Chapter 2

review of literature

The literature pertinent to studies on Influence of weed management

practices under different sowing dates with nitrogen level on growth and
yield of paddy (Oryza sativa L) had been reviewed and presented in following
heads;
2.1. Effect of sowing date
The timely sown crop is benefitted from better sunshine and
appropriate temperature that resulted into a more vigorous and extensive
root system leading to increased vegetative growth mean efficient sink
formation and greater sink size thus result in high yield and production.
Osmanet al.(2015)maximum grain yield of (2.9 t/ha-1) and (2.8
t/ha-1), respectively produced on the sowing dates 1st July and 15th
July.The results showed early sowing dates produce a high grain yield more
than later ones, delaying sowing date from 15th July decrease the grain yield
(t/ha), this may be attributed to the decrease of 1000 grain weight, number
of

filled

grains/panicle

and

increasing

of

the

percent

of

unfilled

grains/panicle.
Cheema et. al. (1985) reported that sowing on 8 June resulted in
significantly greater yields than sowing on 24 May or 24 June, but sowing
date did not affect the grain protein content. The crop grown on 8 July did
not reach maturity due to low temperature during its growth period.

Review of Literature.

Page 4

Pande

and

Gautam

(1988)studied

12

treatment

combination

comprising of three planting dates, two varieties and two nitrogen rates, in
RCB design and reported significantly higher grain yield with early planting,
high nitrogen rates and with a short duration variety under delayed planting.
While,Vongsroj (1998) advocated delayed seeding after a heavy rain and a
dry period for reduction of weed problem.
Kathiresan et. al. (1997) reported that sowing one week before the
onset of monsoon produced the highest grain yield of 1956 kg/ha.
Singh and Singh(2000) reported that the 15 March sowing and
application of 150% of the recommended N rate recorded significantly higher
values of yield attributes and grain and straw yields. At Majhera,
Uttarakhand Grain production efficiency under 15 and 30 Marchsowings
and at 100 and 150% of the recommended N rate was non-significant. The
significant effect of different cultivars could not be visualized on pooled grain
yield and grain production efficiency of rice.
Suresh et. al. (2001) reported that sowing date significantly affected
the grain and straw yields of rice. At Tamil Nadu sowing in second week of
October resulted in significant reduction in grain and straw yield of all
cultivars. This treatment also resulted in reduced crop height, number of
productive tillers, panicle length, number of grain per panicle and 1000
grain weight.
Gill et. al. (2006) reported that the maximum productivity was
obtained when paddy crop was raised on 10 June and short duration, early

Review of Literature.

Page 5

maturing PR115 variety excelled other medium and long duration varieties
in all growth and yield determinants.
From the above review it can be concluded that the early sowing
before the onset of monsoon was beneficial for paddy rice and the first
fortnight of June was suitable in most of the cases.

2.2. Effect of Nitrogen application

Nutrient management issues in direct-seeded rice, particularly in the
lowlands, have received very little attention until recently. With the
availability of fertilizer responsive semi dwarf modern rice varieties,
additional knowledge on nutrient management aimed at increasing and
stabilizing yields of direct-seeded rice, especially in stressed environments.
Crop

fertilization

is

one

important

component

of

integrated

weed

management and it is observed that nitrogen (N) fertilizer plays an important

role in the competitive balance between weeds and rice
Shad and Dutta (1988) reported that the increase in nitrogen
removal by weeds was mainly due to increase in the number and dry weight
of weeds with increase in the dose of nitrogen.
Cavero et al. (1997) reported that moderate N rates (33-56kg/ha)
increase the crop yield independent of weed density, but higher doses
increase the risk of yield loss due to increased weed competition.

Review of Literature.

