Innovation
4 Categories
4.1 Hardsciencefiction
4.2 Softsciencefiction
5 Subgenres
5.1 Cyberpunk
5.2 Timetravel
5.3 Alternatehistory
5.4 Militarysciencefiction
5.5 Superhuman
5.6 Apocalypticandpostapocalyptic
5.7 Spaceopera
5.8 SpaceWestern
5.9 Socialsciencefiction
5.10 Climatefiction
5.11 Mundanesciencefiction
5.12 Biopunk
5.13 Othersubgenres
6 Relatedgenres
6.1 Otherspeculativefiction,fantasy,andhorror
6.2 Fantasy
6.3 Sciencefantasy
6.4 Horrorfiction
6.5 Supernaturalfiction
6.6 SpyFi
6.7 Mysteryfiction
6.8 Superherofiction
7 Fandomandcommunity
7.1 Authors
7.2 Awards
7.3 Conventions,clubs,andorganizations
7.4 Fanzinesandonlinefandom
7.5 Fanfiction
8 Sciencefictionstudies
8.1 Asseriousliterature
9 Worldwideexamples
9.1 Africa
9.2 Asia

10
11
12
13

9.2 Asia
9.2.1 India
9.2.2 Bangladesh
9.2.3 China
9.2.4 Korea
9.2.5 Middleeast
9.3 Europe
9.3.1 FranceandBelgium
9.3.2 Italy
9.3.3 Germany
9.3.4 RussiaandexSovietcountries
9.3.5 OtherEuropeancountries
9.4 Oceania
9.5 NorthAmerica
9.6 LatinAmerica
Seealso
Notes
References
Externallinks

Definitions
Sciencefictionisdifficulttodefine,asitincludesawiderangeof
subgenresandthemes.AuthorandeditorDamonKnightsummedupthe
difficulty,saying"sciencefictioniswhatwepointtowhenwesayit",[3]a
definitionechoedbyauthorMarkC.Glassy,whoarguesthatthedefinition
ofsciencefictionislikethedefinitionofpornography:youdonotknow
whatitis,butyouknowitwhenyouseeit.[4]

Apersonreadsfromafuturistic
wraparounddisplayscreen.

HugoGernsback,whowasoneofthefirstinusingtheterm"science
fiction",describedhisvisionofthegenre:"By'scientifiction'Imeanthe
JulesVerne,H.G.WellsandEdgarAllanPoetypeofstoryacharmingromanceintermingledwithscientific
factandpropheticvision."[5]
In1970WilliamAthelingJr.wroteabouttheEnglishterm"sciencefiction":"Wellsusedthetermoriginallyto
coverwhatwewouldtodaycallhardsciencefiction,inwhichaconscientiousattempttobefaithfultoalready
knownfacts(asofthedateofwriting)wasthesubstrateonwhichthestorywastobebuilt,andifthestorywas
alsotocontainamiracle,itoughtatleastnottocontainawholearsenalofthem."[6]
AccordingtosciencefictionwriterRobertA.Heinlein,"ahandyshortdefinitionofalmostallsciencefiction
mightread:realisticspeculationaboutpossiblefutureevents,basedsolidlyonadequateknowledgeofthereal
world,pastandpresent,andonathoroughunderstandingofthenatureandsignificanceofthescientific
method."[7]RodSerling'sdefinitionis"fantasyistheimpossiblemadeprobable.Sciencefictionisthe
improbablemadepossible."[8]LesterdelReywrote,"Eventhedevotedaficionadoorfanhasahardtime
tryingtoexplainwhatsciencefictionis",andthatthereasonfortherenotbeinga"fullsatisfactorydefinition"
isthat"therearenoeasilydelineatedlimitstosciencefiction."[9]

Characteristics
Sciencefictionislargelybasedonwritingrationallyaboutalternativepossibleworldsorfutures.[10]Itisrelated
to,butdifferentfromfantasyinthat,withinthecontextofthestory,itsimaginaryelementsarelargelypossible
withinscientificallyestablishedorscientificallypostulatedphysicallaws(thoughsomeelementsinastory

mightstillbepureimaginativespeculation).
Thesettingsofsciencefictionareoftencontrarytothoseofconsensusreality,butmostsciencefictionrelieson
aconsiderabledegreeofsuspensionofdisbelief,whichisfacilitatedinthereader'smindbypotentialscientific
explanationsorsolutionstovariousfictionalelements.Sciencefictionelementsinclude:
Atimesettinginthefuture,inalternativetimelines,orinahistoricalpastthatcontradictsknownfactsof
historyorthearchaeologicalrecord.
Aspatialsettingorscenesinouterspace(e.g.spaceflight),onotherworlds,oronsubterraneanearth.[11]
Charactersthatincludealiens,mutants,androids,orhumanoidrobotsandothertypesofcharacters
arisingfromafuturehumanevolution.
Futuristicorplausibletechnologysuchasrayguns,teleportationmachines,andhumanoidcomputers.[12]
Scientificprinciplesthatareneworthatcontradictacceptedphysicallaws,forexampletimetravel,
wormholes,orfasterthanlighttravelorcommunication.
Newanddifferentpoliticalorsocialsystems,e.g.utopian,dystopian,postscarcity,orpost
apocalyptic.[13]
Paranormalabilitiessuchasmindcontrol,telepathy,telekinesis(e.g."TheForce"inStarWars[14]).
Otheruniversesordimensionsandtravelbetweenthem.

History
Asameansofunderstandingtheworldthroughspeculationandstorytelling,sciencefictionhasantecedents
whichgobacktoanerawhenthedividinglineseparatingthemythologicalfromthehistoricaltendstobecome
somewhatblurred,thoughprecursorstosciencefictionasliteraturecanbeseeninLucian'sTrueHistoryinthe
2ndcentury,[15]someoftheArabianNightstales,[16][17]TheTaleoftheBambooCutterinthe10thcentury[17]
andIbnalNafis'sTheologusAutodidactusinthe13thcentury.[18]
AproductofthebuddingAgeofReasonandthedevelopmentofmodernscienceitself,MargaretCavendish's
"TheBlazingWorld"(1666)andJonathanSwift'sGulliver'sTravels(1726)aresomeofthefirsttruescience
fantasyworks,[19][20]whichbothfeaturetheadventuresoftheprotagonistinfictionalandfantasticalplaces,
togetherwithVoltaire'sMicromgas(1752)andJohannesKepler'sSomnium(16201630).[21]IsaacAsimovand
CarlSaganconsideredthelatterworkthefirstsciencefictionstory.[22]ItdepictsajourneytotheMoonand
howtheEarth'smotionisseenfromthere.TheBlazingWorld(1666),byEnglishnoblewomanMargaret
Cavendish,hasalsobeendescribedasanearlyforerunnerofsciencefiction.[23]AnotherexampleisLudvig
Holberg'snovelNicolaiKlimiiIterSubterraneum(1741).
Followingthe18thcenturydevelopmentofthenovelasaliteraryform,intheearly19thcentury,Mary
Shelley'sbooksFrankenstein(1818)andTheLastManhelpeddefinetheformofthesciencefictionnovel,and
BrianAldisshasarguedthatFrankensteinwasthefirstworkofsciencefiction.[24]Later,EdgarAllanPoewrote
astoryaboutaflighttothemoon.[25]Moreexamplesappearedthroughoutthe19thcentury.
Thenwiththedawnofnewtechnologiessuchaselectricity,thetelegraph,andnewformsofpowered
transportation,writersincludingH.G.WellsandJulesVernecreatedabodyofworkthatbecamepopular
acrossbroadcrosssectionsofsociety.[26]Wells'TheWaroftheWorlds(1898)describesaninvasionoflate
VictorianEnglandbyMartiansusingtripodfightingmachinesequippedwithadvancedweaponry.Itisa
seminaldepictionofanalieninvasionofEarth.
Inthelate19thcentury,theterm"scientificromance"wasusedinBritaintodescribemuchofthisfiction.This
producedadditionaloffshoots,suchasthe1884novellaFlatland:ARomanceofManyDimensionsbyEdwin
AbbottAbbott.Thetermwouldcontinuetobeusedintotheearly20thcenturyforwriterssuchasOlaf
Stapledon.

JulesVerne

Intheearly20thcentury,pulpmagazineshelped
developanewgenerationofmainlyAmerican
SFwriters,influencedbyHugoGernsback,the
founderofAmazingStoriesmagazine.[27]In
1912EdgarRiceBurroughspublishedA
PrincessofMars,thefirstofhisthreedecade
longseriesofBarsoomnovels,situatedonMars
andfeaturingJohnCarterasthehero.The1928
publicationofPhilipFrancisNowlan'soriginal
BuckRogersstory,Armageddon2419,in
AmazingStorieswasalandmarkevent.This
storyledtocomicstripsfeaturingBuckRogers
(1929),BrickBradford(1933),andFlash
Gordon(1934).Thecomicstripsandderivative
movieserialsgreatlypopularizedscience
fiction.

