The Journal of Early Adolescence 2016 Hall 0272431615624566

624566
research-article2016
JEAXXX10.1177/0272431615624566Journal of Early AdolescenceHall and DiPerna
Article
Childhood Social Skills

as Predictors of Middle
School Academic
Adjustment
Journal of Early Adolescence

127
The Author(s) 2016
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DOI: 10.1177/0272431615624566
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Gordon Emmett Hall1 and James Clyde DiPerna1
Abstract
The present study used multiple regression analyses to examine the
relationships between fifth-grade social skills and eighth-grade academic
achievement. Data were drawn from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study
Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999 (ECLS-K). Results indicated no relationship
between positive or negative social behavior in fifth grade and academic
achievement or teacher-rated academic skills in eighth grade. However,
consistent with previous studies, fifth-grade approaches to learning were
found to be positive predictors of both academic achievement and teacherrated academic skills in eighth grade. In addition, these results suggest that
socioeconomic status plays a significant and potentially unexplored avenue
for understanding these outcomes. These results further illuminate the way
behaviors in elementary school relate to academic adjustment to middle
school.
Keywords
academic achievement, prosocial behavior, academic/school transitions,
social competence
1Pennsylvania
State University, University Park, USA
Corresponding Author:
Gordon Emmett Hall, Pennsylvania State University, 125 CEDAR Building, University Park,
PA 16801, USA.
Email: gemmett.hall@gmail.com
Downloaded from jea.sagepub.com at E-nformation SRL on June 16, 2016
Numerous educational policy statements (e.g., Adler, 1982; Boyer, 1983)

suggest that the promotion of successful social skill development is a valued
educational objective of the U.S. public schools (Wentzel, 1991). Significant
effort has been expended to develop state academic standards for instruction,
but less work has been devoted to developing and implementing standards
and objectives in the social-emotional domain (Delpit, 2005; Wentzel 1991).
Not every child starts school at the same level of social-emotional development. These differences in school readiness have been linked to disparities in
academic achievement, high school graduation rates, and long-term employment opportunities (Bierman, Domitrovich, & Darling, 2007). One potential
way to address these inequalities is to provide explicit instruction in social
skills. Evidence suggests that students mastery of social skills is associated
with better school performance (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, &
Schellinger, 2011; January, Casey, & Paulson, 2011).
Recent research has demonstrated that social skills interventions (e.g.,
training the skills of managing emotions, setting positive goals, taking anothers perspective, making informed decisions, and maintaining positive relationships) are most likely to succeed when they are applied during a
developmental transition period (January etal., 2011). Most social skill
instruction is aimed at the period during the preschool and primary years.
Considerably less research has examined the efficacy of social skill interventions during another important developmental transition period, early adolescence. January etal. (2011) suggested a relationship between prosocial
behavior and successful adjustment to middle school but noted that more
research is needed. An understanding of the social skills that support adjustment to middle school would allow for the development of curricula that
target such skills. As such, the purpose of this study was to examine if social
skills at the end of elementary school relate to a students academic adjustment to the demands of the middle school environment.
Adjustment to Middle School

Although there currently is not a universal definition of adjustment to middle
school, researchers have demonstrated that students who successfully transition to middle school do so through their relation to their peers (i.e., social
adjustment), their academics (i.e., academic adjustment), and the overall state
of their mental health (Farmer, Hall, Weiss, Petrin, Meece, & Moohr, 2011;
McHale etal., 2005; Ryan & Shim, 2008). A student who is struggling to
adjust to middle school often experiences peer rejection, grade decline, or
lowered self-esteem (Farmer, Hall, Weiss, Petrin, Meece, & Moohr, 2011;
McHale etal., 2005; Ryan & Shim, 2008). Students appear to adjust to middle
school by developing a new set of social skills (January etal., 2011).
Hall and DiPerna
Peer rejection and low self-esteem are correlated with lower levels of academic achievement (Bellmore, 2011). Similarly, differences in middle school
adjustment can have long-term effects on academic achievement and peer
relations (Bellmore, 2011; Rueger, Malecki, & Demaray, 2011). Many students are at risk of victimization during the middle school years, and such
victimization puts students at greater risk of experiencing later difficulties in
academic and psychological functioning (Rueger etal., 2011). Thus, academic achievement can serve as one important indicator of a students adjustment to middle school. As such, this study focused on academic adjustment
as an indicator of a students overall adjustment to middle school. In addition,
the transition to middle school offers a critical opportunity to effect these
long-term trajectories (Rueger etal., 2011).
Middle School and Negative Adjustment

