PROJECT REPORT

ON
OVER-VOLTAGE PROTECTION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGGINERING

RIMT- INSTITUTE OF ENGG. & TECHNOLOGY
MANDI GOBINDGARH

PROJECT REPORT
ON
OVER-VOLTAGE PROTECTION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED TO :Er. MANMEET SINGH GILL

HOD ELECTRICAL ENGG.

SUBMITTED BY:PRAKASH
(7221)
PRIYA
(7222)
RUCHI RAJ (7225 )
HIMANSHU (7231)
MANJIT
(7234)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

RIMT- INSTITUTE OF ENGG. & TECHNOLOGY
MANDI GOBINDGARH

PREFACE
This project has been composed with the aim of covering a part of B-TECH
(ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING) syllabus as prescribed by RIMT-IET,

MANDI GOBINDGARH. A lot of effort has been made to make this project
report interesting and a learning experience for the leader. The report has been
explained with the help of diagrams and figures. The subject matter has been
compiled in a simple, illustrative and lucid manner.

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work entitled Overvoltage Protection
is being submitted by:
NAME

ROLL NO.

Prakash
Priya
Ruchi
Manjit
Himanshu

7221
7222
7225
7234
7231

UNIVERSITY
ROLL NO:
7840510011
7840510012
7840510015
80802509005
80802509001

for fulfillment of partial requirements of Semester VII of the degree Bachelor of

Technology(Electrical) of Punjab Technical University for the academic year 2010.

SIGNATURE :-

HOD EE :

EXTERNAL:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express our deep and sincere thanks to our guide Mr. M.S.Gill, Head of Electrical
Engineering Department, RIMT_IET College, Mandi-Gobindgarh. Initially he helped us in
selecting this project and then motivated us throughout the project. He also helped us by
taking a lot of pain and sacrificing his personal valuable time in completion of this practical
project as well as the project report.
We express our gratitude to the staff members of Electrical Engineering Department,
who directly or indirectly helped us.

ABSTRACT
In this project we will detect over voltage. We will use 741 as a comparator IC. First of all we
will get ac 220v from direct line, then we will step down voltage using transformer 12-0-12v
750 mA. Then we will rectify ac voltage, after rectification we get pulsating DC. We will
remove ripples with pie filter. For filtering we will use 1000f and 470f 16v,we will use
electrolytic capacitor for this filter. After filtering we will convert 12v dc to 5v Dc using
voltage regulator lC 7805.After that we will give that voltage to op-amp 741s 2 nd pin. At pin
3 of op-amp we will give reference voltages to op-amp, 741 work as a comparator between
input voltage and reference voltage. After comparison 741 will give 1 or 0 at output. Output
of 741 we gave to microcontroller circuit at pin 1 . when microcontroller get low then it will
detect as low voltage detected or over voltage detected, when we will get high signal at pin 1
then we will detect as a normal signal.

CONTENTS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Introduction to Project
Working Principle
Block Diagram
List of components
Microcontroller AT89C51
Component Description
Detail Working
Advantages and Disadvantage
Bibliography

INTRODUCTION OF PROJECT
The main aim of our project is to detect the over-voltage using 741 as a comparator IC.
A comparator is an circuit that compares two input voltages. One voltage is called the
reference voltage (Vref) and the other is called the input voltage (Vin) .
When Vin rises above or falls below Vref the output changes polarity (+ becomes -).
Positive is sometimes called HIGH.
Negative is sometimes called LOW.