H.G.Wells

Inthelate1930s,JohnW.CampbellbecameeditorofAstoundingScienceFiction,andacriticalmassofnew
writersemergedinNewYorkCityinagroupcalledtheFuturians,includingIsaacAsimov,DamonKnight,
DonaldA.Wollheim,FrederikPohl,JamesBlish,JudithMerril,andothers.[28]Otherimportantwritersduring
thisperiodincludeE.E.(Doc)Smith,RobertA.Heinlein,ArthurC.Clarke,OlafStapledon,andA.E.van
Vogt.WorkingoutsidetheCampbellinfluencewereRayBradburyandStanisawLem.Campbell'stenureat
AstoundingisconsideredtobethebeginningoftheGoldenAgeofsciencefiction,characterizedbyhardSF
storiescelebratingscientificachievementandprogress.[27]Thislasteduntilpostwartechnologicaladvances,
newmagazinessuchasGalaxy,editedbyH.L.Gold,andanewgenerationofwritersbeganwritingstories
withlessemphasisonthehardsciencesandmoreonthesocialsciences.
Inthe1950s,theBeatgenerationincludedspeculativewriterssuchasWilliamS.Burroughs.Inthe1960sand
early1970s,writerslikeFrankHerbert,SamuelR.Delany,RogerZelazny,andHarlanEllisonexplorednew
trends,ideas,andwritingstyles,whileagroupofwriters,mainlyinBritain,becameknownastheNewWave
fortheirembraceofahighdegreeofexperimentation,bothinformandincontent,andahighbrowandself
consciously"literary"orartisticsensibility.[19]Inthe1970s,writerslikeLarryNivenbroughtnewlifetohard
sciencefiction.[29]UrsulaK.LeGuinandotherspioneeredsoftsciencefiction.[30]
Inthe1980s,cyberpunkauthorslikeWilliamGibsonturnedawayfromtheoptimismandsupportforprogress
oftraditionalsciencefiction.[31]ThisdystopianvisionofthenearfutureisdescribedintheworkofPhilipK.
Dick,suchasDoAndroidsDreamofElectricSheep?andWeCanRememberItforYouWholesale,which
resultedinthefilmsBladeRunnerandTotalRecall.TheStarWarsfranchisehelpedsparkanewinterestin
spaceopera.[32]C.J.Cherryh'sdetailedexplorationsofalienlifeandcomplexscientificchallengesinfluenceda
generationofwriters.[33]
Emergingthemesinthe1990sincludedenvironmentalissues,theimplicationsoftheglobalInternetandthe
expandinginformationuniverse,questionsaboutbiotechnologyandnanotechnology,aswellasapostCold
WarinterestinpostscarcitysocietiesNealStephenson'sTheDiamondAgecomprehensivelyexploresthese
themes.LoisMcMasterBujold'sVorkosigannovelsbroughtthecharacterdrivenstorybackinto
prominence.[34]ThetelevisionseriesStarTrek:TheNextGeneration(1987)beganatorrentofnewSFshows,
includingthreefurtherStarTrekspinoffshows(DeepSpace9,Voyager,andEnterprise)andBabylon5.[35]
Stargate,amovieaboutanancientportaltoothergatesacrossthegalaxy,wasreleasedin1994.StargateSG1,
aTVseries,premieredonJuly27,1997andlasted10seasonswith214episodes.Spinoffsincludethe
animatedtelevisionseriesStargateInfinity,theTVseriesStargateAtlantisandStargateUniverse,andthe
directtoDVDfilmsStargate:TheArkofTruthandStargate:Continuum.StargateSG1surpassedTheXFiles
asthelongestrunningNorthAmericansciencefictiontelevisionseries,arecordlaterbrokenbySmallville.[36]

Concernabouttherapidpaceoftechnologicalchangecrystallizedaroundtheconceptofthetechnological
singularity,popularizedbyVernorVinge'snovelMaroonedinRealtimeandthentakenupbyotherauthors.[37]

Theterm"scifi"
ForrestJAckermaniscreditedwithfirstusingthetermscifi(analogoustothethentrendy"hifi")in1954.[38]
Assciencefictionenteredpopularculture,writersandfansactiveinthefieldcametoassociatethetermwith
lowbudget,lowtech"Bmovies"andwithlowqualitypulpsciencefiction.[39]Bythe1970s,criticswithinthe
fieldsuchasTerryCarrandDamonKnightwereusingscifitodistinguishhackworkfromseriousscience
fiction.[40]
Around1978criticSusanWoodandothersintroducedtheuseoftheoddpronunciation"skiffy"whichis
intendedtobeselfdeprecatinghumorbutisinconsistentwiththedocumentedgenesisoftheterm"scifi"(i.e.,
onewouldnotpronounce"hifi"as"hiffy")andAckerman'sownwordsengravedonhiscryptplaquewhich
read"SciFiwasMyHigh".[41]
PeterNichollswritesthat"SF"(or"sf")is"thepreferredabbreviationwithinthecommunityofsfwritersand
readers."[42]DavidLangford'smonthlyfanzineAnsibleincludesaregularsection"AsOthersSeeUs"which
offersnumerousexamplesof"scifi"beingusedinapejorativesensebypeopleoutsidethegenre.[43]

Innovation
Sciencefictionhascriticizeddevelopingandfuturetechnologies,butalsoinitiatesinnovationandnew
technology.Thistopichasbeenmoreoftendiscussedinliteraryandsociologicalthaninscientificforums.
CinemaandmediatheoristVivianSobchackexaminesthedialoguebetweensciencefictionfilmsandthe
technologicalimagination.Technologyimpactsartistsandhowtheyportraytheirfictionalizedsubjects,butthe
fictionalworldgivesbacktosciencebybroadeningimagination.HowWilliamShatnerChangedtheWorldisa
documentarythatgaveanumberofrealworldexamplesofactualizedtechnologicalimaginations.Whilemore
prevalentintheearlyyearsofsciencefictionwithwriterslikeArthurC.Clarke,newauthorsstillfindwaysto
makecurrentlyimpossibletechnologiesseemclosertobeingrealized.[44]

Categories
Hardsciencefiction
Hardsciencefiction,or"hardSF",ischaracterizedbyrigorousattentiontoaccuratedetailinthenatural
sciences,especiallyphysics,astrophysics,andchemistry,oronaccuratelydepictingworldsthatmoreadvanced
technologymaymakepossible.Someaccuratepredictionsofthefuturecomefromthehardsciencefiction
subgenre,butnumerousinaccuratepredictionshaveemergedaswell.SomehardSFauthorshavedistinguished
themselvesasworkingscientists,includingGregoryBenford,FredHoyle,GeoffreyA.Landis,DavidBrin,[45]
andRobertL.Forward,whilemathematicianauthorsincludeRudyRuckerandVernorVinge.Othernoteworthy
hardSFauthorsincludeIsaacAsimov,ArthurC.Clarke,HalClement,GregBear,LarryNiven,RobertJ.
Sawyer,StephenBaxter,AlastairReynolds,CharlesSheffield,BenBova,KimStanleyRobinson,Anne
McCaffrey,AndyWeir,JohnWyndham[46]andGregEgan.

'TwentyThousandLeaguesUnder
theSea'byNeuvilleandRiou
024,oneoftheearliestexamples
ofhardsciencefiction.

Softsciencefiction
Thedescription"soft"sciencefictionmaydescribeworksbased
onsocialsciencessuchaspsychology,economics,political
science,sociology,andanthropology.Thetermissometimesused
todescribeimprobableplots,absurd"science",andcardboard
characters.NoteworthywritersinthiscategoryincludeUrsulaK.
LeGuinandPhilipK.Dick.[27][47]Thetermcandescribestories
focusedprimarilyoncharacterandemotionSFWAGrandMaster
RayBradburywasanacknowledgedmasterofthisart.[48]The
EasternBlocproducedalargequantityofsocialsciencefiction,
includingworksbyPolishauthorsStanislawLemandJanusz
Zajdel,aswellasSovietauthorssuchastheStrugatskybrothers,
KirBulychov,YevgenyZamyatinandIvanYefremov.[49]Some
writersblurtheboundarybetweenhardandsoftsciencefiction.

MaryShelly'sFrankenstein:or,TheModern
Prometheus,oneoftheearliestexamplesof
softsciencefiction

RelatedtosocialSFandsoftSFareutopiananddystopianstories
GeorgeOrwell'sNineteenEightyFour,AldousHuxley'sBraveNewWorld,andMargaretAtwood'sThe
Handmaid'sTaleandOryxandCrakeareexamples.

Subgenres
Cyberpunk
Thecyberpunkgenreemergedintheearly1980scombiningcyberneticsandpunk,[50]thetermwascoinedby
authorBruceBethkeforhis1980shortstoryCyberpunk.[51]Thetimeframeisusuallynearfutureandthe
settingsareoftendystopianinnatureandcharacterizedbymisery.Commonthemesincyberpunkinclude
advancesininformationtechnologyandespeciallytheInternet,visuallyabstractedascyberspace,artificial
intelligence,andcyberneticsandpostdemocraticsocietalcontrolwherecorporationshavemoreinfluencethan
governments.Nihilism,postmodernism,andfilmnoirtechniquesarecommonelements,andtheprotagonists

maybedisaffectedorreluctantantiheroes.NoteworthyauthorsinthisgenreareWilliamGibson,Bruce
Sterling,NealStephenson,andPatCadigan.JamesO'Ehleyhascalledthe1982filmBladeRunneradefinitive
exampleofthecyberpunkvisualstyle.[52]

Timetravel
Timetravelstorieshaveantecedentsinthe18thand19thcenturies.ThefirstmajortimetravelnovelwasMark
Twain'sAConnecticutYankeeinKingArthur'sCourt.ThemostfamousisH.G.Wells'1895novelTheTime
Machine,whichusesavehiclethatallowsanoperatortotravelpurposefullyandselectively,whileTwain'stime
travelerisstruckinthehead.Thetermtimemachine,coinedbyWells,isnowuniversallyusedtorefertosucha
vehicle.BacktotheFutureisoneofthemostpopularmoviefranchisesinthiscategoryDoctorWhoisa
similarlypopularlongrunningtelevisionfranchise.Storiesofthistypearecomplicatedbylogicalproblems
suchasthegrandfatherparadox,[53]asexemplifiedintheclassicRobertHeinleinstory"AllYouZombies"
andtheFuturamaepisode"RoswellThatEndsWell."Timetravelcontinuestobeapopularsubjectinmodern
sciencefiction,inprint,movies,andtelevision.

