VISN1231

Optics
2013

LECTURE NOTES
Topic-1

Basics of Light and light propagation

Sections to read from the text: 1.0 to 1.2, 1.2.1 to 1.2.4, 1.3 to 1.4.

1. Basics of Light and Light Propagation

Introduction
When a material is heated to a very high temperature it emits light.
Light is electromagnetic energy which propagates in the form of waves. Visible light
occupies a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (380 nm 700 nm). On the
short wavelength side we have the ultra-violet rays, x-rays, gamma rays and so on.
On the long wavelength side we have the infra-red rays, microwaves, radio-waves and
so on.
Physical Optics deals with the wave nature of light.
In Geometrical Optics light is treated as rays which travel along straight line paths
obeying definite laws of reflection and refraction.
An optical medium is any space/material through which light travels.
An isotropic medium has the same optical properties for light traveling in all
directions.
A homogeneous medium has the same optical properties throughout its volume.

The wave nature of light

Any wave is specified by its frequency, wave-length and amplitude.
Frequency gives the number of waves passing a reference point in one second.
The amplitude of a wave is a measure of its maximum strength.
The phase of a wave at a point in space and time refers to its position in the wave
cycle or its position on the wave train.
Wavelength is the distance between adjacent crests or troughs or, more generally,
the distance between two successive points having the same phase (see points A and
B in Fig.1.1).

Fig. 1.1 Wavelength. Points A and B are said to have the same phase and they
are a wavelength apart.

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Fig. 1.2 Phase at various points A, B, and C in an optical field generated by the
point source O.

To understand phase consider points A, B and C illuminated by the light from a point
source O as shown in Fig.1.2. For simplicity assume that single unbroken wave trains
are emitted by the point source at O uniformly in all directions. Let us say that the
phase of the wave upon emission at O is zero. To know the phase of the light wave at
point A, calculate the number of waves from O to A. Let us say that it is equal to 500
+ 0.25. The 0.25 tells you what part of the wave in its cycle, the point A is in. The
500 + 0.25 tells you what point on the wave-train the point A is in. Similarly,
calculate OB in number of waves. Let us say that it is equal to 600+ 0.8. Because
the point B corresponds to a different point on the wave in its cycle as compared to
point A we say that A and B are not in phase. Let us say that the number of waves
from O to C is 650 + 0.25. Then, A and C are said to be in phase.
Wavefront : At any position of the propagating waves if you join all the nearby points
that have the same phase, you get what is called a wavefront. Thus the wavefront
gives you the shape of the surface on which all points have the same phase. In light
propagation you study the movement of this surface and you find that the light always
travels in a direction perpendicular to this surface at each point on it. The direction of
travel at each point is given by the ray. Therefore, light rays are always perpendicular
to the wavefront.

Fig. 1.3a. Spherical wavefront.

Fig, 1.3b Plane wavefront.

Consider the path lengths from the point source O to the points A, B and C in
Fig.1.3a. Path lengths OA = OB = OC. Therefore A, B and C are all in phase. ABC
is the surface of constant phase and it is spherical here. This is an example of a
spherical wave. Similarly for a plane wave all the points having the same phase lie on
a plane (Fig. 1.3b).
From the definition of frequency () and wavelength () it follows that the speed c
with which the wave travels in free space is given by,
c = metres per sec.
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Eqn.(1.1)

Practice Problem 1.1 : If the velocity of light in vacuum is 3108 m/s, what will be
the wave-lengths corresponding to the following frequencies? i) 4.51014 Hz. ii) 6.96
1014 Hz
Answer: i) 667 nm. ii) 431 nm.

The photon nature of light

Light energy is emitted and absorbed in definite bursts or packets of energy called
quanta. A single quantum of light is called a photon. The energy of a photon is given
by :
E = h

Eqn.(1.2)

Where, h is the Planck's constant.

Combining Eqns.(1.1) and (1.2) we have
E = hc/

Eqn.(1.3)

This equation implies that as decreases E increases. Therefore, short waves have
more energy and will cause more damage if absorbed. Example : Cataracts and Basal
Cell Carcinoma are caused by UV absorption. A very small amount of ultraviolet
energy can produce a corneal lesion.

Sources, pencils and beams of light

Point Source: A source that is extremely small in spatial extent is a point source.
Light from a point source spreads uniformly in all directions in the form of spherical
waves.
Extended source: An extended source is made up of a distribution of point sources.
The shape of the wavefront travelling from an extended source is not well defined.
Distinction between a pencil of light and a beam of light : If you place an aperture
in the path of the light rays diverging from a single point source you generate a light
pencil. In this case the pencil will be a divergent pencil.
Pencils can in general be convergent, divergent or parallel.
A converging pencil of rays converge to a point upon propagation. Convex lenses
converge light pencils.
At infinite distance in any direction from a point source a parallel pencil of light in
that direction is obtained.
A collection of pencils is called a beam of light. The light travelling from an aperture
that is illuminated by an extended source for example, will consist of pencils from

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several point sources and will therefore form a beam of light. Fig1.4 a shows how
a diverging beam is obtained with an extended source illuminates an aperture.