Op -Amplifier
An operational amplifier, often referred as an op-amp, is a very high gain performance
amplifier designed to amplify ac and dc voltage voltages. Modern IC technology and large
scale production techniques have brought down the prices of such amplify within reach of all
amateurs, experimenters and hobbyists. The op-amp is now used as a basic gain element, like
an elegant transistor, in electronic circuits.
A symbol used to represent an op-amp in schematics is shown. The op-amp has two inputs
and only one output. One input is called the inverting input and is denoted by a minus sign. A
signal applied to this input appears as an amplified but phase inverted signal. The second
input is called a non-inverting input and is denoted by a plus sign. A signal applied to this
input appears at the output as an amplified signal which has the same phase as that of the
input signal.
The availability of two input terminals simplifies feedback circuitry and makes the op amp
a highly versatile device. If a feedback is applied from the output to the inverting input
terminal, the result is a negative feedback which gives a stable amplifier with precisely
controlled gain characteristics. On the other hand, if the feedback is applied to the noninverting input, the result is positive feedback which gives oscillators and multi vibrators.
Special effects are obtained by combination of both types of feedbacks.
MICROCONTROLLER 741 .

Of the different types of op amps produced, type 741 has achieved a very wide popularity.
It is available in 14- pin dual-in line, 8 pin dual-in line or in TO- style packages. Integrated
circuit type 747 accommodates two type 741 operational amplifiers in a single package.
The op-amp needs a dual symmetrical power supply. With its center tap grounded. This
enables the op-amp to amplify dc signals of both polarities, positive or negative, with respect
to ground. The circuit is so designed that if both inputs are connected to ground, the dc output
voltage is zero. However, because of small internal unbalances, a small dc voltage may
appear at the output. It is too small to be objectionable in normal applications. For critical
applications, the output voltage can be set precisely to zero by connecting a 10K
potentiometer between terminals marked offset-null.
It is possible to operate the 741 on a single rail supply also. This is usually done by raising
the standing dc input voltage to the non-inverting input terminal to approximately half the
supply voltage by a voltage divider network. The output dc voltage in such cases stands at
half the supply voltage. Bt this does not matter because the dc can be easily blocked by a
capacitor allowing only the ac signal to be passed on to the next stage.
The operational amplifier type 741 has many features that have made it so popular. It has an
in-built circuitry that provides full protection against output overloads or even shorts to
ground for any length of time. The 741 does not need any external component for phase
compensation or adjusting its frequency response. This simplifies its circuit design and
minimizes the number of components used. Its frequency response has a smooth roll off at
the high end which keeps the circuit fully stable in all feedback configuration.
First of all we will get ac 220v from direct line. Then we will step down voltage using
transformer 12-0-12 v 750 mA, then we will rectify ac voltage. After rectification we get
pulsating DC. We will remove ripples with pie filter. For filtering we will use 1000f and
470f 16v, we will use electrolytic capacitor for this filter. After filtering we will convert 12v
dc to 5v Dc using voltage regulator lm 7805. After that we will give that voltage to op amp
741 s 2nd pin. At pin 3 of op amp we will give reference voltages to op amp. 741 work as a
comparator between input voltage and reference voltage. After comparison 741 will give 1 or
0 at output. Output of 741 we gave to microcontroller circuit at pin 1. when microcontroller
get low then it will detect as low voltage detected or over voltage detected . when we will get
high signal at pin 1 then we will detect as a normal signal.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

230
V
AC

Step
Down

Full Wave
Bridge
Rectifier

COMPARATOR

+12VDC/500
mA
+5VDC/500m
A

T/F

ISOLATORS

Voltage
Regulato
r

Microcontroller
AT89S51

RELAY DRIVER
CKT

STEPDOWN
VOLTAGE

RELAY

SOURCE

230VAC

LIST OF COMPONENTS
Component
IC89C051,

Qty
1

Rate
60

ULN2003,

30

Diodes in4001,

IC 7805

15

Optocoupler PC817 4

12

Tr548

Tr 558
Motors 12v
IC base 20 pin
Crystal 12 Mhz
Resiatncec 10k
4k
Cap 10f
Connecting wires
IR sensors

4
2
1
1
4
4
1
1
3

3
250
10
25
.25
.25
5
20
120

MICROCONTROLLER AT89C51
Architecture of 8051 family:-

The figure 1 above shows the basic architecture of 8051 family of

microcontroller.

