SJEM 2213/SJES 2216

ALGEBRA I

Chapter 2 Subgroups
2.1 Definition. A set H in a group (G, ) is called a subgroup in G if ( H , ) is a group itself.
Notation. H G.
Note. H G if and only if
(i) a b H , a, b H ;
(ii) (a b) c a (b c), a, b, c H ;
(iii) 1H H such that a 1H a 1H a, a H ;
(iv) a H , a H1 H such that a a H1 1H a H1 a.
2.2 Theorem. Let G be a group and H G. If 1G and 1H are the identities in G and H
respectively, then 1G 1H .
Proof. Note that
(i) g 1G g 1G g , g G. ---------------------(1)
(ii) h 1H h 1H h, h H . ---------------------(2)
Let w be the inverse of 1H in G.
Then w 1H 1G 1H w.
---------------------(3)
So, 1H 1G1H
(w 1H )1H
w (1H 1H )
w1H
1G .

(from (1))
(from (3))
(from (2))
(from (3))

2.3 Theorem. Let G be a group, H G and a H . If aG1 and a H1 are the inverses of a in G and
H respectively, then aG1 a H1 .
Proof. Note that
(i) a aG1 1G aG1 a. ------------------(1)

(ii) a a H1 1H a H1 a. ------------------(2)
Then a H1 a H1 1H

a H1 1G
1
H

(Thm 2.2)
1
G

a (a a )

(from (1))

(a H1a)aG1
1H aG1

(from (2))

1
G

(Thm 2.2)

1G a
1
G

a .
So, a

1
G

a H1 .

CRITERIONS
2.4 Theorem. Let G be a group and H a subset in G . Then H G if and only if

xy 1 H , x, y H .
Proof.
Suppose xy 1 H , x, y H .
Let a H .
1 aa 1 H . ----------------(1)
a 1 1a 1 H . -------------(2)
Let a, b H .
b 1 H .
ab a(b 1 ) 1 H . ----------(3)
Let a, b, c H .
a, b, c G.
(ab)c a(bc). ----------------(4)
Then H is a group, i.e., H G .

(H )
(take x a, y a)
(take x 1, y a)
(from (2))
(take x a, y b 1 )

( G is a group & Thm 1.1(ii))

Suppose H G .
Then H is a group.
Let x, y H .

y 1 H .

( H is a group & Thm 1.1(iv))

xy H .

( H is a group & Thm 1.1 (i))

Then xy H , x, y H .

( i ) H .

Criterion S1: H G iff

( ii ) xy 1H , x , yH .

2.5 Corollary. Let G be a group and H a subset in G . Then H G if and only if

(i) xy H , x, y H
(ii) x 1 H , x H .
Proof. Suppose (i) xy H , x, y H and (ii) x 1 H , x H .
We show that ab 1 H , a, b H and use the Criterion S1 (Theorem 2.4).
Let a, b H .

a, b 1 H .

(take x b in (ii))

ab H .
Then H G.
Suppose H G.
Then xy H , x, y H .
1

and x H , x H .

(take x a, y b 1 in (i))

( H is a group & Thm 1.1(i))

( H is a group & Thm 1.1(iv))

Criterion S2: H G iff

(i ) H .
(ii ) xy H , x, y H .
(iii ) x 1 H , x H .

2.6 Theorem. Let G be a group and H a finite subset in G . Then H G if and only if
xy H , x, y H .
Proof. Suppose xy H , x, y H .
We show that a 1 H , a H and use Criterion S2 (Corollary 2.5).
Let a H .
If a 1, then a 1 11 1 H .
Suppose a 1.
To show that a n H for all n 1.
We have a1 a H .
Suppose a n H for all n 1.
Then a n1 a n a H .
(take x a n , y a)
So, a n H for all n 1.
But H is a finite set.
This implies that p, q , p q 0, such that a p a q .
Then a p q 1 where p q 1. (If p q 1, then a 1. )
So, a 1 a pq1 H .
Then H G .
Suppose H G .
Then xy H , x, y H .

(Theorem 2.5)
( H is a group & Thm 1.1(i))

Criterion S3: Given H is a finite set. Then H G iff xy H , x, y H .

Note.
Let G be a group and H a finite set in G . Then H G if and only if the multiplication is
closed, i.e., the multiplication table for H contains elements from H only.
2.7 Theorem. Let G be a group and H G , K G. Then H K G .
Proof.
We use Criterion S1, i.e., Theorem 2.4.
(i) 1 H and 1 K
(H G,K G)
1 H K
H K
(ii) Let a, b H K .
a, b H and a, b K .
(Thm 2.4)
ab 1 H and ab 1 K .
1
ab H K .
Then, H K G.
(Thm 2.4)
Note. H K is not a group.
LAGRANGES THEOREM
COSET
2.8 Definition. Let G be a group, H G and a G be a fixed element.
Then (i) Ha {ha h H } is called a right coset of H in G
and (ii) aH {ah h H } is called a left coset of H in G.
Note.
(i) Ha and aH are subsets in G and not subgroups in G .
(ii) In general, Ha aH .
(iii) If H {1 h1 , h2 ,, hk }
then Ha {a h1a, h2 a,, hk a}
and aH {a ah1 , ah2 ,, ahk }.
(iv) H1 H 1H .

PROPERTIES OF COSETS.
We shall focus our attention on right cosets only.
2.9 Theorem. Let G be a group and H G . Then Ha Hb if and only if ab 1 H .
(Here, a, b are fixed elements)
Proof.
Suppose ab 1 H .
ab 1 h, h H .
a hb. ----------------------------(1)
b h 1a. ----------------------------(2)
To show that Ha Hb.
Let x Ha, a G.
x h1a, h1 H .
(from (1))
h1hb
( h2 h1h H G )
h2 b Hb.
Then Ha Hb.
To show that Hb Ha.
Let y Hb.
y h3b, h3 H .
h3 h 1a

h4 a Ha.
Then Hb Ha.
So, Ha Hb .
Suppose Ha Hb .
Let z Ha Hb.
z h5 a h6 b.

