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Building and Environment 40 (2005) 367375


www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

The calculation of the mean radiant temperature of a subject exposed


to the solar radiationa generalised algorithm
Maria La Gennusaa, Antonino Nucarab, Gianfranco Rizzoa,, Gianluca Scaccianocea
a

Dipartimento di Ricerche Energetiche ed Ambientali, (D.R.E. AM.), Universita` degli Studi di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy
b
Dipartimento di Informatica, Matematica, Elettronica e Trasporti, Universita` Mediterranea di Reggio Calabria,
Feo di Vito, 89060 Reggio Calabria, Italy
Received 6 January 2004; received in revised form 5 May 2004; accepted 3 June 2004

Abstract
The thermal sensation experienced by a subject in a conned environment is signicantly affected by the radiative heat exchange
between the human body and the surrounding surfaces: it contributes as far as 30% of the whole thermal exchanges of the subject.
Besides, the presence of high-intensity radiation sources like, for example, the sun, may appreciably modify the radiant eld to
which people are exposed. As a consequence, this could alter notably the comfort conditions.
In order of properly taking into account this issue, a simple analytical method is introduced in this work, that allows the easy
evaluation of the thermal radiant eld induced by the presence of the solar radiation.
An application to a typical thermal comfort computation is nally presented.
r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Mean radiant temperature; Thermal comfort; PMV; PPD; Radiative heat exchange

1. Introduction
People usually spend a relevant part of time in
conned environments, where an articial climate is
supposed to be present. This is generally induced by
mechanical equipments that govern the indoor conditions of buildings in terms of thermal, hygrometry and
quality of air parameters. With the increasing of the lifestyle levels, the performances required by people from
the buildings (both envelope and climatisation system)
are becoming more advanced. In turn, methods for
evaluating the behaviours of microclimate parameters of
buildings need to suitably match these requisites.
As far thermal sensations of people are in question,
the modelling of four objective parameters (air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air velocity, relaCorresponding author. Tel.: +39-091-236210; fax: +39-091484425.
E-mail address: gfrizzo@unipa.it (G. Rizzo).

0360-1323/$ - see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2004.06.019

tive humidity) and two subjective parameters (metabolic


rate, thermal resistance of clothing) should be ensured in
a suitable way [1]. Among them, one of the most difcult
parameter to be analysed is the mean radiant temperature, provided that it should take into account not only
the thermal radiation coming from low-temperature
surfaces (i.e. walls, windows,), but also the thermal
radiation hitting the human body from high-intensity
sources. The solar radiation constitutes an important
example of this kind of radiation ows, since it generally
contributes in a relevant way to the thermal balance of
people living in conned environments.
Among the methods for the evaluation of the mean
radiant temperature it is possible to distinguish the
measuring methods and the calculation methods.
First methods determine the mean radiant temperature utilising black globe thermometers, two-sphere
radiometers or constant-air-temperature sensors [2].
The calculation methods, on the contrary, derive
the mean radiant temperature from the knowledge of

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M. La Gennusa et al. / Building and Environment 40 (2005) 367375

368

the absolute surface temperature of the surrounding


surfaces, Ti ; and the angle factors between the person
and the surrounding surfaces, Fpi [2]

geometric elements and, then, by applying the proper


representative equations to the exchanges between
orthogonal surfaces and human body.

4
T r T 41 F p!1 T 42 F p!2    T 4i F p!i

   T 4N F p!N :

In this equation the angle factor between the person and


a rectangular surface can be computed as a function of
width, a, and height, b, of the surface and as a function
of the distance, c, between the person and the surface, by
means of the following equation:
F pi F max 1  ea=c=t 1  eb=c=g ;

(2)

where
t A Ba=c;
g C Db=c Ea=c:

Let consider two concentric grey bodies that exchange


thermal energy only by radiation.
J I and JO denote respectively the radiosity, and GI
and GO are the radiations incident upon the inside and
the external body, respectively (see Fig. 1).
By supposing that the inside body is convex, the net
radiative ux, QI ; interesting its surface is equal to
QI AI J I  AI GI ;

The coefcients Fmax ; A, B, C, D and E assume different


values for seated or standing postures of the person, for
known or unknown orientation of the person with
respect to surrounding surfaces and for vertical or
horizontal surface [3].
In the case of small differences between the temperature of the surfaces of the enclosure, the equation for the
calculation of the mean radiant temperature can be
simplied in the following way:
T r T 1 F p!1 T 2 F p!2    T i F p!i
   T N F p!N :