Features
Compatible with MCS-51 Products
4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory
Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles
Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
Three-Level Program Memory Lock
128 x 8-Bit Internal RAM
32 Programmable I/O Lines

 Two 16-Bit Timer/Counters

Six Interrupt Sources
Programmable Serial Channel
Low Power Idle and Power Down Modes

Description
The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with
4K bytes of Flash Programmable and Erasable Read Only Memory (PEROM). The
device is manufactured using Atmels high density nonvolatile memory
technology and is compatible with the industry standard MCS-51 instruction set
and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed
in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a
versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a
powerful microcomputer which provides a highly flexible and cost effective
solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89C51 provides the
following standard features: 4K bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines,
two 16-bit timer/counters, five vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full
duplex serial port, and on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry.
In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero
frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle
Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and
interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power down Mode saves the RAM
contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next
hardware reset.
Pin Description
VCC: Supply voltage
GND: Ground
Port 0
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port each pin can
sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as
high impedance inputs. Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed low

order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In
this mode P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during
Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during program verification.
External pull-ups are required during program verification

What is the primary difference between a microprocessor and a micro controller?

Unlike the microprocessor, the micro controller can be considered to be a true Computer on
a chip.
In addition to the various features like the ALU, PC, SP and registers found on a
microprocessor, the micro controller also incorporates features like the ROM, RAM, Ports,
timers, clock circuits, counters, reset functions etc.
While the microprocessor is more a general-purpose device, used for read, write and
calculations on data, the micro controller, in addition to the above functions also controls the
environment.

COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
Power supply:In the power supply section we use one step down transformer with two diode
as a full wave rectifier. Output of the rectifier is further converted into smooth dc
with the help of the filter capacitor. Output of the capacitor is further connected
to the ic regulator to provide a stable voltage to the microcontroller.
Microcontroller requires a regulated 5 volt dc power supply for smooth operation.
Here we use ic 7805 as a positive regulator to provide a 5 volt dc power supply.

Rectifier and regulator:

In this we will construct and analyze a full wave rectifier and a shunt voltage regulator. All
component types in the example circuit are available in Or CAD Capture libraries for
simulation.
Introduction
1.1

The Full Wave Rectifier

The first building block in the dc power supply is the full wave rectifier. The
purpose of the full wave rectifier (FWR) is to create a rectified dc output from
a sinusoidal ac input signal. It does this by using the nonlinear conductivity
characteristics of diodes to direct the path of the current.

Figure 1. Common four-diode bridge configuration for the FWR

Diode Currents
Consider the current path in the diode bridge rectifier. In the positive half cycle of Vin, diodes
D4 and D3 will conduct. During the negative half cycle, diodes D2 and D1 will conduct.
As a result, the load will pass current in the same direction in each half cycle of the
input.
Design Concerns

Reverse current does not exceed the breakdown value

Power dissipation limit P = Vd Id is not exceeded

Diode Voltages

Forward Bias
o

If we consider a simple, piece-wise linear model for the diode IV curve,

the diode forward current is zero until V bias >= V threshold, where V
threshold is 0.6 V to 0.8 V. The current increases abruptly as V bias

increases further. Due to this turn-on or threshold voltage associated

with the diode in forward bias, we should expect a 0.6 to 0.8 V voltage
drop across each forward biased diode in the rectifier bridge. In the
case of the full wave rectifier diode bridge, there are two forward
biased diodes in series with the load in each half cycle of the input
signal.
o

The maximum output voltage (across load) will be V in - 2 V threshold, or

~ Vin - 1.4 V.

Since some current does flow for voltage bias below V threshold and the
current rise around is V threshold is more gradual than the piece-wise
model, the actual diode performance will differ from the simple model.

Reverse Bias
o

In reverse bias (and neglecting reverse voltage breakdown), the

current through the diode is approximately the reverse saturation
current, Io. The voltage across the load during reverse bias will be V out
= Io R load.