(from (2))
( h4 h3 h 1 H G )

ab 1 h51h6 H .

Then ab 1 H .
2.10 Corollary. Let G be a group and H G . Then Ha H if and only if a H .
Proof.
Ha H
Ha H 1
a 11 H

(Thm 2.4)

aH

2.11 Theorem. Let G be a group and H G . Then a Ha. ( Ha )

Proof.
Note that a 1a Ha.

2.12 Theorem. Let G be a group and H G. Then Ha Hb or Ha Hb .

Proof. If Ha Hb , then the theorem is proved.
Suppose Ha Hb .
Let x Ha Hb.
x h1 a h2 b.
ab 1 h11 h2 H .
Ha Hb.

(Thm 2.9)

2.13 Theorem. Let G be a group and H G. Then Ha H .

(Here, Ha number of elements in Ha)
Proof. We show the case G .
To show that Ha H , a G.
Let H {1 h1 , h2 ,, hk }, hi h j , i j. ------------(1)
Then Ha {a h1a, h2 a,, hk a}.
To show that hi a h j a, i j.
Suppose hi a h j a for some i j.

hi aa 1 h j aa 1 for some i j.
hi h j for some i j.

But , hi h j , i j.

(from (1))

Then hi a h j a, i j.
So, Ha k H , a G.
2.14 Theorem. Let G be a finite group and H G. Then a1 1, a2 ,, ak G such that
G H Ha2 Hak , where Hai Ha j , i j.
Proof. If G H , then the theorem is proved.
Suppose G H .
Then a2 G \ H .
So, H Ha2 .
(Thms 2.11 & 2.12)
If G H Ha2 , then the theorem is proved.
If not, G ( H Ha2 ).
Then a3 G \ ( H Ha2 ).
So, H Ha3 and Ha2 Ha3 .
(Thms 2.11 & 2.12)
If G H Ha2 Ha3 , then the theorem is proved.
If not, we repeat the process above.
Since G and Hai 0, then the process must stop, i.e.,

a1 1, a2 ,, ak G such that G H Ha2 Hak , where Hai Ha j , i j.

2.15 Theorem. (Lagranges Theorem)

Let G be a finite group and H G. Then H G .
Proof.
From Theorem 2.14, G H Ha2 Hak , where Hai Ha j , i j.
Then G H Ha2 Hak

H Ha2 Hak

( Hai Ha j , i j )

H H H

(Thm 2.13)

kH.
This implies that H G .
2.16 Definition. Let G be a group and H G. Then index for H in G is defined to be the
number of distinct right cosets for H in G .
Notation. [G : H ] index for H in G .
2.17 Corollary. Let G be a finite group and H G. Then [G : H ] G H .
Proof.
Suppose [G : H ] k , i.e., k distinct right cosets for H in G .
Let H , Ha2 ,, Hak , where Hai Ha j , i j, be all the distinct cosets.
Then G H Ha2 Hak .

(Lagranges Theorem)

So, G H Ha2 Hak H H H k H .

Then k G H . i.e., [G : H ] G H .

Chapter 2. Subgroups.
2.1 Definition. A set H in a group (G, ) is called a subgroup in G if ( H , ) is a group.
Notation. H G.
2.2 Theorem. Let G be a group and H G. If 0 G and 0 H are the identities in G and H
respectively, then 0 G 0 H .
2.3 Theorem. Let G be a group, H G and a H . If aG and a H are the inverses of a in G
and H respectively, then aG a H .
2.4 Theorem. Let G be a group and H a subset in G . Then H G if and only if
x y H , x, y H .
2.5 Corollary. Let G be a group and H a subset in G . Then H G if and only if
(i) x y H , x, y H
(ii) x H , x H .
2.6 Theorem. Let G be a group and H a finite subset in G . Then H G if and only if
x y H , x, y H .
2.8 Definition. Let G be a group, H G and a G be a fixed element.
Then (i) H a {h a h H } is called a right coset of H in G
and (ii) a H {a h h H } is called a left coset of H in G .
Note.
(i) H+a and a+H are subsets in G and not subgroups in G .
(ii) In general, H a a H .
(iii) If H {0 h1 , h2 ,, hk }
then H a {a h1 a, h2 a,, hk a}
and a H {a a h1 , a h2 ,, a hk }.
(iv) H 0 H 0 H .
2.9 Theorem. Let G be a group and H G . Then H a H b if and only if a b H .
(Here, a, b are fixed elements)
2.10 Corollary. Let G be a group and H G . Then H a H if and only if a H .
2.11 Theorem. Let G be a group and H G . Then a H a. (( H a) )

2.12 Theorem. Let G be a group and H G. Then H a H b or ( H a) ( H b) .

2.13 Theorem. Let G be a group and H G. Then H a H .
(Here, H a number of elements in H+a)
2.14 Theorem. Let G be a finite group and H G. Then a1 0, a2 ,, ak G such that
G H ( H a2 ) ( H ak ), where ( H ai ) ( H a j ) , i j.
2.15 Theorem. (Lagranges Theorem)
Let G be a finite group and H G. Then H G .

Criterion S1: H G
iff

Criterion S2: H G
iff

{{
{

(i) H .
(ii ) x y H , x, y H .

(i ) H .
(ii ) x y H , x, y H .
(iii ) x H , x H .

Criterion S3: Given H a finite set. Then H G iff x y H , x, y H .