2. Radiative exchanges between concentric elements

The mean radiant temperature may be also calculated


from the plane radiant temperature, tpr;i and the
projected area factors fp;i of a person in six directions:
up, down, left, right, front and back.
The resulting equation is the following:
P6
i1 tpr;i f p;i
tr P
;
(5)
6
i1 f p;i
where the values of the projected area factors are
different for seated or standing postures of the person.
Unfortunately, the present available methods for the
computation of the mean radiant temperature do not
properly take into account the contribution of the solar
radiation on the human body.
After all, this limitation is an important constraint for
the evaluation of thermal sensations in different points
of a room and for the denition of the useful thermal
zones of the building.
This paper is an attempt in providing a contribution
in this eld, by introducing a new generalised equation
for the computation of the mean radiant temperature in
a conned environment where solar radiation (both
direct and diffuse) is present in a given point of the oor.
The new algorithm will be derived starting from the
analysis of the radiative heat exchanges between

(6)

where AI denotes the external surface of the inside


element.
We can also write that
AI G I F O!I AO J O

(7)

where FO!I is the angle factor between external and


inside bodies, and AO is the external surface of the body.
For the reciprocity relationship [4] we can put
F O!I AO F I!O AI

(8)

being FI!O the angle factor between the inside and the
external body.
By replacing Eqs. (7) and (8) in Eq. (6), we obtain
QI AI J I  F I!O J O :

(9)

Besides FI!O =1 for the closing property of the view


factors; as that
QI AI J I  J O :

(10)

The thermal ow exchanged between the inside and the


outside body can be now written as
QI2O F I!O AI J I  F O!I AO J O AI F I!O J I  J O
(11)
or (since FI!O =1)
QI2O AI J I  J O :

(12)

Fig. 1. Radiative thermal exchanges between two concentric bodies.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
M. La Gennusa et al. / Building and Environment 40 (2005) 367375

Starting from Eqs. (10) and (12), it can be easily assessed


that the net ux leaving the inside body is equal to the
thermal ux exchanged for radiation among the two
bodies. That is

3.1.1. Emitted radiation, QOS


In Eq. (14) the radiative heat ow emitted by the
subject can be written as
QOS seS Ar T 4cl

(15)
8

QI QI2O :

(13)

3. Radiative exchanges between conned environment


and human body
Relationship (13), that has been obtained in the
general case of two concentric bodies, can be usefully
applied for appraising the thermal exchanges between
a human subject and a surrounding conned
environment.
For doing this, one must consider all the involved
radiative thermal exchanges.
3.1. Net radiative energy flux by the human body
When the environment in which the subject is placed
does contain surfaces showing different values of the
temperature and when the subject is exposed to the solar
radiation, the net energy lost by the human body
evaluated as the difference between the emitted ow,
Q0S ; and the absorbed share of the thermal ow that
reaches the subjectis a function of the thermal
radiation coming from the surfaces of the environment,
QA!S ; and is also a function of the diffuse, Qd!S ; and of
the direct, Qb!S ; solar radiation entering the room
through the glazed surfaces (see Fig. 2).
That is
QS Q0S  aS QA!S Qd!S Qb!S ;

(14)

where aS is the absorptivity of the human body.


In the following, all the terms appearing in Eq. (14)
will be analysed in details.

369

2

4

where s (=5.67
10 Wm K ) is the StefanBoltzmann constant, eS is the emissivity of the human body,
Ar is the effective area of the human body and Tcl is the
mean temperature of the surface of the clothing
ensemble. The effective area is dened as the area of
the smallest convex surface that contains the body.
3.1.2. Low frequency radiation, QA!S
The radiation coming from the surfaces of the indoor
environment may be computed by means of the
relationship
QA!S

N
X

F i!S Ai sei T 4i ri Gi ;

(16)

i1

where Fi!S is the angle factor between the ith internal


surface of the envelope and the subject, ei is its
emissivity, Ai is the area of the interested surface, Ti
the temperature, ri the reection coefcient of the ith
surface and Gi the radiation reaching the ith internal
surface.
For the reciprocity relationship of the view factors, we
can write
F i!S Ai F S!i Ar

(17)

being FS!i the angle factor between the subject and the
ith surface of the envelope.
Since the internal surfaces of the building can be
considered as black bodies, characterised by ei =1 and
ri =0, the Eq. (16) can be rearranged in the following
form:
QA!S sAr

N
X

F S!i T 4i :

(18)

i1

3.1.3. Diffuse radiation Qd!S


In the hypothesis that the diffuse radiation entering
the room through the glazed surfaces follows the
Lamberts law, we can say that the solar radiation that
reaches the subject can be described by the following
expression:
QdS

QAS
Q0S

QbS

Fig. 2. Typical radiative exchanges between the conned environment


and the human body.