The transition to middle school in the United States is associated with negative outcomes (Juvonen, Le, Kaganoff, Augustine, & Constant, 2004). Middle
school frequently marks a period of academic decline and social maladjustment (Ryan & Shim, 2008). Rockoff and Lockwood (2010) performed a longitudinal study of New York City public middle schools and found that
academic achievement declined during the specific year that students moved
to a middle school. In addition, academic achievement continued to decline
throughout middle school. It is not only academic achievement that declines
during the middle school years but also motivation and social adjustment
(Lepper, Corpus, & Iyengar, 2005; Ryan & Shim, 2008). One longitudinal
study of rural adolescents found that their sense of belonging decreased at the
onset of middle school and continued to decrease from sixth to 12th grades
(Witherspoon & Ennett, 2011).
Decreases in achievement during middle school affect some groups more
than others. A gap exists in achievement between students from homes with
fewer economic resources and those from more affluent families (Balfanz &
Byrnes, 2006). Until fourth grade, the achievement gap is relatively small,
but between fourth grade and eighth grade, the gap in academic achievement
widens significantly (Balfanz & Byrnes, 2006). Delpit (2005) suggested that
the implicit social expectations within the classroom are often the social
norms of individuals from higher socioeconomic status (SES), and teachers
are often unaware of, or reluctant to explicitly communicate, these expectations. Students of lower SES attending schools that implicitly reinforce these
expectations are placed at a disadvantage because teachers will reward and
punish behaviors that have not been explicitly taught (Delpit, 2005). Wentzel
(1991) concluded that, despite the fact children cite social-moral norms as the
most important classroom rules, teachers spend very little or no time instructing students on these norms.
Adjustment During Early Adolescence

Adjustment to a new environment often requires both the acquisition of new
skills and the adaptation of established skills to new situations. The transition
to middle school often involves moving from a smaller building with established social relationships to a larger building with unfamiliar people and a new
social context. This can lead to a shuffling of peer relationships (January etal.,
2011). Adolescence is also a time when youth begin to assert their independence from adults and develop their identity in relation to their peers instead
(Farmer, Hamm, Leung, Lambert, & Gravelle, 2011). These peer relationships
assume even greater importance as early adolescents progress into high school
(Rueger etal., 2011). It is likely that students with highly developed prosocial
skills would more easily adapt to the middle school environment.
In addition to changes in social relationships, adolescents undergo major
changes in physical and cognitive development during the middle school
years. These changes often occur at differing developmental rates (Vawter,
2010). The structure of the brain undergoes considerable change during adolescence, and researchers have suggested that these changes have significant
impacts on behavior (Vawter, 2010). Changes in physical maturity, mental
maturity, and social relationships all have the possibility of impacting a students academic adjustment to middle school.
Contribution of Late Elementary Social and

Academic Behavior
Differences in social skills and approaches to learning may explain the divergent trajectories of students entering middle school. Student behavior at the
end of elementary school has been shown to predict certain aspects of adjustment (e.g., Bierman etal., 2008; Montague, Enders, Cavendish, & Castro,
2011). Bongers, Koot, van der Ende, and Verhulst (2004) found that teacher
ratings of behavioral problems in elementary school are predictors of behavioral problems in adolescence. A longitudinal study conducted by Montague
etal. (2011) demonstrated that teacher ratings of low academic competence
during elementary school were associated with higher ratings of learning
problems during high school. An additional finding was that an individual
achievement test administered at the end of elementary school predicted
reading and math achievement during high school (Montague etal., 2011).
Hall and DiPerna
Similarly, Wentzel (1993) reported that the ability to engage in certain