In specifying a diode for use in a circuit, you must take care that the
limits for forward and reverse voltage and current are not exceeded.

1.2 Filtered Full Wave Rectifier

The filtered full wave rectifier is created from the FWR by adding a
capacitor across the output.

Figure 2. Filtered full wave rectifier

The 8051
The 8051 developed and launched in the early 80`s, is one of the most
popular micro controller in use today. It has a reasonably large amount of
built in ROM and RAM. In addition it has the ability to access external
memory.
The generic term `8x51` is used to define the device. The value of x
defining the kind of ROM, i.e. x=0, indicates none, x=3, indicates mask
ROM, x=7, indicates EPROM and x=9 indicates EEPROM or Flash.
Different microcontrollers in market:

PIC
ATMEL
INTEL
PHILIPS
DALLAS

Transformers
Transformer works on the principle of mutual inductance. We know that if two
coils or windings are placed on the core of iron, and if we pass alternating current
in one winding, back emf or induced voltage is produced in the second winding.
We know that alternating current always changes with the time. So if we apply
AC voltage across one winding, a voltage will be induced in the other winding.
Transformer works on this same principle. It is made of two windings wound
around the same core of iron. The winding to which AC voltage is applied is
called primary winding. The other winding is called as secondary winding.
Voltage and current relationship:
V1/V2 = N1/N2
Relationship between input and output currents is
I1/I2 = N2/N1
(Where N1 is number of turns of coil in primary and N 2 is number of turns in
secondary )

RESISTORS
The flow of charge (or current) through any material, encounters an opposing
force similar in many respect to mechanical friction. This opposing force is called
resistance of the material. It is measured in ohms. In some electric circuits
resistance is deliberately introduced in the form of the resistor.
Resistors are of following types:
1. Wire wound resistors.
2. Carbon resistors.
3. Metal film resistors.

THE DIODE
Diodes are polarized, which means that they must be inserted into the PCB the
correct way round. This is because an electric current will only flow through them

in one direction (like air will only flow one way through a tyre valve). Diodes have
two connections, an anode and a cathode. The cathode is always identified by a
dot, ring or some other mark.
The PCB is often marked with a +sign for the cathode end. Diodes come in all
shapes and sizes. They are often marked with a type number. Detailed
characteristics of a diode can be found by looking up the type number in a data
book. If you know how to measure resistance with a meter then test some
diodes. A good one has low resistance in one direction and high in other. They
are specialized types of diode available such as the zener and light emitting
diode (LED).

Symbols of different diodes

anode

cathode

simple diode

zener diode

CAPACITORS
A capacitor can store charge, and its capacity to store charge is called
capacitance. Capacitors consist of two conducting plates, separated by an
insulating material (known as dielectric). The two plates are joined with two
leads. The dielectric could be air, mica, paper, ceramic, polyester, polystyrene,
etc. This dielectric gives name to the capacitor. Like paper capacitor, mica
capacitor etc.

Types of capacitors:

Capacito
r

Fixed
capacitor

Electrolyti
c

Variable
capacitor

NonElectrolytic

Gang

Trimme

Paper

Mica

Cerami

IC
IC (Integrated Circuit) means that all the components of the circuit are
fabricated on same chip. Digital ICs are a collection of resistors, diodes,
and transistors fabricated on a single piece of semiconductor, usually
silicon called a substrate, which is commonly referred to as wafer. The
chip is enclosed in a protective plastic or ceramic package from which pins
extend out connecting the IC to other device. Suffix N or P stands for dualin-line (plastic package (DIP)) while suffix J or I stands for dual-in-lime
ceramic package. Also the suffix for W stands for flat ceramic package.
The pins are numbered counter clockwise when viewed from the top of
the package with respect to an identity notch or dot at one end of the chip
.The manufacturers name can usually be guessed from its logo that is
printed on the IC. The IC type number also indicates the manufacturers
code. For e.g. DM 408 N SN 7404 indicates National Semiconductor and
Texas Instruments.