Qd!S

M
X

F j!S Aj I d;j ;

(19)

j1

where Fj ! S represents the angle factor between the


glazed surface and the human body, Aj the area of the
transparent (glazed) surface and Id;j the diffuse radiation
entering the room.
By applying again the reciprocity relationship:
F j!S Aj F S!j Ar

(20)

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370

we can put Eq. (19) in the form


Qd!S Ar

M
X

F S!j I d;j

ment, and by utilising Eqs. (23) and (25), we obtain:


(21)

seS Ar T 4cl  aS sAr

j1

3.1.4. Direct radiation Qb!S


The contribution of the direct radiation to the human
bodys thermal balance is
Qb!S Ap I b ;

(22)

where Ap is the projected area of the subject onto a plain


normal to the direction of the solar beam and Ib is the
direct radiation that strikes the subject.
Finally, by introducing Eqs. (15), (18), (21) and (22) in
Eq. (14), we can write
QS seS Ar T 4cl  aS sAr

N
X

F S!i T 4i

i1

Ar

M
X

F S!j I d;j Ap I b

23

j1

3.2. Thermal flow exchanged for radiation between


subject and environment
Let now suppose that the thermal ow interesting a
subject is coming from a black enclosure with an
uniform temperature Tr ; let also suppose that the
temperature of the human body is equal to the mean
temperature of the clothed surface of the human body,
Tcl : In these hypotheses (that are typically assumed in
the indoor environment evaluations) the thermal ow
exchanged by radiation between a subject and the
surfaces of the surrounding conned environment is
given by


4
sAr T 4cl  T r


QS2A
;
1  eS =eS 1  eA =eA  Ar =AA 1
(24)
where eS and eA are respectively the emissivities of the
human body and of the surfaces of the environment and
the AA is the whole area of the surface of the envelope.
Finally, when the human body may be considered as
small with respects to the environment, the ratio Ar /AA
can be neglected: as that, Eq. (24) can be replaced by the
following:
4
QS2A Ar eS sT 4cl  T r :

(25)

Ap I b

N
X

F S!i T 4i Ar

i1

M
X

F S!j I d;j

j1
4

Ar eS sT 4cl  T r

that can be usefully rearranged in this form


P
P
4
aS M
aS N
j1 F S!j I d;j
i1 F S!i T i

eS
eS s
aS Ap I b
4
T r :

A r eS s

26

27

Since the value of the temperature of the external


surface of the body is close to the value of the indoor1
temperature (and by using the Kirchoffs law), we can
put aS =eS in the rst term of the previous equation. On
the contrary, this hypothesis cannot be imposed to the
second and third terms of Eq. (27), because the sun
represents a high intensity source and is characterised by
a temperature signicantly higher in comparison with
the mean temperature of the human body. In this case
we indicate the absorption coefcient with the symbol
airr ; since it must be referred to the temperature of the
source. Moreover the absorption coefcients for the
direct and diffuse radiation should assume different
values. The ratio Ap /Ar ; appearing in Eq. (27),
represents the projected area factor, fp :
All these considerations lead to the following expression for Eq. (27):
v
P
u N
u
airr;d M
airr;b f p I b
4 X
j1 F S!j I d;j
4
t

T r
F S!i T i
eS s
eS s
i1
(28)
that provides the value of the uniform temperature of a
black enclosure in which a subject would exchange the
same heat ow by radiation as in the actual environment. In other words, this represents the mean radiant
temperature.
In order of better characterising the features of the
solar radiation, we introduce here two more coefcients:
the daynight coefcient Cdn (equal to 1 in the daytime
period and equal to 0 in the night period) and the
shading coefcient CS (equal to 1 when the subject is
directly hit by the solar beam and equal to 0 in the other
cases).

4. Mean radiant temperature


By applying Eq. (13) to the case of the radiative heat
exchange between the human body and the environ-

1
This assumption refers to the so-called moderate thermal environments, where thermal comfort conditions can be reached by means of
HVAC systems.