social skills (e.g., managing emotions, setting positive goals, taking anothers
perspective, making informed decisions, and maintaining positive relationships) can be predictive of future academic achievement. Social skills have
been broadly defined as specific behaviors that lead to desirable social outcomes for the possessor (Whitcomb & Merrell, 2013). Approaches to learning represent a set of academically related attitudes and behaviors that predict
scores from both standardized achievement measures and teacher assignment
(Schaefer & McDermott, 1999; Trigwell, Ashwin, & Millan, 2013). Behaviors
concomitant with approaches to learning include regulating problem solving,
attending to tasks, and pursuing goals. According to January etal. (2011),
individuals capable of accurately describing their relationships to their peers,
their teachers, and their community will have better peer relations, higher
self-esteem, and greater academic achievement.
Prior research (e.g., Caprara etal., 2000; Wentzel, 1993) has demonstrated
that social skills in late elementary school have a predictive relationship with
academic achievement. However, few studies have used a large and nationally representative data set to examine the relationships between late elementary school behavior and academic achievement. Further research is necessary
to validate the relationship between social skills and academic achievement
and to determine the social skills and specific behaviors that are associated
with positive adjustment.
Rationale and Hypotheses

For many youth, middle school marks the beginning of a downward trend
in academic adjustment (Ryan & Shim, 2008). One possible explanation for
this decline is that students lack the requisite social skills to adjust to the
demands of the middle school environment, which they perceive as foreign
and unkind (January etal., 2011; Juvonen etal., 2004). Delpit (2005)
hypothesized that schools and teachers lack the knowledge or, possibly, the
will to address deficits in social skills. The identification of social skills
associated with positive academic adjustment may aid in the development
of social skill curricula that accurately target the needs of an early adolescent entering the middle school environment and, thereby, positively impact
adjustment of students entering middle school. As such, the purpose of this
study is to examine the relationships between specific social skills exhibited by students at the end of elementary school and their subsequent adjustment to middle school. Specifically, the present study will address the
following research question:

Research Question 1: Are prior social skills related to positive academic
adjustment in middle school?
The theoretical rationale for this study is that students who have greater
social skill proficiency at the end of elementary school will be better able to
adjust to middle school. Students who exhibit lower social skill proficiency
at the end of elementary school may be challenged by the new demands of the
middle school social landscape and show lower rates of academic achievement as a result. Students with lower social skill proficiency at the outset of
middle school would be more likely to grasp the importance of developing
social skills such as managing emotions, setting goals, and making responsible social decisions.
Based on the findings of previous studies (Durlak etal., 2011; January
etal., 2011; Wentzel, 1993), social skills (e.g., the skills of managing emotions, setting positive goals, taking anothers perspective, making informed
decisions, and maintaining positive relationships) were hypothesized to have
a positive relationship with indicators of academic adjustment to middle
school. Specifically, these indicators include academic achievement and
teacher ratings of academic skills.
Method
Participants
Data for this study were drawn from the Early Childhood Longitudinal
StudyKindergarten Class of 1998-1999 (ECLS-K). The ECLS-K was a longitudinal study conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics
(NCES) that followed a nationally representative cohort of 21,260 children
from kindergarten through eighth grade. The primary objectives of the
ECLS-K were to provide information on student achievement and developmental status in the elementary and middle school years, the strengths and
weaknesses of U.S. kindergarten programs, and the relationships between
home life and school experience as children move from elementary school to
middle school. Data were collected in seven waves, twice during kindergarten, twice during first grade, and once during third, fifth, and eighth grades
(The first through fifth waves were not used in the present study because they
were not relevant to the research questions). The data in the sixth wave were
collected in the spring of 2004 when approximately 90% of the sampled children were in the fifth grade (Pollack, Najarian, Rock, & Atkins-Burnett,
2005). The data in the seventh wave were collected in the spring of 2007
when approximately 89% of the sampled children were in the eighth grade
Hall and DiPerna
(Najarian, Pollack, & Sorongon, 2009). Additional information on the participants can be found in the Eighth Grade Users Manual for the ECLS-K
(Tourangeau etal., 2009).
The sample of children from the seventh wave of data collection included
9,725 respondents. Due to participant attrition over time, demographic characteristics from the eighth-grade data represent most but not all eighth graders of the sample in the 2006-2007 academic year (Tourangeau etal., 2009).
Examples of subgroups of eighth graders not represented in the data include
children who immigrated to the United States after first grade or children
who were home-schooled until first grade. However, given that the size of the
sample, the demographic characteristics of the participants are very similar to
the characteristics of the population of eighth graders during the 2006-2007
academic year.
Fifty percent of the sample was male, which matches the distribution of
the general student population in 2009 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). The
majority and minority status of the sample was also similar to that of the 2009
U.S. Census Projections. Sixty-two percent of the sample fell in the category
of Majority Status, and 38.5% fell in the Minority Status category.
Nineteen percent of the sample lived in the Northeast, 28% lived in the
Midwest, 33% lived in the South, and 21% lived in the West. The disability
status for the sample is one of the few variables that displayed much difference from the 2009 U.S. Census. Children with a disability comprised 7.9%
of the sample, whereas children with a disability make up 13.1% of the public
school population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). Further information regarding the SES level, area classification, and school type for the children from
the sample can be found in Table 1.
Measures
The ECLS-K employed multiple methods and sources to study childrens
early school experiences. These methods included direct assessments of participating children, interviews with parents, and data collection from teachers. The information gathered from these unique perspectives was used to
measure the home life and school experiences of students from school entry
to the end of middle school.
General education teacher questionnaire. Teacher questionnaires were used to
obtain information about the sampled childs social status relative to peers
within the classroom and content-relevant skills. The approaches to learning,
peer relations, and positive and negative social behavior ratings were all
drawn from the general education teacher questionnaires.
Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Participants (N = 9,225).