Alternatehistory
Alternativehistorystoriesarebasedonthepremisethathistoricaleventsmighthaveturnedoutdifferently.
Thesestoriesmayusetimetraveltochangethepast,ormaysimplysetastoryinauniversewithadifferent
historyfromourown.ClassicsinthegenreincludeBringtheJubileebyWardMoore,inwhichtheSouthwins
theAmericanCivilWar,andTheManintheHighCastlebyPhilipK.Dick,inwhichGermanyandJapanwin
WorldWarII.TheSidewiseAwardacknowledgesthebestworksinthissubgenrethenameistakenfrom
MurrayLeinster's1934storySidewiseinTime.HarryTurtledoveisoneofthemostprominentauthorsinthe
subgenreandissometimescalledthe"masterofalternatehistory".[54]

Militarysciencefiction
Militarysciencefictionissetinthecontextofconflictbetweennational,interplanetary,orinterstellararmed
forcestheprimaryviewpointcharactersareusuallysoldiers.Storiesincludedetailaboutmilitarytechnology,
procedure,ritual,andhistorymilitarystoriesmayuseparallelswithhistoricalconflicts.Heinlein'sStarship
Troopersisanearlyexample,alongwiththeDorsainovelsofGordonDickson.JoeHaldeman'sTheForever
Warisacritiqueofthegenre,aVietnameraresponsetotheWorldWarIIstylestoriesofearlierauthors.[55]
ProminentmilitarySFauthorsincludeJohnScalzi,JohnRingo,DavidDrake,DavidWeber,TomKratman,
MichaelZ.Williamson,S.M.Stirling,andJohnCarr.ThepublishingcompanyBaenBooksisknownfor
cultivatingseveralofthesemilitarysciencefictionauthors.[56]

Superhuman
Superhumanstoriesdealwiththeemergenceofhumanswhohaveabilitiesbeyondthenorm.Thiscanstem
eitherfromnaturalcausessuchasinOlafStapledon'snovelOddJohn,TheodoreSturgeon'sMoreThan
Human,andPhilipWylie'sGladiator,orbetheresultofscientificadvances,suchastheintentional
augmentationinA.E.vanVogt'snovelSlan.Thesestoriesusuallyfocusonthealienationthatthesebeingsfeel
aswellassociety'sreactiontothem.Thesestorieshaveplayedaroleinthereallifediscussionofhuman
enhancement.FrederikPohl'sManPlusalsobelongstothiscategory.

Apocalypticandpostapocalyptic
Apocalypticfictionisconcernedwiththeendofcivilizationthroughwar(OntheBeach),pandemic(TheLast
Man),astronomicimpact(WhenWorldsCollide),ecologicaldisaster(TheWindfromNowhere),orsomeother
generaldisasterorwithaworldorcivilizationaftersuchadisaster.TypicalofthegenreareGeorgeR.Stewart's
novelEarthAbidesandPatFrank'snovelAlas,Babylon.Apocalypticfictiongenerallyconcernsthedisaster
itselfandthedirectaftermath,whilepostapocalypticfictioncandealwithanythingfromthenearaftermath(as

inCormacMcCarthy'sTheRoad)to375yearsinthefuture(asinByTheWatersofBabylon)tohundredsor
thousandsofyearsinthefuture,asinRussellHoban'snovelRiddleyWalkerandWalterM.Miller,Jr.'sA
CanticleforLeibowitz.Apocalypticsciencefictionisapopulargenreinvideogames.Thecriticallyacclaimed
roleplayingactionadventurevideogameseriesFalloutissetonapostapocalypticEarth,wherecivilizationis
recoveringfromanuclearwarassurvivorsstruggletosurviveandseektorebuildsociety.

Spaceopera
Spaceoperaisadventuresciencefictionsetmainlyorentirelyinouterspaceoronmultiple(sometimesdistant)
planets.Theconflictisheroic,andtypicallyonalargescale.Itisalsousednostalgically,andmodernspace
operamaybeanattempttorecapturethesenseofwonderofthegoldenageofsciencefiction.Thepioneerof
thissubgenreisgenerallyrecognizedtobeEdwardE.(Doc)Smith,withhisSkylarkandLensmanseries.
GeorgeLucas'sStarWarsseriesisamongthemostpopularandfamousfranchisesincinematicspaceopera.It
coversepicbattlesbetweengoodandevilthroughoutanentiregalaxy.AlastairReynolds'sRevelationSpace
series,PeterF.Hamilton'sVoid,Night'sDawn,Pandora'sStarseries,StephenHunt'sSlidingVoidseries,Vernor
Vinge'sAFireUpontheDeep,ADeepnessintheSkyarenewerexamplesofthisgenre.

SpaceWestern
ThespaceWesterntransposesthemesofAmericanWesternbooksandfilmstoabackdropoffuturisticspace
frontiers.Thesestoriestypicallyinvolvecolonyworldsthathaveonlyrecentlybeenterraformedand/orsettled
servingasstandinsforthebackdropoflawlessnessandeconomicexpansionthatwerepredominantinthe
Americanwest.ExamplesincludetheSeanConneryfilmOutland,Heinlein'sFarmerintheSky,Sparks
Nevada:MarshallonMarsfromtheThrillingAdventureHour,theFireflytelevisionseries,andthefilmsequel
SerenitybyJossWhedon,aswellasthemangaandanimeseriesCowboyBebop,OutlawStar,andTrigun.

Socialsciencefiction
Socialsciencefictionfocusesonthemesofsocietyandhumannatureinasciencefictionsetting.Sinceit
usuallyfocusesmoreonspeculationabouthumanityandlessonscientificaccuracy,it'susuallyplacedwithin
softsciencefiction.

Climatefiction
Climatefictionisagenrebasedaroundthemesofreactiontomajorclimatechange.Itissometimescalled"cli
fi",muchas"sciencefiction"isoftenshortenedto"scifi".Clifinovelsandfilmsareoftensetineitherthe
presentorthenearordistantfuture,buttheycanalsobesetinthepast.Manyclifiworksraiseawareness
aboutthemajorthreatsthatglobalwarmingandclimatechangepresenttolifeonEarth.

Mundanesciencefiction
MundanesciencefictionisasubgenrethatissetonEarthanddoesnotincludeouterspaceadventuresoralien
life.Becauseitfocusesonmoderndayaspects,itistypicallyassociatedwithhardsciencefiction.

Biopunk
Biopunkfocusesonbiotechnologyandsubversives.Themainunderlyingthemewithinthesestoriesisthe
attempttochangethehumanbodyandengineerhumansforspecificpurposesthroughenhancementsingenetic
andmolecularmakeups.Manyexamplesofthissubgenreincludesubjectssuchashumanexperimentation,the
misuseofbiotechnologyandsyntheticbiotechnology.Thissubgenrealsoincludesworksinvolvinghuman
cloningandhowclonesmightexistswithinhumansocietyinthefuture.