Page 6

Mandal et. al. (2002) reported that as the levels of nitrogen increased
from 0 to 60 kg/ha the average grain yield also increased by 33.1 and 61.2%
during first and second years, respectively.
Singh and Tripathi (2007) reported that there was significant
increase in grain and straw yield as well as yield attributes, like panicle per
meter square and test weight, with every increase in dose of nitrogen up to
120 kg/ha.
Bond et al. (2008) reported that lowest applied nitrogen rate had
lower yield than the other two nitrogen rates. Rough rice yields were 7564 for
67 kg N/ha, 8520 for 134 kg N/ha and 9000 kg for 202 kg N/ha. Panicle
density responded to nitrogen rate similar to rough rice yield. Panicle density
increased with seeding rate up to 418 panicles/m2.
2.3. Crop and weed competition
Competition between crop and weed begins when the supply of any
necessary growth factor falls below the demand of both crop and weed, when
they grow in close proximity. In paddy rice more competition faces by weeds
as compare to transplanting, because in paddy rice weed germinate earlier
than crop and dominant on the crop which germinate later one but in
transplanting 20-25 days old seedling are planted in field which will able to
suppress weed up to same extent. Weedpopulation, dry matter accumulation
of weeds and nitrogen depletion increased by weeds with weedy period up to
45 DAS after which a decline of these observations were noticed by (Singh
and Bhan, 1985). Azmi

et

Review of Literature.

al.

(1992)

reported

Page 7

critical

period

of

competition between rice and barnyard grass (Echinochola spp.) occurred

between 15 and 30 DAS and hence grain of rice increased significantly with
increase in weed free period up to 30DAS.
Vaishya et al. (1992) reported reduction in grain yield of rice by
increasing the duration of crop weed competition. Increase in rice yield with
longer weed free period up to 70 DAS was observed by Singh (1993), and
weeds emerged thereafter were suppressed by the crop itself, and also
reported that crop required a critical height of 45-50 cm to suppress the
weed growth at 70 days after emergence.
Competitive ability of crops can be expressed two ways first is the
ability of the crop to compete with weeds reducing weed seed and biomass
production. The second possibility of crops to tolerate competition from
weeds while maintaining high yields. Initial biomass, crop growth rate, leaf
area index, and biomass at tillering of Oryza sativa plants were associated
with their competitiveness against weeds, whereas relative growth rate, net
assimilation rate and tillering capacity of the plant were not associated.
Biomass

at

tillering

was

the

best

predictor

of

modern

cultivars

competitiveness against weeds (Ni, et al., 2000).

The highest density of weeds in weedy check was recorded at 60 days
after sowing, it decreased subsequently at later stages of crop growth.
Highest weed emergence were observed during first 0-30 days stage (84.6%)
were found in paddy rice by (Bahar and Singh, 2004).

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2.4. Yield losses due to weeds

Damage caused to rice crop varied with different weed densities.
Competition with Cyperus rotundus alone resulted in grain yield reduction
up to 41 percent, while combined infestation of C. rotundus and other
annual weeds caused 82 per cent reduction in rice yield mainly due to
reduction in plant height, shoot and panicle number (Okfar, 1973). Weeds
cause heavy damage to paddy rice which can be to the tune of 5-100%
(Moody and Mian, 1979; Kolhe , 1989).
Kolhe and Tripathi, (1998) which schedule experimental field at
Raipur reported that there was 72.6% reduction in grain yield, due to un
controlled weed plot in paddy rice. In paddy rice aerobic condition of soil and
dry tillage practices besides alternate drying and wetting condusive for
germination and growth of highly competitive grasses, sedges followed by
certain dicots which cause a grain yield loss of 50-91% (Moorthy and
Manna, 1989; Pardkar et al, 1997).
Jinhao et al. (2000) reported that there were 41 species of weeds
belonging to 21 families in experimental field of early sown paddy rice in
Jinhua, Zhejiang, China. Among them, Echionochloa crusgalli was the most
important species being present everywhere and causing 56.4% damage.
Kumar (2000) from Pantnagar reported that there was 36.6%
decrease in grain yield of rice due to weed infestation. It was observed that
this yield reduction was mainly attributed to reduction in number of
panicles per meter square, grain weight per panicle and 1000 grain weight.

Review of Literature.