Characteristic
Male
Race/Ethnicity
Minority status
Majority status
Socioeconomic Status (SES) Level
First quintile
Second quintile
Third quintile
Fourth quintile
Fifth quintile
Region
Northeast
Midwest
South
West
Area
Large/mid-size city
Large/mid-size suburb or large town
Small town and rural
School Type
Public school
Private school
Disability Status
Child with disability
Child without disability
% U.S. population
4,627
50.2
49.2
3,553
5,663
38.5
61.5
34.9
65.1
1,414
1,691
1,759
1,805
2,140
16.1
35.2
20.0
20.5
24.3
1,706
2,549
2,998
1,939
18.5
27.8
32.6
21.0
20.9
21.7
34.1
23.3
2,755
3,345
2,160
29.9
36.3
23.4
7,596
1,571
82.3
17.0
88.7
11.3
732
8,493
7.9
92.1
13.1
86.9
Note. Characteristics of the Wave 1 sample. SES = socioeconomic status.
Three subject-matter questionnaires were developed for the areas of

reading, mathematics, and science in fifth grade. However, only two subject-matter questionnaires were completed for each sampled child in the
study. Every childs English teacher completed a questionnaire, and either
the mathematics teacher or the science teacher completed the second questionnaire. The questionnaires were all organized in the same format, and
began with the same series of questions regarding the childs social skills
and general class performance. Examples of questions related to social
skills included, Does this student seem to relate well to other students in
your class? and Is this student exceptionally passive or withdrawn in
your class?
Hall and DiPerna
Questions regarding the childs academic skills were based on the