Othersubgenres

Anthropologicalsciencefictionisasubgenrethatabsorbsanddiscussesanthropologyandthestudyof
humankind.ExamplesincludeHominidsbyRobertJ.Sawyer,andNeanderthalbyJohnDarnton.
KaijuisaJapanesewordthatliterallytranslatesto"strangebeast."Thewordhasbeentranslatedand
definedinEnglishas"monster"andisusedtorefertoagenreoftokusatsuentertainment.Kaijufilms
featurelargecreaturesofanyform,usuallyattackingamajorcityorengaginganother(ormultiple)
monster(s)inbattle.Thesubgenrebeganin1954withGodzilla.
Libertariansciencefictionisasubgenrefocusesonthepoliticsandsocialorderimpliedbylibertarian
philosophieswithanemphasisonindividualism.
Comicsciencefictionisasubgenrethatexploitsthegenre'sconventionsforcomiceffect.
Feministsciencefictionposesquestionsaboutsocialissuessuchashowsocietyconstructsgenderroles,
therolereproductionplaysindefininggenderandtheunequalpoliticalandpersonalpowerofmenover
women.Someofthemostnotablefeministsciencefictionworkshaveillustratedthesethemesusing
utopiastoexploreasocietyinwhichgenderdifferencesorgenderpowerimbalancesdonotexist,or
dystopiastoexploreworldsinwhichgenderinequalitiesareintensified,thusassertinganeedforfeminist
worktocontinue.[57]JoannaRuss'swork,andsomeofUrsulaK.LeGuin'sworkcanbethuscategorized.
Magicalfeminismisasubgenreoffeministsciencefiction.
Steampunkisbasedontheideaoffuturistictechnologyexistinginthepast,usuallythe19thcentury,
andoftensetinVictorianeraEnglandbutwithprominentelementsofeithersciencefictionorfantasy,
suchasfictionaltechnologicalinventionslikethosefoundintheworksofH.G.WellsandJulesVerne,or
realtechnologicaldevelopmentslikethecomputeroccurringatanearlierdate.Popularexamplesinclude
TheDifferenceEnginebyWilliamGibsonandBruceSterling,LeviathanseriesbyScottWesterfeld,Bas
LagseriesbyChinaMiville,aswellasGirlGeniuswebcomicbyPhilandKajaFoglio,althoughseeds
ofthesubgenremaybeseenincertainworksofMichaelMoorcock,PhilipJosFarmerandSteveStiles,
andinsuchgamesasSpace:1889andMarcusRowland'sForgottenFutures.Machinesaremostoften
poweredbysteaminthisgenre(hencethename).TerryGilliam's1985filmBrazilisseenasinspiration
forwritersandartistsofthesteampunksubculture.[58]
Sciencefictionoperaisanoperainasciencefictionsettingwithoutanouterspaceormultiplanetary
setting,therebydistinguishingitfromSpaceopera.
ScifiactionSharingmanyoftheconventionsofasciencefictionfilm,scifiactionfilmsemphasizes
gunplay,spacebattles,inventedweaponry,andotherscifielementsweavedintoactionfilmpremises.
ExamplesincludeG.I.Samurai,Terminator2:JudgmentDay,TheMatrix,TotalRecall,MinorityReport,
TheIsland,StarWars,Aliens,IRobot,Transformers,TheHungerGames,TheMazeRunner,
Equilibrium,District9,Serenity,Akira,Paycheck,Predator,Robocop,Avatar,MadMax2,Divergent,
TheyLive,EscapeFromNewYorkandTheFifthElement.[59]
SciencefictionhorrorOftenrevolvesaroundsubjectsthatincludebutarenotlimitedtokilleraliens,
madscientists,and/orexperimentsgonewrong.
DieselpunktakesoverwhereSteampunkleavesoff.Thesearestoriesthattakeoverasweusherinthe
machineheavyerasofWWIandWWII.Theuseofdieselpoweredmachinesplaysheavily.Inthis(like
itssteamcounterpart),thefocusisonthetechnology.
Sciencefictionpoetryispoetrythathasthecharacteristicsorsubjectmatterofsciencefiction.Science
fictionpoetry'smainsourcesarethesciencesandtheliterarymovementofsciencefictionprose.An
extendeddiscussionofthefieldisgiveninSuzetteHadenElgin'sTheScienceFictionPoetryHandbook,
whereshecomparesandcontrastsittobothmainstreampoetryandtoprosesciencefiction.Theformer,
shemaintains,usesfiguresofspeechunencumberedbynoncompliantdetails,whereasthesedetailscan
bekeyelementsinsciencefictionpoetry.Proseinsciencefictionhasthetimetodevelopasettinganda
story,whereasapoeminthefieldisnormallyconstrainedbyitsshortlengthtorelyonsomedevicetoget
apointacrossquickly.Elginsaysthattheeffectivenessofthiskindofpoetrypivotsaroundthecorrect
useofpresupposition.[60]TheScienceFictionAssociationisaninternationalorganizationofspeculative
poets,[61]whichgivestheannualRhyslingAwardsforspeculativepoetry.Anearlyexampleofscience
fictioninpoetryisinAlfred,LordTennyson'sLocksleyHall,whereheintroducesapictureofthefuture
with"WhenIdiptintothefuturefarashumaneyecouldsee...."Thispoemwaswrittenin1835,nearthe
endofthefirstIndustrialRevolution.Poetrywasonlysparinglypublishedintraditionalsciencefiction
outletssuchaspulpmagazinesuntiltheNewWave.[62]Bythe1980sthereweremagazinesspecifically
devotedtosciencefictionpoetry.[62]

Relatedgenres

Otherspeculativefiction,fantasy,andhorror
Thebroadercategoryofspeculativefiction[63]includessciencefiction,fantasy,alternatehistories(whichmay
havenoparticularscientificorfuturisticcomponent),andevenliterarystoriesthatcontainfantasticelements,
suchastheworkofJorgeLuisBorgesorJohnBarth.Forsomeeditors,magicrealismisconsideredtobewithin
thebroaddefinitionofspeculativefiction.[64]

Fantasy
Fantasyiscommonlyassociatedwithsciencefiction,andanumberofwritershaveworkedinbothgenres,
whilewriterssuchasAnneMcCaffrey,UrsulaK.LeGuin,andMarionZimmerBradleyhavewrittenworks
thatappeartoblurtheboundarybetweenthetworelatedgenres.[65]Theauthors'professionalorganizationis
calledtheScienceFictionandFantasyWritersofAmerica(SFWA).[66]SFconventionsroutinelyhave
programmingonfantasytopics,[67]andfantasyauthorssuchasJ.K.Rowlinghavewonthehighesthonor
withinthesciencefictionfield,theHugoAward.[68]
Ingeneral,sciencefictiondiffersfromfantasyinthattheformerconcernsthingsthatmightsomedaybe
possibleorthatatleastembodythepretenseofrealism.Supernaturalism,usuallyabsentinsciencefiction,is
thedistinctivecharacteristicoffantasyliterature.Adictionarydefinitionreferringtofantasyliteratureis
"fictioncharacterizedbyhighlyfancifulorsupernaturalelements."[69]Examplesoffantasysupernaturalism
includemagic(spells,harmtoopponents),magicalplaces(Narnia,Oz,MiddleEarth,Hogwarts),supernatural
creatures(witches,vampires,orcs,trolls),supernaturaltransportation(flyingbroomsticks,rubyslippers,
windowsbetweenworlds),andshapeshifting(beastintoman,manintowolforbear,lionintosheep).Such
thingsarebasicthemesinfantasy.[70]
LiterarycriticFredricJamesonhascharacterizedthedifferencebetweenthetwogenresbydescribingscience
fictionasturning"onaformalframeworkdeterminedbyconceptsofthemodeofproductionratherthanthose
ofreligion"thatis,sciencefictiontextsareboundbyaninnerlogicbasedmoreonhistoricalmaterialismthan
onmagicortheforcesofgoodandevil.[71]Somenarrativesaredescribedasbeingessentiallysciencefiction
but"withfantasyelements."Theterm"sciencefantasy"issometimesusedtodescribesuchmaterial.[72]

Sciencefantasy
Sciencefantasyisagenrewhereelementsofsciencefictionandfantasycoexistorcombine.Storiesand
franchisesthatdisplayfictionalscienceaswellassupernaturalelements,sorceryor/and"magicaltechnology"
areconsideredsciencefantasy.

Horrorfiction
Horrorfictionistheliteratureoftheunnaturalandsupernatural,withtheaimofunsettlingorfrighteningthe
reader,sometimeswithgraphicviolence.Historicallyithasalsobeenknownasweirdfiction.Althoughhorror
isnotperseabranchofsciencefiction,someworksofhorrorliteratureincorporatessciencefictionalelements.
Oneofthedefiningclassicalworksofhorror,MaryShelley'snovelFrankenstein,isthefirstfullyrealizedwork
ofsciencefiction,wherethemanufactureofthemonsterisgivenarigoroussciencefictionalgrounding.The
worksofEdgarAllanPoealsohelpeddefineboththesciencefictionandthehorrorgenres.[73]Todayhorroris
oneofthemostpopularcategoriesoffilms.[74]Horrorisoftenmistakenlycategorizedassciencefictionatthe
pointofdistributionbylibraries,videorentaloutlets,etc.

Supernaturalfiction
Supernaturalfictionisagenrethatfeaturessupernaturalandotherparanormalphenomenoninstoriesand
settings.

SpyFi
Amixedgenrethatcombineselementsofsciencefictionwithspyfiction.

Mysteryfiction
Worksinwhichscienceandtechnologyareadominanttheme,butbasedoncurrentreality,maybeconsidered
mainstreamfiction.Muchofthethrillergenrewouldbeincluded,suchasthenovelsofTomClancyorMichael
Crichton,ortheJamesBondfilms.[75]ModernistworksfromwriterslikeKurtVonnegut,PhilipK.Dick,and
StanisawLemhavefocusedonspeculativeorexistentialperspectivesoncontemporaryrealityandareonthe
borderlinebetweenSFandthemainstream.[76]AccordingtoRobertJ.Sawyer,"Sciencefictionandmystery
haveagreatdealincommon.Bothprizetheintellectualprocessofpuzzlesolving,andbothrequirestoriesto
beplausibleandhingeonthewaythingsreallydowork."[77]IsaacAsimov,WalterMosley,andotherwriters
incorporatemysteryelementsintheirsciencefiction,andviceversa.
Distinctfromtheabove,afullfledgedScienceFictionMysteryisonewhichissetinacompletelydifferent
worldfromours,inwhichthecircumstancesandmotivesofthecrimecommittedandtheidentityofthe
detective(s)seekingtosolveitareofanessentiallysciencefictionalcharacter.AprimeexampleisIsaac
Asimov's"TheCavesofSteel"anditssequels,setinaworldthousandsofyearsinthefutureandpresentingthe
RobotdetectiveR.DaneelOlivaw.AnalliedgenreistheFantasyMystery,adetectivemysterysetinaworldof
fantasysuchastheLordDarcymysteriestakingplaceinaworldwheremagicworks,or"TheIdyllsofthe
Queen"setinthemythicalKingArthur'scourt.

Superherofiction
Superherofictionisagenrecharacterizedbybeingswithmuchhigherthanusualcapabilityandprowess,
generallywithadesireorneedtohelpthecitizensoftheirchosencountryorworldbyusingtheirpowersto
defeatnaturalorsuperpoweredthreats.Anumberofsuperherofictioncharactersinvolvethemselves(either
intentionallyoraccidentally)withsciencefictionandfact,includingadvancedtechnologies,alienworlds,time
travel,andinterdimensionaltravelbutthestandardsofscientificplausibilityarelowerthanwithactualscience
fiction.AuthorsofthisgenreincludeStanLee(cocreatorofSpiderMan,theFantasticFour,theIronMan,the
XMen,andtheHulk)MarvWolfman,thecreatorofBladeforMarvelComics,andTheNewTeenTitansfor
DCComicsDeanWesleySmith(Smallville,SpiderMan,andXMennovels)andSupermanwritersRoger
SternandElliotS!Maggin.