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Weed menace is one of the major factors affecting productivity in paddy rice
leading to more than 50% loss in yield (Singh et al., 2000).
The key issue for successful cultivation in paddy rice is control of
weeds like Echinochloa spp. Cyperus spp., The extent of yield loss due to
weeds in paddy rice varied from 40-100% (Choubey et al., 2001). The yield
reduction due to E. crusgalli and E. colona ranged from 50-60% in upland
paddy rice (Dixit and Bhan, 2001).
Singh and Singh (2001) from Pantnagar observed that competition
with Cyperus rotundus only, on an average caused 52.2% reduction in grain
yield of rice, whereas competition with all other weeds growing with crop
caused 86.7% reduction in grain yield.
Bahar and Singh (2004) reported that the highest weed dry matter
production was recorded in weedy check. Highest rate of dry matter
production (18.0 gm-2 day-1) were found in unweeded plot which cause 98.6%
reduction in grain yield of rice.

In paddy rice, weeds pose serious

competition to the crop in early stage and cause heavy reduction in rice
yield, uncontrolled weeds reduce rice yield up to 80% in paddy upland rice
(Subbaiah and Sreedevi 2005).
Ramana et al. (2007) from Andhra Pradesh reported that there were
reduction in yield due to uncontrolled weed growth was 62.2% compared
with weed free check.

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2.5. Yield attributing character as influenced by weed infestation in

paddy rice
In paddy rice yield is mainly reduced because of close competition
between weeds and crop plants as it affects the yield attributing character
viz. height, number of panicle, 1000 grain weight and number of fertile grain
per panicle. Merlier (1978) found negative correlation between weed dry
weight and yield of rice. He also reported that with an increase in duration of
crop-weed competition, there was a progressive reduction in panicle weight
and number. Weed competition caused reduction of 34, 13 and 14 per cent
in panicle number , number of fertile grains and 1000 grain weight,
respectively, (Ghobrial, 1981).

2.5. Methods of weed control

Weed control methods are grouped into cultural, manual, mechanical,
chemical and biological methods. Each of them has their own advantage and
disadvantage, so summarized reviews have been given below particularly for
manual weeding and chemical methods of weed control in paddy rice.

2.5.1. Manual weeding

The earliest ways of weed control in rice were cultural methods. In
spite of labour intensive, hand weeding is still the most common direct weed
control methods in rice in India using bare hands and hand tools. These

Review of Literature.

Page 11

practices are only effective when weeds attain height to provide better grip
for uprooting (Bhan et al., 1980).
Rekha et al. (2002)reported that twice hand weeding resulted in
lower weed density compared to weedicides and untreated control. As
handweeding is laborious, tedious, time consuming and expensive method
hence cannot be practicable at large scale. Baloch et al. (2000) found that
hand weeding is the most useful method for controlling annual and certain
perennial weeds that usually do not regenerate from underground parts. It is
practical and traditional but labour intensive method, which usually takes
around 120 hr/ha, while chemical weed control takes around 4 hr/ha .
Moreover, hand weeding of young weeds at the initial crop growth stage is
very difficult especially if the soil moisture is inadequate.

2.5.2. Use of herbicides

In paddy rice weed control by a single method is not remunerative
because of higher infestation of weeds, for effective weed management in
paddy rice there is judiciously herbicide application either pre-emergence or
post-emergence is essential, so brief description about the herbicides
commonly used in paddy rice are given below.

2.5.2.1. Pendimethalin:
Pendimethalin is a selective herbicide it control annual grasses and
several annual broad leaved weeds and this herbicide belongs to di-nitro-