Fig. 1.4a. Diverging beam from an extended source.

Fig. 1.4 b shows an example of converging pencils forming a diverging beam.

Image

Object

Convex lens
Fig. 1.4b. Diverging beam formed by converging pencils.

Rays in a light pencil dont cross each other. In a beam rays (from different pencils)
cross each other.
Rectilinear propagation of Light and Shadows
The rectilinear propagation of light states that light travels in straight lines.
Shadow
region

.S
.L

A
O

Shadow
region

B
O

Screen

D .

Screen

Obstacle

A
Aperture

Shadow
region

. L

Fig.1.5 Figure demonstrating the rectilinear propagation of light

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Consider a small source B, an aperture AA and an opaque object OO as shown in

Fig 1.5. Let source B emit light in all directions as shown. According to the rectilinear
propagation of light, point L will be illuminated. Point S will be in darkness. The
region LL defined by the straight line paths BAL and BA L from the source will be
illuminated. Likewise, the region DD defined by the straight line paths BOD and
BO D will be the shadow region due to the obstacle OO.
A well defined shadow of an object is formed if the size of the source is small
compared to the object as shown in Figure 1.6.
U

A
y

h
x

S
Point
source

B
obstacle
V

Fig. 1.6 Formation of shadow by a point source

Size d of the shadow is given by

d = (hx)/y

Eqn.(1.4)

If the source is extended, the shadow will not be clearly defined as shown in Fig. 1.7
below.
penumbra

Umbra

Extended
source

Obstacle
penumbra

Screen
Fig. 1.7 Formation of shadow by an extended source.

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The region of total shadow is called umbra and the region of partial shadow is called
penumbra.
A device that works on the basis of the rectilinear propagation of light is the pinhole
camera (Fig.1.8).
Pinhole camera
Black Box
pinhole

photographic plate
or diffuser screen

h
Object

Image

l
Fig. 1.8 The pinhole camera

In a pinhole camera, a very small group of rays from each object point is passed by
the pinhole to form the corresponding image point.
Image size h = (hl)/l

Eqn.(1.5)

Vergence
Vergence is used to quantify the convergence or divergence of light pencils.
Vergence in air is defined mathematically by the expression
V = 1/d m-1

= 1/d Dioptres

Eqn.(1.6)

where d is the distance from the observation plane to the point source (or point
focus) in metres. Vergence is expressed in Dioptres (symbol D) when the distance is
expressed in metres. If this distance is along the direction of propagation of light it is
taken as positive and if it is against the direction of propagation of light it is taken as
negative. Thus at any point in a converging pencil of rays, vergence of light is positive
and at any point in a diverging pencil of rays, vergence is negative as can be seen
from Fig.1.9.
The curvature R of a wavefront of radius of curvature r is defined by 1/r, where r is
measured from the wavefront to the source/focus. At distance d from a point source
the radius of curvature of the wavefront is d. The curvature of the wavefront at
distance d is therefore 1/d. Thus the vergence is a measure of the curvature of the
wavefront at d. Note that curvature obeys the same rules of sign convention as the
vergence and is measured in the same units (Dioptre).

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d
Observation
plane

Point
focus
ZERO
VERGENCE

Observation
plane

Point
source

POSITIVE
VERGENCE

Observation
plane

NEGATIVE
VERGENCE

Fig. 1.9 Examples of zero, positive and negative vergence.

Examples :

5 cm from a point source in air, vergence = 0.105 = 20 D

10 cm before a point focus in air, vergence = 01.1 = 10 D
6 m from a point source in air, vergence = 16 = 0.17 D
At infinite distance from a point source, vergence = 1 = 0 D

Please note that the distance d has to be expressed in metres to obtain the vergence
in dioptres.
As the magnitude of the distance from a point source/focus increases
divergence/convergence decreases. The more curved the wavefront the greater is the
vergence.
In the clinic a distance greater than 20 feet (6 m) is considered as infinite distance for
practical purposes. The vergence of the rays reaching the eye from a distance of 6 m
is 0.17 D which is considered as negligible vergence in Optometry practice.

References : Optics By A H Tunnacliffe and J G Hirst, ABDO, Reprinted (2003)

Optics, M H Freeman, Butterworth Heinemann (10th or 11th Edition)
Geometrical and Visual Optics By Steven Schwartz, Mc Graw Hill, (2002)

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