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M. La Gennusa et al. / Building and Environment 40 (2005) 367375

371

In this way, a more general expression of the mean


radiant temperature equation can be derived, that is
T r

v
!
u N
M
X
X
u
C
4
dn
4
t
airr;d
F S!i T i
F S!j I d;j C S airr;b f p I b :
eS s
i1
j1

29

5. An application

Fig. 3. Sketch of the considered environment.

The usefulness of such relationship for the calculation


of the mean radiant temperature in a given enclosure
where a subject is irradiated by the solar radiation will
be illustrated in the following by means of a numerical
example.
Eq. (29) is here utilised for evaluating the mean
radiant temperature, the predicted mean vote, the
predicted percentage of dissatised and a long time
index through the 24 h of 21 December in a parallelepiped room, located in Palermo (38 070 N, 13 210 E),
town characterised by a Mediterranean mild climate.
The analysis has been lead for a seated subject facing
the north direction and subsequently placed in the
points of the grid reported in Table 1.
The building module (600
400
300 cm3 ) is
equipped in the south wall with a glazed surface
(200
120 cm2 ), as shown in Fig. 3.
The hourly direct and diffuse components of the solar
radiation incident on the external side of the glazed
surface have been determined by means of the Liu and
Jordan method [5], starting from the knowledge of the
monthly average of the solar radiation on the horizontal
surface for the site [6]. The entity of the attenuation of
the value of the solar radiation through the glazed
surface has been evaluated by means of the SHGF
procedure of ASHRAE [7]. The angle factors between
the window and the subject have been analytically
assessed [3].

Table 1
Co-ordinates of the points in the building module utilised for the
evaluation of the comfort conditions
Point

X (m)

Y (m)

Z (m)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

1.00
1.00
1.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
5.00
5.00
5.00

1.00
2.00
3.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
1.00
2.00
3.00

0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60

Regarding the coefcients contained in Eq. (29), the


parameter Cdn has been evaluated with reference to the
duration of the day, h:
h 12

arccos tan j tan d  180


15

(30)

being j the latitude of the site and d the solar


declination for the day under examination; the coefcient CS has been determined by means of a relationships introduced by some of the authors in a previous
work [8].
The values of the diffuse and direct solar radiation
falling on the south fac- ade, along with the values of the
daynight and of the shading coefcients in the daytime
period of the selected day are reported in Table 2.
The projected area factors fp have been computed [9]
only for the hours in which the subject is reached by the
direct solar radiation (see Table 3).
The behaviour of the mean radiant temperature for a
people irradiated by the sun and placed in the points of
the grid of the building module is reported in Fig. 4. For
the sake of simplicity, the temperature of the internal
surface of the walls has been here assumed equal to
20 C.
The changes of the mean radiant temperature over the
time allow the determination of the comfort conditions
through the analysed day. The predicted mean vote
(PMV) and the predicted percentage of dissatised
indexes [1] are reported in Figs. 5 and 6 under the
subjective and physical conditions shown in Table 4.
It is interesting to note that the entering the room by
the solar radiation in the central hours of the day brings
the sensations felt by people from the comfort
(0:5XPMVX 0:5) to the heat discomfort
(PMV4 0:5) conditions. This situation occurs at
different times, depending on the points in which the
analysis is conducted.
These computations, that are of crucial importance in
order of suitably designing the climatisation equipment,

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372

Table 2
Diffuse solar radiation on the south exposure and direct solar radiation on the beam direction; daynight and shading coefcients for each selected
point of the environment in the daytime period (Palermo, 21st December)
Time (h)

Ib;out Wm2

Id;out Wm2

Cdn

CS 1

CS 2

CS 3

CS 4

CS 5

CS 6

CS 7

CS 8

CS 9

7.30
7.45
8.00
8.15
8.30
8.45
9.00
9.15
9.30
9.45
10.00
10.15
10.30
10.45
11.00
11.15
11.30
11.45
12.00
12.15
12.30
12.45
13.00
13.15
13.30
13.45
14.00
14.15
14.30
14.45
15.00
15.15
15.30
15.45
16.00
16.15
16.30

6
86
173
239
288
325
353
374
392
405
416
425
433
438
443
446
449
450
450
450
449
446
443
438
433
425
416
405
392
374
353
325
288
239
173
86
6

8
20
35
52
68
84
100
115
128
141
153
163
172
180
186
192
195
197
198
197
195
192
186
180
172
163
153
141
128
115
100
84
68
52
35
20
8