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analine group. The pure compound is orange to reddish brown, crystalline

solid. It inhibits both cell division and cell elongation in shoot and root
system of susceptible plants. This herbicide is absorbed by both shoot and
root, shoot and root growth is inhibited. It is generally applied as preemergence.
[Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv.] (barnyardgrass) and [Leptochloa
fascicularis (Lam.) Gray] (bearded sprangletop) are highly competitive in
southern US rice fields. Bothweeds are capable of decreasing rice yields by
70% and36%, respectively (Smith, 1983). Carey et al. (1994) reported that
L. fascicularis caused up to a 50% reduction in rice yield for the cultivar
Lemont.
Singh et al., (2001) reported that pre-emergence application of
pendimethalin at 1 kg/ha supplemented with post-emergence application of
2,4-D, was economically most efficient, for controlling weeds as it gave
maximum net return (Rs 6967 / ha) and maximum benefit : cost ratio.
Bahar and Singh, (2004) reported that pre-emergence application of
pendimethalin at 1 kg a.i./ha produced significantly higher grain yield and
lesser weed dry weight as compared to other treatments. Singh et al.,(2005)
found that progressive increase in doses of both pendimethalin (from 1 to 2
kg / ha) and anilofos (from 0.4 to 0.8 kg/ha) resulted in decreased density
and dry weight of all the weeds at 60 days stage. Singh et al., (2005)
reported that pre-emergence of pendimethalin followed by 2,4-D recorded
maximum weed control efficiency (92.1%) and grain yield (5.8 t /ha) as

Review of Literature.

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compared to weedy check. The experiments during kharif season of 2010

revealed that the pre-emergence application of pendimethalin in dry DSR
could help a lot in controlling the aerobic grassy weeds along with some
control of Echinochloa and BLW. However, pendimethalin alone could not
provide satisfactory control of Echinochloa and many other weeds, and it
needed support of sequential application of byspyribac (15-25 DAS) alone or
coupled with tank mix application of pyrozasulfuron in case sedges are
dominant (Walia et al., 2008).
Walia et al. (2008) reported that during 2006, pre-emergence
application of pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha followed by one hand weeding
produced highest seed yield (4049 kg/ha) which was at par with postemergence application of bispyribac (Nominee gold 10 SC) 30 g/ha (3554
kg/ha). During 2007, significantly higher yield was obtained with the
integration of pre-emergence pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha with post-emergence
application of bispyribac 25 g/ha (5016 kg/ha).

2.5.2.2. Bispyribac sodium

(sodium 2,6-bis(4,6-dimethoxypyrimidin-2-yloxy)benzoate)
Bispyribac sodium belongs to the Pyrimidinal Thiobenzoates group of
herbicide. Bispyribac-sodium is classified as a Group 2 herbicide. The
primary mode of action of bispyribac-sodium is as an inhibitor of
acetolactate synthase (ALS) in the biosynthesis of branched-chain amino
acids. Within a few days after application, annual bluegrass becomes

Review of Literature.

Page 14

chlorotic and stops growing. This is followed by necrosis and death of plant
tissues. Selectivity is largely based on differential rates of metabolism among
species. The tolerance of some turf species to bispyribac-sodium is due to
their ability to rapidly metabolize and thereby detoxify this herbicide.
It is recently introduced herbicide have the similar mode of action as the
Sulfonylureas. it is highly selective, post-emergence low mammalian toxic
and low dose (15-40 g ha-1) require herbicides so become popular now a days
to weed control in rice growing area either transplanting or paddy(Das,
2008).
To manage the weeds in paddy rice, four herbicides were tested and
compared their efficacy with hand weeding. Among the herbicides bispyribac
100SC sodium and ethoxy sulfuron 60WG proved as the best herbicides with
90.5 and 87.19% weed control, respectively. The paddy yield in both the
herbicides treatments was also comparatively higher than other herbicides.
The highest net benefit was obtained by the application of Bispyribac sodium
100SC followed by Ethoxy sulfuron 60WG treatment while the lowest net
benefit was provided by control (weedy check). No doubt, the result of hand
weeding are significantly better but as it is time consuming and laborious
hence cannot be recommended at large scale. (Hussain et al., 2008).
A. philoxiroides, Aeschenomene indica, Ammania coccinea, `and
Heteranthera limosa were also controlled by bispyribacsoduim (Braverman
and Jordan, 1996). Abeysekera, (1999) found that bispyribac sodium was
the leading herbicide and L. chinensis was selected as a serious weed in wet