Fandomandcommunity
Sciencefictionfandomisthe"communityoftheliteratureofideas...thecultureinwhichnewideasemergeand
growbeforebeingreleasedintosocietyatlarge."[78]Membersofthiscommunity,"fans",areincontactwith
eachotheratconventionsorclubs,throughprintoronlinefanzines,orontheInternetusingwebsites,mailing
lists,andotherresources.
SFfandomemergedfromtheletterscolumninAmazingStoriesmagazine.Soonfansbeganwritinglettersto
eachother,andthengroupingtheircommentstogetherininformalpublicationsthatbecameknownas
fanzines.[79]Oncetheywereinregularcontact,fanswantedtomeeteachother,andtheyorganizedlocalclubs.
Inthe1930s,thefirstsciencefictionconventionsgatheredfansfromawiderarea.[80]Conventions,clubs,and
fanzineswerethedominantformoffanactivity,or"fanac",fordecades,untiltheInternetfacilitated
communicationamongamuchlargerpopulationofinterestedpeople.

Authors

Sciencefictionisbeingwrittenworldwidebyadiversepopulationofauthors.Accordingto2013statisticsby
thesciencefictionpublisherTorBooks,menoutnumberwomenby78%to22%amongsubmissionstothe
publisher.[81]Acontroversyaboutvotingslatesinthe2015HugoAwardshighlightedtensionsinthescience
fictioncommunitybetweenatrendofincreasinglydiverseworksandauthorsbeinghonoredbyawards,anda
backlashbygroupsofauthorsandfanswhopreferredwhattheyconsideredmoretraditionalsciencefiction.[82]

Awards
AmongthemostrespectedawardsforsciencefictionaretheHugoAward,presentedbytheWorldScience
FictionSocietyatWorldcontheNebulaAward,presentedbySFWAandvotedonbythecommunityof
authorsandtheJohnW.CampbellMemorialAwardforBestScienceFictionNovelandTheodoreSturgeon
MemorialAwardforshortfiction.OnenotableawardforsciencefictionfilmsistheSaturnAward.Itis
presentedannuallybyTheAcademyofScienceFiction,Fantasy,andHorrorFilms.
Therearenationalawards,likeCanada'sPrixAuroraAwards,regionalawards,liketheEndeavourAward
presentedatOryconforworksfromthePacificNorthwest,specialinterestorsubgenreawardsliketheChesley
AwardforartortheWorldFantasyAwardforfantasy.Magazinesmayorganizereaderpolls,notablytheLocus
Award.

Conventions,clubs,andorganizations
Conventions(infandom,shortenedas"cons"),areheldin
citiesaroundtheworld,cateringtoalocal,regional,national,
orinternationalmembership.Generalinterestconventions
coverallaspectsofsciencefiction,whileothersfocusona
particularinterestlikemediafandom,filking,etc.Mostare
organizedbyvolunteersinnonprofitgroups,thoughmost
mediaorientedeventsareorganizedbycommercialpromoters.
Theconvention'sactivitiesarecalledthe"program",which
mayincludepaneldiscussions,readings,autographsessions,
costumemasquerades,andotherevents.Activitiesthatoccur
throughouttheconventionarenotpartoftheprogramthese
commonlyincludeadealer'sroom,artshow,andhospitality
lounge(or"consuites").[83]

PamelaDeanreadingatMinicon

ConventionsmayhostawardceremoniesWorldconspresenttheHugoAwardseachyear.SFsocieties,referred
toas"clubs"exceptinformalcontexts,formayearroundbaseofactivitiesforsciencefictionfans.Theymay
beassociatedwithanongoingsciencefictionconvention,orhaveregularclubmeetings,orboth.Mostgroups
meetinlibraries,schoolsanduniversities,communitycenters,pubsorrestaurants,orthehomesofindividual
members.LongestablishedgroupsliketheNewEnglandScienceFictionAssociationandtheLosAngeles
ScienceFantasySocietyhaveclubhousesformeetingsandstorageofconventionsuppliesandresearch
materials.[84]TheScienceFictionandFantasyWritersofAmerica(SFWA)wasfoundedbyDamonKnightin
1965asanonprofitorganizationtoservethecommunityofprofessionalsciencefictionauthors,[66]24years
afterhisessay"UniteorFie!"hadledtotheorganizationoftheNationalFantasyFanFederation.Fandomhas
helpedincubaterelatedgroups,includingmediafandom,[85]theSocietyforCreativeAnachronism,[86]
gaming,[87]filking,andfurryfandom.[88]

Fanzinesandonlinefandom
Thefirstsciencefictionfanzine,TheComet,waspublishedin1930.[89]Fanzineprintingmethodshavechanged
overthedecades,fromthehectograph,themimeograph,andthedittomachine,tomodernphotocopying.
Distributionvolumesrarelyjustifythecostofcommercialprinting.Modernfanzinesareprintedoncomputer
printersoratlocalcopyshops,ortheymayonlybesentasemail.Thebestknownfanzine(or"'zine")todayis

Ansible,editedbyDavidLangford,winnerofnumerousHugoawards.Otherfanzinestowinawardsinrecent
yearsincludeFile770,Mimosa,andPlokta.[90]Artistsworkingforfanzineshaverisentoprominenceinthe
field,includingBradW.Foster,TeddyHarvia,andJoeMayhewtheHugosincludeacategoryforBestFan
Artists.[90]TheearliestorganizedfandomonlinewastheSFLovers(http://www.noreascon.org/users/sflovers/u
1/web/)community,originallyamailinglistinthelate1970swithatextarchivefilethatwasupdated
regularly.[91]Inthe1980s,Usenetgroupsgreatlyexpandedthecircleoffansonline.Inthe1990s,the
developmentoftheWorldWideWebexplodedthecommunityofonlinefandombyordersofmagnitude,with
thousandsandthenliterallymillionsofwebsitesdevotedtosciencefictionandrelatedgenresforallmedia.[84]
Mostsuchsitesaresmall,ephemeral,and/orverynarrowlyfocused,thoughsiteslikeSFSiteandSFcrowsnest
offerabroadrangeofreferencesandreviewsaboutsciencefiction.

Fanfiction
Fanfiction,knowntoaficionadosas"fanfic",isnoncommercialfictioncreatedbyfansinthesettingofan
establishedbook,film,videogame,ortelevisionseries.[92]Thismodernmeaningofthetermshouldnotbe
confusedwiththetraditional(pre1970s)meaningof"fanfiction"withinthecommunityoffandom,wherethe
termmeantoriginalorparodyfictionwrittenbyfansandpublishedinfanzines,oftenwithmembersoffandom
ascharacterstherein.ExamplesofthiswouldincludetheGoonDefectiveAgencystories,writtenstartingin
1956byIrishfanJohnBerryandpublishedinhisandArthurThomson'sfanzineRetribution.Inthelastfew
years,siteshaveappearedsuchasOrion'sArmandGalaxiki,whichencouragecollaborativedevelopmentof
sciencefictionuniverses.Insomecases,thecopyrightownersofthebooks,films,ortelevisionserieshave
instructedtheirlawyerstoissue"ceaseanddesist"letterstofans.

Sciencefictionstudies
Thestudyofsciencefiction,orsciencefictionstudies,isthecritical
assessment,interpretation,anddiscussionofsciencefictionliterature,film,
newmedia,fandom,andfanfiction.Sciencefictionscholarstakescience
fictionasanobjectofstudyinordertobetterunderstanditanditsrelationship
toscience,technology,politics,andcultureatlarge.Sciencefictionstudies
hasalonghistorydatingbacktotheturnofthe20thcentury,butitwasnot
untillaterthatsciencefictionstudiessolidifiedasadisciplinewiththe
publicationoftheacademicjournalsExtrapolation(1959),Foundation:The
InternationalReviewofScienceFiction(1972),andScienceFictionStudies
(1973),andtheestablishmentoftheoldestorganizationsdevotedtothestudy
ofsciencefiction,theScienceFictionResearchAssociationandtheScience
FictionFoundation,in1970.Thefieldhasgrownconsiderablysincethe1970s
withtheestablishmentofmorejournals,organizations,andconferenceswith
tiestothesciencefictionscholarshipcommunity,andsciencefictiondegree
grantingprogramssuchasthoseofferedbytheUniversityofLiverpooland
KansasUniversity.