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

can be only derived from the knowledge of the time


changes of the mean radiant temperature and from the
evaluation of the effects induced by the presence of the
solar radiation.
In order of better analysing this aspect of the
problem, a new long term index is here introduced: it
is simply selected among those introduced by the last
draft of the ISO 7730 Standard [10], but it is here
computed in terms of the PPD index rather than in
terms of the PMV parameter. It can be evaluated by
means of the following expression:

N
X
PPDi

Dti
PPDlimit
i1

for PPDi 4PPDlimit

(31)

where PPDi is the predicted percentage of dissatised


valued in the ith period of time, Dti ; and PPDlimit is set
to 10% (limit of the comfort conditions).
The calculation of this index in the points of
the grid of Table 1 has lead to the results reported in
Figs. 7 and 8.
It is noticeable that highest values of the index
match with the points 1, 2, 4 and 5, which are the
closest to the window; on the contrary the index
shows a null value only for the point 7, which is never
hit by the direct solar radiation in the considered daily
period.
Starting from these results, it must be considered that
Eq. (24) does allow the evaluation of the space changes
of the thermal comfort conditions. In fact, the mean

ARTICLE IN PRESS
M. La Gennusa et al. / Building and Environment 40 (2005) 367375

radiant temperature depends on the view factors, on the


projected factor and on the daynight and shading
coefcients: all these parameters show a spatial depenTable 3
Projected area factors for the human subject in the solar beam
direction
Time (h)

Azimuth angle

Altitude angle

f p (-)

9.30
9.45
10.00
10.15
10.30
10.45
11.00
11.15
11.30
11.45
12.00
12.15
12.30
12.45
13.00
13.15
13.30
13.45
14.00
14.15
14.30
14.45
15.00
15.15

143.7
146.9
150.3
153.7
157.2
160.8
164.5
168.3
172.2
176.1
180.0
176.1
172.2
168.3
164.5
160.8
157.2
153.7
150.3
146.9
143.7
140.7
137.7
134.8

19.2
20.9
22.4
23.8
25.0
26.1
27.0
27.7
28.2
28.5
28.6
28.5
28.2
27.7
27.0
26.1
25.0
23.8
22.4
20.9
19.2
17.4
15.4
13.4

0.229
0.223
0.216
0.210
0.205
0.199
0.194
0.190
0.185
0.182
0.179
0.182
0.185
0.190
0.194
0.199
0.205
0.210
0.216
0.223
0.229
0.234
0.240
0.245

373

dence that enables the computation of PMV in each


point of a given room.
These analyses are also important in order of dening
the useful zones of a room and with the aim of correctly
sizing the heating and cooling systems.

6. Conclusions
In this paper, it has been introduced a simple method
for the evaluation of the mean radiant temperature for a
human subject placed in a conned environment, and
irradiated by solar radiation, direct as well diffuse.
The proposed relationship requires the knowledge of:
(a) the temperature of the internal surfaces of the
environment; (b) the intensity of the diffuse and direct
solar radiation entering the room through the glazed
surfaces; (c) the angle factor between the opaque and
glazed surfaces of the environment and the subject; (d)
the projected area factor of the subject in the solar beam
direction.
Such detailed computation of the mean radiant
temperature allows the evaluation of the time and
space changes of the indoor thermal conditions. This
kind of information, in turn, can be utilised for suitably
sizing the HVAC systems and, nally, for a better
management of the energy sources for climatisation
purposes.

Fig. 4. Mean radiant temperature for an irradiated subject placed in the points of Table 1.

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374

Fig. 5. Predicted mean vote for the irradiated subject placed in the points of Table 1.

Fig. 6. Predicted percentage of dissatised for the irradiated subject placed in the points of Table 1.
Table 4
Adopted parameters for the evaluation of the comfort conditions

Activity level (met)


1.0

Subjective conditions
Thermal insulation of clothing (clo)
1.1

Temperature C
22.0

Indoor air conditions


Relative humidity (%)
50

Velocity (m/s)
0.10

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M. La Gennusa et al. / Building and Environment 40 (2005) 367375

375

6.0
5.39

5.40

5.34

Long time index

5.0
4.0

3.87
3.15

3.0

2.0

1.61

1.37
1.06

1.0

0.00
0.0
1

5
Points

Fig. 7. Long-term index in the points of Table 1.

Fig. 8. Distribution of the long term index in the points of Table 1.

References
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[4] Kreith F. Principles of heat transfer. New York: Intext Educational Publisher; 1973.
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