Academic Rating Scale (ARS). The sampled childs skills were rated on a
5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (poor) to 5 (outstanding). If a skill
was not part of the curriculum, or if the teacher had not observed the skill,
then the skill could be coded not applicable or not observed. Examples of
skills included on the English questionnaire are Ability to express analytical
or critical thinking and Ability to gather and use information for research
purposes.
Cronbachs coefficient alpha for the teacher rating scales was adequate
and ranged from .93 to .96 (Najarian etal., 2009). Correlations among the
teacher rating scales and direct cognitive assessment were examined for evidence of convergent and discriminant validity. Correlations among teacher
ratings of skills and direct cognitive test scores for English, math, and science
were .58, .57, and .51, respectively.
Approaches to learning scale. The Approaches to Learning scale is drawn
from the ECLS-K Teacher Social Rating Scale (T-SRS). It has six items that
assess a childs attentiveness, task persistence, eagerness to learn, and learning independence. The split-half reliability for the approaches to learning
scale was adequate (.91; Pollack etal., 2005).
Positive social behavior. Positive Social Behavior combines two scales, the
Self-Control scale and the Interpersonal Skills scale. The Self-Control scale
has four items that assess the students ability to control her or his temper,
accept peer ideas, and respond appropriately to pressure. The Interpersonal
Skills scale has five items that assess the childs empathy and ability to build
and maintain appropriate relationships with peers. Split-half reliability estimates were adequate (.79 for Self-Control and .88 for Interpersonal Skills;
Pollack etal., 2005).
Negative social behavior. Negative Social Behavior combines the Externalizing Problem Behaviors scale and the Internalizing Problem Behaviors
scale. The Externalizing Problem Behaviors scale has six items that assess
the students frequency in engaging in arguments, impulsivity, and physical
aggression. The Internalizing Problem Behaviors scale has four items that
assess the appearance of behaviors relating to anxiety, low self-esteem, and
sadness. Split-half reliability estimates were adequate (.89 for Externalizing
and .77 for Internalizing; Pollack etal., 2005).
Reading. The ECLS-K reading battery used for fifth grade was adapted from
the 1992 and 1994 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
10
Reading Frameworks, and the reading battery used for eighth grade was
adapted from the 1992-2007 NAEP Reading Frameworks. The NAEP framework emphasizes four reading comprehension skills: understanding a text,
interpreting a text, responding to a text, and critiquing a text. The eighthgrade reading battery covered the same concepts as the fifth-grade battery;
however, the questions were adjusted to be appropriate for older students. In
each battery, 10 initial items were used to route the child to a second-stage
form that consisted of three or four reading passages, with each passage
including three to nine associated questions. Items were scored on an Item
Response Theory (IRT) scale. The reliabilities of theta for the reading assessments were adequate (.93 in the sixth wave and .87 in the seventh wave).
Validity of the scores was supported by correlation of IRT theta scores
between rounds of data collection. The correlation between the sixth and seventh waves of data collection was.79 (Najarian etal., 2009).
Mathematics. The mathematics battery used in the ECLS-K was developed
from the 2005 NAEP Mathematics Framework for the eighth grade. The content of the mathematics battery included number sense and operations, measurement, geometry and spatial sense, statistics and probability, and algebra.
Items for each of these content areas were crafted to measure basic to
advanced mastery. The mathematics test began with a routing assessment of
10 items. The routing test was followed by one of two second-stage forms
consisting of 20 items on each form. Items were scored on an IRT-scale. The
reliability coefficients for the mathematics assessments were adequate (Wave
6 = .95 and Wave 7 = .92). Correlation between the direct cognitive measures
supported the validity of the scores with a coefficient of .73 for the relationship between reading and mathematics. In addition, validity was supported
by correlation between the direct and indirect assessments of mathematics
achievement with coefficients ranging from .49 to .57 (Najarian etal., 2009).
Science. The science battery used in the ECLS-K was developed from the
1996 NAEP Science Framework and the results from a NAEP 2000 survey on
middle school and high school science courses. The content of the science
battery covered the topics of earth science, physical science, and life science.
Similar to the mathematics assessment, the science test began with a routing
assessment of 10 items. The routing test was followed by one of two secondstage forms consisting of 20 items on each form. Items were scored on an
IRT-scale. The reliabilities for the science assessments were adequate (Wave
6 = .87 and Wave 7 = .84). The reliabilities for the science assessment are
lower than for mathematics and reading, and the authors attributed the lower
reliability scores to a greater diversity of content in the science assessment.
Hall and DiPerna
11
Validity was examined via correlations between the reading and science measures (r = .77) and between the direct and indirect assessments of science
achievement (r = .51; Najarian etal., 2009).
Procedures
Participants were assessed during the spring of their fifth- and eighth-grade
years. During the fifth-grade year, the direct child assessments were administered individually in a computer-based format. During the eighth-grade
year, the direct child assessments were administered to a group of students
in a pencil and paper format. However, the structure and content of the
computer-based assessment were not changed when converted to pencil
and paper format. Information provided by the teachers was collected
through a questionnaire. The information provided by parents was collected
via an interview. The teacher questionnaire was organized into three sections that gathered information on the childs social skills, the other children in the classroom, and the instructional practices in the classroom. The
direct child assessments and the student and teacher questionnaires were
conducted during the spring after obtaining parental consent. Further information on the data collection procedures can be found in the ECLS-K users
manual (Tourangeau etal., 2009).
Data Analysis
The ECLS-K was intended to be a longitudinal study that was nationally
representative. However, issues such as non-response, attrition, and immigration after first grade could create biases within the data. The ECLS-K recommends the use of sampling weights based on the child-level data. Consequently,
the sampling weights for the sixth and seventh waves of data were selected
because all analyses examined relationships between the sixth and seventh
waves. Sampling weights were employed in all analyses.
Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to evaluate the relationships between fifth-grade social skills and eighth-grade middle school
achievement. The decisions regarding variable entry were made based on the
studies of Wentzel (1993) and Caprara etal. (2000). Specifically, these two
studies used academic behaviors and peer relationships as covariates. Social
skills were entered into the equation last. In the present study, approaches to
learning was entered immediately following the demographic information
because it represented academic behaviors. Then, following the pattern set
out by Wentzel and Caprara, students ability to relate to peers was entered.
Positive and negative social behavior were entered last.
12
The specific regression equation used to predict each of the eighth-grade