[Sciencefiction]is
theonereal
internationalliterary
formwehavetoday,
andassuchhas
branchedoutto
visualmedia,
interactivemediaand
ontowhatevernew
mediatheworldwill
inventinthe21st
century...crossover
issuesbetweenthe
sciencesandthe
humanitiesare
crucialforthe
centurytocome.
[93]

GeorgeEdgarSlusser
TheNationalScienceFoundationhasconductedsurveysof"PublicAttitudes
andPublicUnderstanding"of"ScienceFictionandPseudoscience."[94]They
writethat"Interestinsciencefictionmayaffectthewaypeoplethinkaboutorrelatetoscience....onestudy
foundastrongrelationshipbetweenpreferenceforsciencefictionnovelsandsupportforthespace
program...Thesamestudyalsofoundthatstudentswhoreadsciencefictionaremuchmorelikelythanother
studentstobelievethatcontactingextraterrestrialcivilizationsisbothpossibleanddesirable(Bainbridge
1982).[95]

Asseriousliterature

MaryShelleywroteanumberofsciencefictionnovelsincludingFrankenstein,andistreatedasamajor
Romanticwriter.[96]AnumberofsciencefictionworkshavereceivedcriticalacclaimincludingChildhood's
EndandDoAndroidsDreamofElectricSheep?(theinspirationforthemovieBladeRunner).Anumberof
respectedwritersofmainstreamliteraturehavewrittensciencefiction,includingAldousHuxley'sBraveNew
World,GeorgeOrwell'sNineteenEightyFour,AnthonyBurgess'AClockworkOrangeandMargaretAtwood's
TheHandmaid'sTale.NobelLaureateDorisLessingwroteaseriesofSFnovels,CanopusinArgos,andnearly
allofKurtVonnegut'sworkscontainsciencefictionpremisesorthemes.
ThescholarTomShippeyasksaperennialquestionofsciencefiction:"Whatisitsrelationshiptofantasy
fiction,isitsreadershipstilldominatedbymaleadolescents,isitatastewhichwillappealtothematurebut
noneccentricliterarymind?"[97]Inhermuchreprintedessay"ScienceFictionandMrsBrown,"[98]thescience
fictionwriterUrsulaK.LeGuinhasapproachedananswerbyfirstcitingtheessaywrittenbytheEnglish
authorVirginiaWoolfentitledMrBennettandMrsBrowninwhichshestates:
Ibelievethatallnovels,...dealwithcharacter,andthatitistoexpresscharacternottopreach
doctrines,singsongs,orcelebratethegloriesoftheBritishEmpire,thattheformofthenovel,so
clumsy,verbose,andundramatic,sorich,elastic,andalive,hasbeenevolved...Thegreatnovelists
havebroughtustoseewhatevertheywishustoseethroughsomecharacter.Otherwisetheywould
notbenovelists,butpoets,historians,orpamphleteers.
LeGuinarguesthatthesecriteriamaybesuccessfullyappliedtoworksofsciencefictionandsoanswersinthe
affirmativeherrhetoricalquestionposedatthebeginningofheressay:"Canasciencefictionwriterwritea
novel?"
TomShippey[97]inhisessaydoesnotdisputethisanswerbutidentifiesanddiscussestheessentialdifferences
thatexistsbetweenasciencefictionnovelandonewrittenoutsidethefield.Tothisend,hecomparesGeorge
Orwell'sComingUpforAirwithFrederikPohlandC.M.Kornbluth'sTheSpaceMerchantsandconcludesthat
thebasicbuildingblockanddistinguishingfeatureofasciencefictionnovelisthepresenceofthenovum,a
termDarkoSuvinadaptsfromErnstBlochanddefinesas"adiscretepieceofinformationrecognizableasnot
true,butalsoasnotunliketrue,notflatly(andinthecurrentstateofknowledge)impossible."[99]
Insciencefictionthestyleofwritingisoftenrelativelyclearandstraightforwardcomparedtoclassical
literature.OrsonScottCard,anauthorofbothsciencefictionandnonSFfiction,haspostulatedthatinscience
fictionthemessageandintellectualsignificanceoftheworkiscontainedwithinthestoryitselfand,therefore,
thereneednotbestylisticgimmicksorliterarygamesbutthatsomewritersandcriticsconfuseclarityof
languagewithlackofartisticmerit.InCard'swords:
...agreatmanywritersandcriticshavebasedtheirentirecareersonthepremisethatanythingthat
thegeneralpubliccanunderstandwithoutmediationisworthlessdrivel.[...]Ifeverybodycameto
agreethatstoriesshouldbetoldthisclearly,theprofessorsofliteraturewouldbeoutofajob,and
thewritersofobscure,encodedfictionwouldbe,nothonored,butpitiedfortheir
impenetrability.[100]
SciencefictionauthorandphysicistGregoryBenfordhasdeclaredthat:"SFisperhapsthedefininggenreofthe
twentiethcentury,althoughitsconqueringarmiesarestillcampedoutsidetheRomeoftheliterarycitadels."[101]
ThissenseofexclusionwasarticulatedbyJonathanLetheminanessaypublishedintheVillageVoiceentitled
"CloseEncounters:TheSquanderedPromiseofScienceFiction."[102]Lethemsuggeststhatthepointin1973
whenThomasPynchon'sGravity'sRainbowwasnominatedfortheNebulaAward,andwaspassedoverin
favorofArthurC.Clarke'sRendezvouswithRama,standsas"ahiddentombstonemarkingthedeathofthe
hopethatSFwasabouttomergewiththemainstream."AmongtheresponsestoLethemwasonefromthe

editoroftheMagazineofFantasyandScienceFictionwhoasked:"Whenisit[theSFgenre]evergoingto
realizeitcan'twinthegameoftryingtoimpressthemainstream?"[103]Onthispointthejournalistandauthor
DavidBarnetthasremarked:[104]
Theongoing,endlesswarbetween"literary"fictionand"genre"fictionhaswelldefinedlinesin
thesand.Genre'sfootsoldiersthinkthatliteraryfictionisacollectionofmeaninglessbutprettily
drawnpicturesofthehumancondition.Theliteraryguardconsidergenrefictiontobecrass,
commercial,whizzbangpotboilers.Orsoitgoes.
Barnett,inanearlieressayhadpointedtoanewdevelopmentinthis"endlesswar":[105]
WhatdonovelsaboutajourneyacrosspostapocalypticAmerica,aclonewaitressrebellingagainst
afuturesociety,aworldgirdlingpipeofspecialgaskeepingmutantcreaturesatbay,aplantorida
colonizablenewworldofdinosaurs,andgeneticengineeringinacollapsedcivilizationhavein
common?
Theyareallmostdefinitelynotsciencefiction.
LiteraryreaderswillprobablyrecognizeTheRoadbyCormacMcCarthy,oneofthesectionsof
CloudAtlasbyDavidMitchell,TheGoneAwayWorldbyNickHarkaway,TheStoneGodsby
JeanetteWintersonandOryxandCrakebyMargaretAtwoodfromtheirdescriptionsabove.Allof
thesenovelsusethetropesofwhatmostpeoplerecognizeassciencefiction,buttheirauthorsor
publishershavetakengreatpainstoensurethattheyarenotcategorizedassuch.

Worldwideexamples
AlthoughperhapsmostdevelopedasagenreandcommunityintheUnitedStates,Canada,andtheUnited
Kingdom,sciencefictionisaworldwidephenomenon.Organisationsdevotedtopromotionandeventranslation
inparticularcountriesarecommonplace,asarecountryorlanguagespecificgenreawards.

Africa
MohammedDib,anAlgerianwriter,wroteasciencefictionallegoryabouthisnation'spolitics,Quisesouvient
delamer(WhoRememberstheSea?)in1962.[106]MasimbaMusodza,aZimbabweanauthor,published
MunaHachaMaiveNei?thefirstsciencefictionnovelintheShonalanguage,[107]whichalsoholdsthe
distinctionofbeingthefirstnovelintheShonalanguagetoappearasanebookfirstbeforeitcameoutinprint.
InSouthAfrica,amovietitledDistrict9cameoutin2009,anapartheidallegoryfeaturingextraterrestriallife
forms,producedbyPeterJackson.
Sciencefictionexaminessocietythroughshiftingpowerstructures(suchastheshiftofpowerfromhumanityto
alienoverlords).Africansciencefictionoftenusesthisgenrenormtosituateslaveryandtheslavetradeasan
alienabduction.Commonalitiesinexperienceswithunknownlanguages,customs,andculturelendthemselves
welltothiscomparison.Thesubgenrealsocommonlyemploysthemechanismoftimetraveltoexaminethe
effectsofslaveryandforcedemigrationontheindividualandthefamily.

Asia
India

Indiansciencefiction,definedlooselyassciencefictionbywritersofIndiandescent,beganwiththeEnglish
languagepublicationofKylasChundarDutt'sAJournalofFortyEightHoursoftheYear1945intheCalcutta
LiteraryGazette(June6,1835).Sincethisstorywasintendedasapoliticalpolemic,creditforthefirstscience
fictionstoryisoftengiventolaterBengaliauthorssuchasJagadanandaRoy,HemlalDuttaandthepolymath
JagadishChandraBose.EminentfilmmakerandwriterSatyajitRayalsoenrichedBengalisciencefictionby
writingmanyshortstoriesaswellassciencefictionseries,ProfessorShonku(seeBengalisciencefiction).
SimilartraditionsexistinHindi,Marathi,TamilandEnglish.[108]InEnglish,themoderneraofIndian
speculativefictionbeganwiththeworksofauthorssuchasSamitBasu,PayalDhar,VandanaSinghandAnil
Menon.WorkssuchasAmitavGhosh'sTheCalcuttaChromosome,SalmanRushdie'sGrimus,andBoman
Desai'sTheMemoryofElephantsaregenerallyclassifiedasmagicrealistworksbutmakeessentialuseofSF
tropesandtechniques.InrecentyearsauthorsinsomeotherIndianlanguageshavebeguntellingstoriesinthis
genreforexampleinPunjabiIPSinghandRoopDhillonhavewrittenstoriesthatcanclearlybedefinedas
Punjabisciencefiction.ThelatterhascoinedthetermVachitarvaadtodescribesuchliterature.
Bangladesh
BangladeshhasastrongSciencefictionliteratureinSouthAsia.AfterQazi
AbdulHalim'sMohasunnerKanna(TearsoftheCosmos)(1970),Humayun
AhmedwrotethefirstmodernBengaliSFnovel,TomaderJonnoValobasa
(LoveForYouAll).Itwaspublishedin1973.Thisbookistreatedasthefirst
fullfledgedBangladeshisciencefictionnovel.ThenhewroteTaraTinjon(They
wereThree),Irina,AnontoNakshatraBithi(EndlessGalaxy),FihaSomikoron
(FihaEquation)etc.
ButBengalisciencefictionleavesitscocoonphaseholdingthehandsof
MuhammedZafarIqbal.Mr.IqbalwroteastorynamedCopotronicSukhDukho
(CopotronicEmotions)whenhewasastudentofDhakaUniversity.Thisstory
waslaterincludedinacompilationofIqbal'sworkinabookbythesamename.
Muktodhara,afamouspublishinghouseofDhakawasthepublisherofthis
book.Thiscollectionofsciencefictionstoriesgainedhugepopularityandthe
newtrendofsciencefictionemergedamongBengaliwritersandreaders.After
hisfirstcollection,Mr.Iqbaltransformedhisownsciencefictioncartoonstrip
MohakasheMohatrash(TerrorintheCosmos)intoanovel.Alltold,
MuhammedZafarIqbalhaswrittenthegreatestnumberofsciencefictionworks
inBengalisciencefiction.