Other examples are:

Fair Child

: UA, UAF

National Semiconductor

: DM, LM, LH, LF, and TA.

Motorola

: MC, MFC.

Sprague

: UKN, ULS, ULX.

Signetic

: N/s, NE/SE, and SU.

Burr-Brown

: BB.

Texas Instruments

: SN.

The middle portion i.e. the IC type number tells about the IC function and
also the family, which the particular IC belongs to .ICs that belongs to
standard TTL series have an identification number that starts with 74; for
e.g. 7402, 74LS04, 74S04 etc. ICs that belongs to standard CMOS family
their number starts with 4, like 4000, 451B, 4724B, 1400. The 74C, 74HC,
74AC & 74ACT series are newer CMOS series.
Various series with TTL logic family are:Standard TTL 74 .
Schottky TTL 74s.
Low power Schottky 74LS .
Advance Schottky 74AS.
Advanced Low Power Schottky 74ALs .
Also there are various series with CMOS logic family as metal state CMOS
40 or 140.
Power Supply

For TTL circuits, the power supply pin is labeled V cc and its nominal
value. For CMOS ICs, the power supply pin is labeled as V DD & its
nominal value range from T3 to 18V.
Unconnected Inputs
An unconnected input is called floating input. The floating TTL
input acts as logic 1. High level is applied to it. This characteristic is
often used when testing a TTL circuit. A floating TTL input will
measure a DC level between 1.4V to 1.8V when checked with VOM
as oscilloscope. If a CMOS input is left floating, it may have
disastrous results. The IC may become overheated and eventually
destroy itself. For this reason, all inputs to CMOS circuit must be
connected to a LOW or HIGH level or to the output of another IC.

RELAYS
Error: Reference source not foundA relay is an electrically operated switch. The relay
contacts can be made to operate in the pre-arranged fashion. For instance, normally
open contacts close and normally closed contacts open. In electromagnetic relays, the
contacts however complex they might be, they have only two position i.e. OPEN and
CLOSED, whereas in case of electromagnetic switches, the contacts can have multiple
positions.

STRIP
OUT N/C

OUT N/O
SPRING
230V P
MAGNET

NEED FOR THE USE OF RELAY

The reason behind using relay for switching loads is to provide complete electrical
isolation. The means that there is no electrical connection between the driving circuits
and the driven circuits. The driving circuit may be low voltage operated low power
circuits that control several kilowatts of power. In our circuit where a high fan could
be switched on or off depending upon the output from the telephone.
Since the relay circuit operated on a low voltage, the controlling circuit is quite safe.
In an electromagnetic relay the armature is pulled by a magnetic force only. There is
no electrical connection between the coil of a relay and the switching contacts of the
relay. If there are more than one contact they all are electrically isolated from each
other by mounting them on insulating plates and washers. Hence they can be wired to
control different circuits independently.
Some of the popular contacts forms are described below:

1. Electromagnetic relay
2. Power Relay.
3. Time Delay Relay.
4. Latching Relay.

5. Crystal Can Relay.

6. Co-axial Relay.

How to control sensors

What is a voltage divider?
You are going to find out but don't be in too much of a hurry. Work through the Chapter and
allow the explanation to develop.
The diagram below shows a light dependent resistor, or LDR, together with its circuit
symbol:

The light-sensitive part of the LDR is a wavy track of cadmium sulphide. Light energy
triggers the release of extra charge carriers in this material, so that its resistance falls as the
level of illumination increases.
A light sensor uses an LDR as part of a voltage divider.
The essential circuit of a voltage divider, also called a potential divider, is:

What happens if one of the resistors in the voltage divider is replaced by an LDR? In the
circuit below, Rtop is a 10
resistor, and an LDR is used as Rbottom :

Suppose the LDR has a resistance of 500

shade (these values are reasonable).
When the LDR is in the light, Vout will be:

In the shade, Vout will be:

, 0.5

, in bright light, and 200

in the

In other words, this circuit gives a LOW voltage when the LDR is in the light , and a HIGH
voltage when the LDR is in the shade. The voltage divider circuit gives an output voltage
which changes with illumination.
A sensor subsystem which functions like this could be thought of as a 'dark sensor' and
could be used to control lighting circuits which are switched on automatically in the evening.
Perhaps this does not seem terribly exciting, but almost every sensor circuit you can think of
uses a voltage divider. There's just no other way to make sensor subsystems work.
Here is the voltage divider built with the LDR in place of Rtop :

Signals from switches

When a switch is used to provide an input to a circuit, pressing the switch usually generates a
voltage signal. It is the voltage signal which triggers the circuit into action. What do you need
to get the switch to generate a voltage signal? . . . You need a voltage divider. The circuit can
be built in either of two ways:

The pull down resistor in the first circuit forces Vout to become LOW except when the push
button switch is operated. This circuit delivers a HIGH voltage when the switch is pressed. A
resistor value of 10
is often used.
In the second circuit, the pull up resistor forces Vout to become HIGH except when the
switch is operated. Pressing the switch connects Vout directly to 0 V. In other words, this
circuit delivers a LOW voltage when the switch is pressed.
In circuits which process logic signals, a LOW voltage is called 'logic 0' or just '0', while a
HIGH voltage is called 'logic1' or '1'. These voltage divider circuits are perfect for providing
input signals for logic systems.
What kinds of switches could we you use. One variety of push button switch is called a
miniature tactile switch. These are small switches which work well with prototype board:

As you can see, the switch has four pins which are linked in pairs by internal metal strips.
Pressing the button bridges the contacts and closes the switch. The extra pins are useful in
designing printed circuit boards for keyboard input and also stop the switch from being
moved about or bent once soldered into position.

There are lots of other switches which you might want to use in a voltage divider
configuration. These include magnetically-operated reed switches, tilt switches and
pressure pads, all with burglar alarm applications.

Transistor working
T he junction transistor
Junction transistors consists of two junctions made from N-type
and P-type semiconductor materials and are called bipolar
transistors(two polarities).They have three connections emitter,
base and collector.

Collector
Collector

____ _
_____

Base

++++
+

++++
+
++++
Base+
-- -- -- --

Emitter

Emitter

E
NPN

PNP

Transistor current

Collector

Ic

Current

Ib
Base current

Emitter

Ie
current

Ie = Ib+Ic

The forward biased base/emitter junction causes electrons to be attracted from the emitter
area towards the base. Arriving in the base area, most of the negative electrons come
under the influence of the more positive collector and are attracted by it. This is shown in
the left hand drawing, where the base current plus collector current equals the emitter
current. Alpha gain is collector current divided by emitter current, and is always less than
1. Beta gain is collector current divided by base current and can be fairly high number.
Therefore, causing a small base current to flow makes a much larger collector current to
flow. A small base current controls a large collector current. There is 0.6 volts across the
base junction, where it is forward biased (0.3 volts
for germanium).
Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters
refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today
are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. This page is mostly about NPN
transistors and if you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use these first.
The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a
transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain.
In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are
usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit symbols and properties and they are not (yet)
covered by this page.

Transistor currents
The diagram shows the two current paths through a transistor. You can build this circuit with two
standard 5mm red LEDs and any general purpose low power NPN transistor
(BC108, BC182 or BC548 for example).
The small base current controls the larger collector current.
When the switch is closed a small current flows into the base (B) of the
transistor. It is just enough to make LED B glow dimly. The transistor amplifies
this small current to allow a larger current to flow through from its collector (C)
to its emitter (E). This collector current is large enough to make LED C light
brightly.
When the switch is open no base current flows, so the transistor switches off
the collector current.

Both LEDs are off.

A transistor amplifies current and can be used as a switch.
This arrangement where the emitter (E) is in the controlling circuit (base current) and in the controlled circuit
(collector current) is called common emitter mode. It is the most widely used arrangement for transistors so it
is the one to learn first.