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Page 15

land rice fields. After it germinates, it grows profusely in water logged spots
in rice field because of very poor land leveling in farmer field. At present,
many herbicides have difficulty in controlling this weed. Earlier researches
also reported that bispyribacsodium controlled many narrowleaf and
broadleaf weeds such as C. diffusa, C. iria, E. crusgalli, Fimbristyllis spp.,
Leersia oryzoides, Murdania sp., P. distichum, Polygonum sp., Sagittaria spp.,
Scirpus spp., and (Han, 2001).
Hussain et al., (2008) tested four weedicides and compared their
efficacy with hand weeding. Among these weedicides Nominee 100 SC
(Bispyribac Sodium) and Sunstar Gold 60 WG (Ethoxy Sulfuron) proved as
the best weedicides with 90.5 and 87.2% weed control, respectively. The
paddy yield in both herbicides treatments was also comparatively higher
than other herbicides. Bispyribac (Regiment) and penoxsulam (Grasp) are
selective, contact rice herbicides for postemergence control of grasses,
sedges, and broadleaf weeds, includingbarnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli)
and hemp sesbania (Sesbania exaltata). Both herbicides control weeds by
inhibiting the acetolactate synthase (ALS) enzyme, whichblocksbranchedchain-amino acid biosynthesis (Carey et. al., 2000; Vencill, 2002; Dow
Agro Sciences, 2005).
In research trials, barnyardgrass control with bispyribac has been
excellent (98 to100%) (Williams, 1999). However, inconsistent control has
been observed in commercial rice fields. Applications made in less than
optimal conditions, such as the use of low application volumes or application

Review of Literature.

Page 16

to drought-stressed or large plants may increase the occurrence of

inconsistent control (Scott and Carey, personal communication). Urea
ammonium nitrate is a liquid fertilizer that can also be used as an
herbicideadditive to further increase efficacy (Monaco et al., 2002). The
mode of action for UANis not known, but increased herbicide absorption into
plants has been reported, possibly due to breakdown of the cuticle
(Thompson et. al., 1996).Dodds et al. (2006) found that bispyribac
absorption into barnyard grass increased up to 54% with the addition of
UAN.The study was conducted using C14 techniques and evaluated
herbicide absorption only.No published data are available on the effects of
UAN

on

bispyribac

or

penoxsulamefficacy.

By

increasing

herbicide

absorption into the plant, the addition of UAN mayovercome or decrease

inconsistent weed control observed with Regiment.The objective of this study
was to evaluate the effects of UAN on bispyribac andpenoxsulam efficacy on
barnyard grass and hemp sesbania.
Tank-mix application of bispyribac 25 g ha-1 with pyrazosulfuron 2537.5 g ha-1 was found to be effective against sedges, particularly , in
farmers participatory trials during 2009 and 2010. However, their efficacy
as standalone or sequential application has not been found to be effective
particularly in fields dominated by Cyperus rotundus. The use of preemergence herbicides (viz. pendimethalin) in combination with some
postemergence herbicides (viz. bispyribac-sodium) was considered a prerequisite to attain satisfactory weed control in dry DSR (Yadav et al., 2009).

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2.5.2.3. Chlorimuron + Metsulfuron methyl

Chlorimuron(10%) + Metsulfuron methyl(10%) + 0.2% surfactant
(Ready-mix)

belong

to

the

Sulonylureas

group

of

the

herbicide.

Chlorimuron(10%) + Metsulfuron(10%) + 0.2% surfactant (Ready-mix) is a

herbicidal formulation applied as post-emergence to control broad leaf weed
in rice field (Das, 2008).
Singh et al. (2004) reported that Almix at 4 g/ha was compatible
with butachlor as a tank mixed application. Almix at 4 g/ha as a tank mixed
or a follow-up application over pre emergence application of butachlor
increased the weed control spectrum and efficacy and produced grain yields
at par with the weed-free control and higher than single applications of
butachlor or Almix.
From the above review it can be concluded that the different weed
management practices decrease the weed density, weed dry weight and
nutrient uptake in weeds. The different pre-emergence herbicides are more
effective when applied along with post-emergence herbicides.

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