MuhammedZafarIqbalat
EkusheyBookFair,Dhaka
inFebruary2015

Followingthefootstepsoftheancestors,moreandmorewriters,especiallyyoungwritersstartedwriting
sciencefictionandanewerastartedinBengaliliterature.
China
ModernsciencefictioninChinamainlydependsonthemagazineScienceFictionWorld.Anumberofworks
wereoriginallypublishedinitininstallments,includingthehighlysuccessfulnovelTheThreeBodyProblem,
writtenbyLiuCixin.
Korea
Untilrecently,therehasbeenlittledomesticsciencefictionliteratureinKorea.[109]Withinthesmallfield,the
authorandcriticwritingunderthenomdeplumeDjunahasbeencreditedwithbeingthemajorforce.[110]Kim
Boyoung,BaeMyunghoonandKwakJaesikarealsooftenmentionedasthenewgenerationofKoreanscience
fictionwritersof2010s.[111]Theupswingthatbeganin2009hasbeenattributedbyShinJunebongtoa
combinationoffactors.[112]ShinquotesDjunaassaying,"'Itlookslikethevariousliteraryawardsestablished
byonenewspaperafteranother,withheftysumsofprizemoney,hadabigimpact.'"[112]Anotherfactorcited

wastheactiveuseofWebbulletinboardsamongthethenyoungwritersbroughtupontranslationsofWestern
SF.[113]Inspiteoftheincrease,therewerestillnomorethansixtyorsoauthorswritinginthefieldatthat
time.[112]
Middleeast
ChalomotBe'aspamiaisanIsraelimagazineofshortsciencefictionandfantasystories.ThePropheciesOf
Karma,publishedin2011,isadvertisedasthefirstworkofsciencefictionbyanArabicauthor,theLebanese
writerNaelGharzeddine.

Europe
FranceandBelgium
JulesVerne,a19thcenturyFrenchnovelistknownforhispioneering
sciencefictionworks(TwentyThousandLeaguesUndertheSea,
JourneytotheCenteroftheEarth,FromtheEarthtotheMoon)isthe
primerepresentativeoftheFrenchlegacyofsciencefiction.French
sciencefictionofthe19thcenturywasalsorepresentedwithsuchartists
asAlbertRobidaandIsidoreGrandville.Inthe20thcentury,traditions
ofFrenchsciencefictionwerecarriedonbywriterslikePierreBoulle
(bestknownforhisPlanetoftheApes),SergeBrussolo,Bernard
Werber,RenBarjavelandRobertMerle,amongothers.
InFrancoBelgiancomics,bandedessine("BD")sciencefictionisa
wellestablishedgenre.NotableFrenchsciencefictioncomicsinclude
ValerianetLaurelinebyPierreChristinandJeanClaudeMzires,a
MoonshotfromLeVoyagedansla
spaceoperafranchisethathaslastedsince1967.MetalHurlant
lune(1902),asilentfilmbyGeorge
magazine(knowninUSasHeavyMetal)wasoneofthelargest
Mlis
contributorstofrancophonesciencefictioncomics.Itsmajorauthors
includeJean"Moebius"Giraud,creatorofArzachChileanAlejandro
Jodorowsky,whocreatedaseriesofcomics,includingL'IncalandLesMetabarons,setinJodoverseandEnki
BilalwithTheNikopolTrilogy.GiraudalsocontributedtoFrenchSFanimation,collaboratingwithRen
Lalouxonseveralanimatedfeatures.Anumberofartistsfromneighboringcountries,suchasSpainandItaly,
createsciencefictionandfantasycomicsinFrenchaimedataFrancoBelgianmarket.
InFrenchcinema,sciencefictionbeganwithsilentfilmdirectorandvisualeffectspioneerGeorgeMlis,
whosemostfamousfilmwasVoyagetotheMoon,looselybasedonbooksbyVerneandWells.Inthe20thand
21stcenturies,FrenchsciencefictionfilmswererepresentedbyRenLaloux'sanimatedfeatures,aswellas
EnkiBilal'sadaptationoftheNikopolTrilogy,Immortal.LucBessonfilmedTheFifthElementasajoint
FrancoAmericanproduction.
IntheFrenchspeakingworld,thecolloquialuseofthetermscifiisanacceptedAnglicismforthetermscience
fiction.[114]Thisprobablystemsfromthefactthatsciencefictionwritingneverexpandedtheretotheextentit
didintheEnglishspeakingworld,particularlywiththedominanceoftheUnitedStates.Nevertheless,France
hasmadeatremendouscontributiontosciencefictioninitsseminalstagesofdevelopment.Althoughtheterm
"sciencefiction"isunderstoodinFrance,theirpenchantforthe"weirdandwacky"hasalongtraditionandis
sometimescalled"lecultedumerveilleux."ThisuniquelyFrenchtraditioncertainlyencompasseswhatthe
anglophoneworldwouldcallFrenchsciencefictionbutalsorangesacrossfairies,Dadaism,andsurrealism.
Italy

Italyhasavividhistoryinsciencefiction,thoughalmostunknownoutsideherborders.ThehistoryofItalian
sciencefictionrecognizesavariedroadmapofthisgenrewhichspreadtoapopularlevelafterWorldWarTwo,
andinparticularinthesecondhalfofthe1950s,onthewaveofAmericanandBritishliterature.[115]
TheearliestpioneersmaybefoundintheliteratureofthefantasticvoyageandoftheRenaissanceUtopia,even
inpreviousmasterpiecessuchas"TheMillion"ofMarcoPolo.Inthesecondhalfofthe19thcenturystories
andshortnovelsof"scientificfantasies"(alsoknownas"incrediblestories"or"fantastic"or"adventuristic",
"novelsofthefuturetimes"or"utopic","ofthetomorrow")appearedinSundaynewspapersupplements,in
literarymagazines,andasbookletspublishedininstallments.Addedtothese,atthebeginningofthe20th
century,werethemostfuturisticmasterpiecesofthegreatEmilioSalgari,consideredbymostthefatherof
Italiansciencefiction,andYamboandLuigiMotta,themostrenownedauthorsofpopularnovelsofthetime,
withextraordinaryadventuresinremoteandexoticplaces,andevenworksofauthorsrepresentingknown
figuresofthe"top"literature,amongthemMassimoBontempelli,LuigiCapuana,GuidoGozzano,ErcoleLuigi
Morselli.[116]
ThetruebirthofItaliansciencefictionisplacedin1952,withthepublishingofthefirstspecializedmagazines,
ScienzaFantastica(FantasticScience)andUrania,andwiththeappearanceoftheterm"fantascienza"which
hasbecometheusualtranslationoftheEnglishterm"sciencefiction."The"GoldenYears"spantheperiod
19571960.
Fromtheendofthe1950ssciencefictionbecameinItalyoneofthemostpopulargenres,althoughitspopular
successwasnotfollowedbycriticalsuccess.Inspiteofanactiveandorganizedfandomtherehasn'tbeenan
authenticsustainedinterestonthepartoftheItalianculturallitetowardssciencefiction.[117]
PopularItaliansciencefictionwritersincludeGianluigiZuddas,GiampietroStocco,LinoAldani,[118]aswellas
comicartists,suchasMiloManara.ValerioEvangelistiisthebestknownmodernauthorofItalianscience
fictionandfantasy.[119]Also,popularItalianchildren'swriterGianniRodarioftenturnedtosciencefiction
aimedatchildren,mostnotably,inGipintheTelevision.
Germany
ThemainGermansciencefictionwriterinthe19thcenturywasKurd
Lawitz.[120]AccordingtoAustrianSFcriticFranzRottensteiner,
thoughsignificantGermannovelsofasciencefictionnaturewere
publishedinthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,SFdidnotexistasagenre
inthecountryuntilafterWorldWarIIandtheheavyimportingand
translationofAmericanworks.Inthe20thcentury,duringtheyearsof
dividedGermany,bothEastandWestspawnedanumberofsuccessful
writers.TopEastGermanwritersincludedAngelaandKarlheinz
Steinmller,aswellasGntherKrupkat.WestGermanauthorsincluded
CarlAmery,GudrunPausewang,WolfgangJeschkeandFrank
DirectorFritzLangandcameraman
Schtzing,amongothers.Awellknownsciencefictionbookseriesin
CurtCourant,creatorsofMetropolis
theGermanlanguageisPerryRhodan,whichstartedin1961.Having
soldoveronebillioncopies(inpulpformat),itclaimstobethemost
successfulsciencefictionbookserieseverwritten,worldwide.[121]CurrentwellknownSFauthorsfrom
GermanyarefivetimeKurdLawitzAwardwinnerAndreasEschbach,whosebooksTheCarpetMakersand
EineBillionDollararebigsuccesses,andFrankSchtzing,whoinhisbookTheSwarmmixeselementsofthe
sciencethrillerwithSFelementstoanapocalypticscenario.ThemostprominentGermanspeakingauthor,
accordingtoDieZeit,isAustrianHerbertW.Franke.
Inthe1920sGermanyproducedanumberofcriticallyacclaimedhighbudgetsciencefictionandhorrorfilms.
MetropolisbydirectorFritzLangiscreditedasoneofthemostinfluentialsciencefictionfilmsevermade.[122]
OtherfilmsoftheeraincludedWomanintheMoon,Alraune,Algol,Gold,MasteroftheWorld,amongothers.

Inthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,EastGermanyalsobecameamajorsciencefictionfilmproducer,oftenin
acollaborationwithfellowEasternBloccountries.FilmsofthiseraincludeEolomea,FirstSpaceshiponVenus
andHardtoBeaGod.
RussiaandexSovietcountries
Russiansmadetheirfirststepstosciencefictioninthemid19thcentury,withutopiasbyFaddeiBulgarinand
VladimirOdoevsky.[123]However,itwastheSovieterathatbecamethegenre'sgoldenage.Sovietwriterswere
prolific,[124]despitelimitationssetupbystatecensorship.EarlySovietwriters,suchasAlexanderBelayev,
AlexeyN.TolstoyandVladimirObruchev,employedVernian/Wellsianhardsciencefictionbasedonscientific
predictions.[125]ThemostnotablebooksoftheeraincludeBelayev'sAmphibianMan,TheAirSellerand
ProfessorDowell'sHeadTolstoy'sAelitaandEngineerGarin'sDeathRay.EarlySovietsciencefictionwas
influencedbycommunistideologyandoftenfeaturedaleftistagendaoranticapitalistsatire.[126]Thosefew
earlySovietbooksthatchallengedthecommunistworldviewandsatirizedtheSoviets,suchasYevgeny
Zamyatin'sdystopiaWeorMikhailBulgakov'sHeartofaDogandFatalEggs,werebannedfrompublishing
untilthe1980s,althoughtheystillcirculatedinfanmadecopies.
Inthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,anewgenerationofwritersdevelopedamorecomplexapproach.Social
sciencefiction,concernedwithphilosophy,ethics,utopiananddystopianideas,becametheprevalent
subgenre.[127]ThebreakthroughwasstartedbyIvanYefremov'sutopiannovelAndromedaNebula(1957).He
wassoonfollowedbybrothersArkadyandBorisStrugatsky,whoexploreddarkerthemesandsocialsatirein
theirNoonUniversenovels,suchasHardtobeaGod(1964)andPrisonersofPower(1969),aswellasintheir
sciencefantasytrilogyMondayBeginsonSaturday(1964).AgoodshareofSovietsciencefictionwasaimedat
children.Probablythebestknown[125][128]wasKirBulychov,whocreatedAlisaSelezneva(19652003),a
children'sspaceadventureseriesaboutateenagegirlfromthefuture.
TheSovietfilmindustryalsocontributedtothegenre,startingfromthe1924filmAelita.SomeofearlySoviet
films,namelyPlanetoftheStorms(1962)andBattleBeyondtheSun(1959),werepirated,reeditedand
releasedintheWestundernewtitles.[129]LateSovietsciencefictionfilmsincludeMysteryoftheThirdPlanet
(1981),IvanVasilyevich(1973)andKindzadza!(1986),aswellasAndreyTarkovsky'sSolarisandStalker,
amongothers.
AfterthefalloftheSovietUnion,sciencefictionintheformerSovietrepublicsisstillwrittenmostlyin
Russian,whichallowsanappealtoabroaderaudience.AsidefromRussiansthemselves,especiallynotableare
Ukrainianwriters,whohavegreatlycontributedtosciencefictionandfantasyinRussianlanguage.[130]Among
themostnotablepostSovietauthorsareH.L.Oldie,SergeyLukyanenko,AlexanderZorichandVadimPanov.
Russia'sfilmindustry,however,hasbeenlesssuccessfulrecently,producingonlyafewsciencefictionfilms,
mostofthemareadaptationsofbooksbytheStrugatskys(TheInhabitedIsland,TheUglySwans)orBulychov
(Alice'sBirthday).SciencefictionmediainRussiaisrepresentedwithsuchmagazinesasMirFantastikiand
Esli.
OtherEuropeancountries
Polandisatraditionalproducerofsciencefictionandfantasy.Thecountry'smostinfluentialsciencefiction
writerofalltimeisStanisawLem,whoisprobablybestknownforhissciencefictionbooks,suchasSolaris
andthestoriesinvolvingIjonTichy,butwhoalsowroteverysuccessfulhardscifisuchasTheInvincibleand
thestoriesinvolvingPilotPirx.AnumberofLem'sbookswereadaptedforscreen,bothinPolandandabroad.
OthernotablePolishwritersofthegenreincludeJerzyuawski,JanuszA.Zajdel,KonradFiakowski,Jacek
DukajandRafaA.Ziemkiewicz.
CzechwriterandplaywrightKarelapekinhisplayR.U.R.(1920)introducedthewordrobotintoscience
fiction.apekisalsoknownforhissatiricalsciencefictionnovelsandplays,suchasWarwiththeNewtsand
TheAbsoluteatLarge.TraditionsofCzechsciencefictionwerecarriedondespitethegeneralpoliticalclimate

bywriterslikeLudvkSouek,JosefNesvadba,OndejNeffandJaroslavVelinsk.Intheyears19802000a
newvaweofyoungwritersappeared(J.W.Prochzka,F.Novotn,E.Hauserov,V.Kadlekov,J.Rekov,
E.Dufkov).

Oceania
Australia:AmericanDavidG.Hartwellnotedthereis"nothingessentiallyAustralianaboutAustralianscience
fiction."AnumberofAustraliansciencefiction(andfantasyandhorror)writersareinfactinternational
Englishlanguagewriters,andtheirworkispublishedworldwide.Thisisfurtherexplainablebythefactthatthe
Australianinnermarketissmall(withAustralianpopulationbeingaround21million),andsalesabroadare
crucialtomostAustralianwriters.[131]

NorthAmerica
InCanadianFrancophoneprovinceQubec,lisabethVonarburgandotherauthorsdevelopedatraditionof
FrenchCanadianSF,relatedtotheEuropeanFrenchliterature.ThePrixBorealwasestablishedin1979to
honorCanadiansciencefictionworksinFrench.ThePrixAuroraAwards(brieflyprecededbytheCasper
Award)werefoundedin1980torecognizeandpromotethebestworksofCanadiansciencefictioninboth
FrenchandEnglish.Also,duetoCanada'sbilingualismandtheUSpublishingalmostexclusivelyinEnglish,
translationofsciencefictionproseintoFrenchthrivesandrunsnearlyparalleluponabook'spublishinginthe
originalEnglish.AsizeablemarketalsoexistswithinQubecforEuropeanwrittenFrancophonesciencefiction
literature.

LatinAmerica
AlthoughthereisstillsomecontroversyastowhensciencefictionbeganinLatinAmerica,theearliestworks
datefromthelate19thcentury.Allpublishedin1875,ODoutorBenignusbythePortugueseBrazilianAugusto
EmlioZaluar,ElMaravillosoViajedelSr.NicNacbytheArgentinianEduardoHolmberg,andHistoriadeun
MuertobytheCubanFranciscoCalcagnoarethreeoftheearliestnovelswhichappearedinthecontinent.[132]
Uptothe1960s,sciencefictionwastheworkofisolatedwriterswhodidnotidentifythemselveswiththe
genre,butratheruseditselementstocriticizesociety,promotetheirownagendasortapintothepublic's
interestinpseudosciences.ItreceivedaboostofrespectabilityafterauthorssuchasHoracioQuirogaandJorge
LuisBorgesuseditselementsintheirwritings.This,inturn,ledtothepermanentemergenceofsciencefiction
inthe1960sandmid1970s,notablyinArgentina,Brazil,Chile,Mexico,andCuba.Magicrealismenjoyed
parallelgrowthinLatinAmerica,withastrongregionalemphasisonusingtheformtocommentonsocial
issues,similartosocialsciencefictionandspeculativefictionintheEnglishworld.
Economicturmoilandthesuspiciouseyeofthedictatorialregimesinplacereducedthegenre'sdynamismfor
thefollowingdecade.Inthemid1980s,itbecameincreasinglypopularoncemore.AlthoughledbyArgentina,
BrazilandMexico,LatinAmericanowhostsdedicatedcommunitiesandwriterswithanincreasinguseof
regionalelementstosetthemapartfromEnglishlanguagesciencefiction.[133]

Seealso
Fantasticart
Listofsciencefictionauthors
Listofsciencefictionfilms
Listofsciencefictionnovels
Listofsciencefictiontelevisionprograms
Listofsciencefictionthemes
Listofsciencefictionandfantasyartists
Listofsciencefictionuniverses
NonAristotelianlogicuseinsciencefiction
Sciencefictionlibrariesandmuseums

Sciencefictionlibrariesandmuseums
Senseofwonder
Skiffy
Timelineofsciencefiction
Transhumanism(aschoolofthoughtprofoundly
inspiredbySF)

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Externallinks
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LibrarysDiscoveringLiteraturewebsite.
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