DETAILED WORKING
This protection scheme is based mainly on the comparators and IC 741.From the
main line we will get 220v supply, then we will step down the voltage to 12-0-12
or 750 mA. Then a rectifier is attached so that voltage is rectified and after
rectification we will get pulsating DC .Then after a pie filter is used so as to
remove the ripples. The specification for the filter is 1000 micro farad and 470
micro farad and 16 v, electrolytic capacitor is used. After filter voltage regulator
is used which converts 12v to 5v DC using voltage regulator Im 7805.After then
an operation amplifier is used. The reduced voltage after that we will give that
voltage to operational amplifier 741s 2nd pin. At pin 3 of op-amp we will give
reference voltages to op-amp.741 works as comparator between input voltage
and reference voltages. After comparision 741 will give 1 or 0 at the output.
Output of 741 we gave to microcontroller circuit at pin 1.when
MICROCONTROLLER circuit gets LOW it then it will detect as LOW VOLTAGE or
HIGH VOLTAGE detected. When MICROCONTROLLER will get high signal at pin 1
then we will detect as a NORMAL voltage signal. Lets now move on to a practical
example. We shall work on a simple practical application and using the example
as a base, shall explore the various features of the 8051 microcontroller.

Functional model of an NPN transistor

The operation of a transistor is difficult to explain and understand in terms of its
internal structure. It is more helpful to use this functional model:

The base-emitter junction behaves like a diode.

A base current IB flows only when the voltage VBE across the base-emitter
junction is 0.7V or more.

The small base current IB controls the large collector current Ic.

Ic = hFE IB (unless the transistor is full on and saturated)

hFE is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain), a typical value for h FE
is 100 (it has no units because it is a ratio)

The collector-emitter resistance RCE is controlled by the base current I B:

o

IB = 0 RCE = infinity transistor off

IB small RCE reduced transistor partly on

IB increased RCE = 0 transistor full on ('saturated')

Additional notes:

A resistor is often needed in series with the base connection to limit the
base current IB and prevent the transistor being damaged.
Transistors have a maximum collector current Ic rating.

The current gain hFE can vary widely, even for transistors of the same
type!

A transistor that is full on (with RCE = 0) is said to be 'saturated'.

When a transistor is saturated the collector-emitter voltage V CE is reduced

to almost 0V.

When a transistor is saturated the collector current Ic is determined by the

supply voltage and the external resistance in
the collector circuit, not by the transistor's
current gain. As a result the ratio Ic/I B for a
saturated transistor is less than the current
gain hFE.

The emitter current IE = Ic + IB, but Ic is

much larger than IB, so roughly IE = Ic.

There is a table showing technical data for some

popular transistors on the transistors page.

Touch switch circuit

Darlington pair
This is two transistors connected together so that the current amplified by the
first is amplified further by the second transistor. The overall current gain is
equal to the two individual gains multiplied together:
Darlington pair current gain, hFE = hFE1 hFE2
(hFE1 and hFE2 are the gains of the individual transistors)
This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain, such as 10000, so that
only a tiny base current is required to make the pair switch on.

A Darlington pair behaves like a single transistor with a very high current
gain. It has three leads (B, C and E) which are equivalent to the leads of a

standard individual transistor. To turn on there must be 0.7V across both the
base-emitter junctions which are connected in series inside the Darlington pair,
therefore it requires 1.4V to turn on.
Darlington pairs are available as complete packages but you can make up your
own from two transistors; TR1 can be a low power type, but normally TR2 will
need to be high power. The maximum collector current Ic(max) for the pair is the
same as Ic(max) for TR2.
A Darlington pair is sufficiently sensitive to respond to the
small current passed by your skin and it can be used to make
a touch-switch as shown in the diagram. For this circuit
which just lights an LED the two transistors can be any
general purpose low power transistors. The 100k resistor
protects the transistors if the contacts are linked with a piece
of wire.

