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doi: 10.1111/den.12639
Guideline
MONG PATIENTS WITH non-variceal upper gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding, the major cause is peptic gastroduodenal ulcer. Mallory-Weiss syndrome, vascular abnormalities,
iatrogenic causes after endoscopic procedures and surgical
operation with anastomosis, and so on, are known as other
causes of bleeding, although there have been little
epidemiological data to date.
The prevalence of peptic ulcer is decreasing in both Eastern
and Western countries;15 however, according to a population
survey report in Japan, death as a result of these diseases has
remained at over 3000 per year after 2000 despite their continuous decrease until the 1990s.6 Helicobacter pylori (HP) and
low-dose aspirin are important risk factors for these ulcers.7,8
According to a recent meta-analysis, the relative risks of HP
Corresponding: Mitsuhiro Fujishiro, Japan Gastroenterological
Endoscopy Society, 3-2-1 Kandasurugadai, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 1010062, Japan. Email: digestive_endoscopy@jges.or.jp
Received 1 December 2015; accepted 17 February 2016.
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condition and stabilize the patients vital signs with intensive care
for successful endoscopic hemostasis. Additionally, use of
antisecretory agents is recommended to prevent rebleeding after
endoscopic hemostasis, especially for gastroduodenal ulcer bleeding. Eighteen statements with evidence and recommendation
levels have been made by the JGES committee of these guidelines
according to evidence obtained from clinical research studies.
However, some of the statements that are supported by a low
level of evidence must be confirmed by further clinical research.
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2
3
4
6
1
3
6
1
6
1
2
3
Other markers
Pulse rate 100 (per min)
Presentation with melena
Presentation with syncope
Hepatic disease
Cardiac failure
1
1
2
2
2
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Age
Shock
Comorbidity
Diagnosis
Major SRH
Score
0
<60 years
No shock
Systolic BP >100 b.p.m.
Pulse <100 b.p.m.
No major comorbidity
6079 years
Tachycardia
Systolic BP >100 b.p.m.
Pulse >100 b.p.m.
Mallory-Weiss tear,
No lesion identified
No SRH
None or dark spot only
>80 years
Hypotension
Systolic BP <100 b.p.m.
Cardiac failure
Ischemic heart disease
Any major comorbidity
Malignancy of upper GI tract
Renal failure
Liver failure
Disseminated malignancy
b.p.m., beats per minute; GI, gastrointestinal; SRH, stigmata of recent hemorrhage.
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patients backgrounds and, based on the guidelines of the British Committee for Standards in Hematology (2006),68 a platelet count of 50 000/L was recommended as the threshold.69
As mentioned earlier, upper gastrointestinal bleeding should
be managed so that patients maintain a PT-INR <1.5 and
platelet count >50 000/L (evidence level IVa, recommendation level C1).
Regarding the timing of endoscopy, urgent endoscopy
within 24 h is reported to reduce the risk of mortality and
surgical intervention in high-risk cases of upper gastrointestinal bleeding,7072 and it is recommended that endoscopy be
carried out within 24 h in various guidelines.73 In contrast,
many studies have concluded that there is no difference in
outcomes between patients who underwent endoscopy within
24 h and those who underwent endoscopy within
12 h.72,7476 Therefore, urgent endoscopy within 24 h is
recommended for patients who are suspected of having
upper gastrointestinal bleeding (evidence level III, recommendation level B).
ENDOSCOPIC HEMOSTASIS
Injection therapy
Injection of absolute ethanol
HIS METHOD DEVELOPED by Asaki77,78 is based on
the principle of tissue dehydration and fixation with absolute ethanol. In this procedure, the bleeding vessels are
dehydrated and fixed with consequent vasoconstriction and
necrosis of the vascular wall, including its endothelial lining,
thereby facilitating thrombogenesis and hemostasis. Aliquots
of 0.10.2 mL absolute ethanol are injected locally at several
sites 12 mm from the bleeding vessel. A change in the color
of the mucosa around the bleeding vessels to whitish or dark
brown indicates appropriate hemostasis. A total volume of
23 mL per session should not be exceeded in order to avoid
perforation.
367
Mechanical therapy
Thermal therapy
Hemostatic forceps
Hemostatic forceps is a contact electrocoagulation device.
There are two types of electrical circuit: multipolar/bipolar
and monopolar. The operator can grasp a bleeding vessel using
hemostatic forceps in the same way as using a biopsy forceps.
It is very important to detect the bleeding vessel to avoid
excessive electrocautery which results in delayed perforation.
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Mallory-Weiss syndrome
Mallory-Weiss syndrome refers to a laceration in the mucosa,
most commonly at the gastroesophageal junction. The incidence of bleeding as a result of Mallory-Weiss syndrome is
reported as 311% among cases of upper GI bleeding.139,140.
In many cases, procedures for hemostasis are not required as
the bleeding is usually self-limited.141 If an active bleeding
point is detected by endoscopy, hemostasis using endoclips
is effective.142 The merit of using endoclips is that it is possible
to achieve precise hemostasis as well as closing of the mucosal
tear.140143 Other endoscopic hemostatic procedures include
EBL,144,145 HSE injection, and endoscopic coagulation.
Endoclip hemostasis and EBL are mechanical hemostatic procedures with similar efficacy;146 rebleeding after mechanical
hemostatic procedures is reported to be less than rebleeding
after HSE injection,142 whereas others have reported that the
rates of rebleeding, hemostatic effect and safety were similar
to those after HSE injection.147,148 However, HSE injection
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Post-procedural bleeding
Post-biopsy bleeding
The risk of bleeding after endoscopic biopsy is reported to be
0.480.58%.151,152 The risk of bleeding did not increase even
under continuation of antithrombotic agents, although the
number of hemostatic procedures immediately after biopsy
increased.151 However, emergency endoscopy as a result of
bleeding from the biopsy site is sometimes required. If the
bleeding point is identified, hemostasis can be achieved by
hemostatic forceps or by endoclips. Other hemostatic procedures such as HSE or ethanol injection, SB tube placement,
use of a topical hemostatic spray as well as treatment by
fasting, PPI, and transfusion have also been reported.153,154
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nasogastric tube. Although anastomotic bleeding may spontaneously stop, endoscopic hemostasis (endoclip,203,204 heater
probe,205 or HSE injection) is required in cases with continuous
bleeding or in those manifesting hypotension or tachycardia.
Blood transfusion201,203,204 or re-surgery202204 may be required
if endoscopic hemostasis is unsuccessful or if the bleeding
site cannot be reached by endoscopy. After endoscopic
hemostasis, attention should be paid to any sign of perforation
or intraperitoneal abscess.203,206
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
10
11
12
The disclosure criteria were as follows: financial endowment (2 M), collaborative research or trust fund
(2 M), transfer of license agreement or rights
(2 M), or scholarship endowment (2 M).
Eisai Co., Ltd, Astellas Pharma Inc., AstraZeneca Plc,
Daiichi Sankyo Co., Ltd, Takeda Pharmaceutical, Co.
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Additional supporting information may be found in the online
version of this article at the publishers web site.
Table S1 Guidelines committee