Using a transistor as a switch

When a transistor is used as a switch it must be either OFF or fully ON. In the
fully ON state the voltage VCE across the transistor is almost zero and the
transistor is said to be saturated because it cannot pass any more collector
current Ic. The output device switched by the transistor is usually called the
'load'.
The power developed in a switching transistor is very small:

In the OFF state: power = Ic VCE, but Ic = 0, so the power is zero.

In the full ON state: power = Ic VCE, but VCE = 0 (almost), so the power
is very small.

This means that the transistor should not become hot in use and you do not need to
consider its maximum power rating. The important ratings in switching circuits are
the maximum collector current Ic(max) and the minimum current gain h FE(min). The
transistor's voltage ratings may be ignored unless you are using a supply voltage of
more than about 15V.

Consider an electric circuit as follows,

The positive side (+ve) of the battery is connected to one side of a switch.
The other side of the switch is connected to a bulb or LED (Light Emitting
Diode). The bulb is then connected to a resistor, and the other end of the
resistor is connected to the negative (-ve) side of the battery.
When the switch is closed or switched on the bulb glows. When the
switch is open or switched off the bulb goes off
If you are instructed to put the switch on and off every 30 seconds, how
would you do it? Obviously you would keep looking at your watch and
every time the second hand crosses 30 seconds you would keep turning
the switch on and off.
Imagine if you had to do this action consistently for a full day. Do you
think you would be able to do it? Now if you had to do this for a month, a
year??
The next step would be, then to make it automatic. This is where we use
the Microcontroller.
But if the action has to take place every 30 seconds, how will the
microcontroller keep track of time?
How is this time then calculated?
The speed with which a microcontroller executes instructions is
determined by what is known as the crystal speed. A crystal is a
component connected externally to the microcontroller. The crystal has
different values, and some of the used values are 6MHZ, 10MHZ, and
11.059 MHz etc.
Thus a 10MHZ crystal would pulse at the rate of 10,000,000 times per
second.

The time is calculated using the formula

No of cycles per second = Crystal frequency in HZ / 12.
For a 10MHZ crystal the number of cycles would be,
10,000,000/12=833333.33333 cycles.
This means that in one second, the microcontroller would execute
833333.33333 cycles.
Therefore for one cycle, what would be the time?
The instruction clear p1.0 would use one cycle to execute. Similarly, the
instruction set b p1.0 also uses one cycle.
Then what would be the number of cycles required to be executed to get a
time of 30 seconds!
Getting back to our bulb example, all we would need to do is to instruct
the microcontroller to carry out some instructions equivalent to a period of
30 seconds, like counting from zero upwards, then switch on the bulb,
carry out instructions equivalent to 30 seconds and switch off the bulb.
Just put the whole thing in a loop, and you have a never ending on-off
sequence.

ADVANTAGES

1
Automatic operation of microcontroller assures
more safety
It can be used for protection of generation and
transmission line by sitting at a room i.e, from control
centre.
3 Small form factor, low on state power dissipate and
accurate voltage is assured.
4 Fault can be detected rapidly and conventionally
2

DISADVANTAGES

1 Quiet complex circuit is involved as we do use

microcontroller in it.
2 Expence is increased due to we of microcontroller
and advance electronic
gadgets.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 .HAND BOOK OF ELECTRONICS

2. LET US C

GUPTA & KUMAR.

YASHWANT KANITKAR.

3. SHYAM SERIES

TATA MC GRAW

4. DIGITAL SYSTEMS PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION

RONALD LTOCCI.

(Sixth edition)

5.RELAYS AND ITS APPLICATION

SHARMA, MC.

(Bip -publishers)

6. MODERN ALL ABOUT MOTHERBOARD

7. MODERN IC

(DATA AND SUBSTITUTIONAL MANUAL)

8. www.google.com

LOTHIA, M.

MANAHAR LOTIA

9. www.edaboard.com
10. www.scribd.com