outcomes was as follows:
= b0 + b1 ( PREV ) + b2 ( SES) + b3 ( RACE ) + b4 ( SEX )
+ b5 ( ATL ) + b6 ( TDQ ) + b7 ( PSB
B ) + b8 ( NSB ) + e,
where Y was the outcome variable that the equation was predicting; PREV
was the prior measure of the outcome variable; SES was family socioeconomic status; RACE was student race; SEX was student gender identity; ATL
was the teachers rating of the students academic behaviors; TDQ was the
teachers rating of how well students related with peers in the classroom; PSB
were the positive social behaviors exhibited at the end of fifth grade as
described by the teachers in the general education teacher questionnaire; and
NSB were the negative social behaviors exhibited at the end of fifth grade as
described by the teachers. An alpha level of .05 was used to test the statistical
significance of the predictors in the model.
Results
Assumptions
Data were examined to determine if they met assumptions of normality prior
to conducting the proposed analyses. Standardized residuals were plotted
against predicted values, and outcome and predictor variables were plotted to
test linearity and homoscedasticity. Examination of the plots indicated no
curves and data scattered evenly around zero. Thus, the assumption of linearity was met. A scatterplot of the residuals against each of the predictor variables demonstrates that the assumption of independence of error is met.
Histograms and p-p plots were used to test the normality of the residuals.
Examination of the obtained histograms revealed them to have a normal,
bell-curve shape, and the p-p plots show straight lines.
Guidelines for assessing multicollinearity provided by Bowerman and
OConnell (1990) and Myers (1990) indicate that when the largest variance
inflation factor (VIF) exceeds 10, or when the average VIF is substantially
greater than 1, there is cause for concern. Neither condition was met in the
current data. In addition, Menard (1995) suggested that tolerance values
below 0.1 indicate a serious problem, and tolerance values below 0.2 indicate
potential problems. All tolerance values examined were greater than 0.2.
Thus, based on these criteria, the data did not demonstrate multicollinearity.
The data met assumptions of normality and, as a result, were considered
appropriate for analysis and interpretation.
Hall and DiPerna
13
Predicting Achievement on Tests of Academic Skills

Bivariate correlations were calculated between the outcome and predictor
variables. The magnitude of the correlations ranged from .01 to .86. The
value for the correlation between the math achievement score from fifth
grade and the math achievement score from eighth grade was the highest at
.86. Table 2 presents the results of the bivariate correlations between the outcome and predictor variables. Table 3 presents results of the multiple regression analyses of fifth-grade positive and negative social behavior predicting
eighth-grade academic achievement as measured by standardized assessment
of reading, math, and science with and without the use of a prior measure as
a covariate.
Approaches to learning (i.e., attention regulation, persistence, working in
groups) in fifth grade was positively related with reading in eighth grade,
explaining 8.3% of the variance. Teacher-rated peer relationships, positive
social behavior, and negative social behavior were all negatively related with
reading achievement in eighth grade. However, the strength of these relationships was weak. SES was a positive predictor of eighth-grade reading
achievement indicating that children with higher SES scored higher in reading achievement in eighth grade. Ethnicity and gender were both predictors
of eighth-grade reading skills, but they each explained only 1% of the variance. When reading achievement was entered as the first predictor in the
regression equation, it accounted for the majority of the variance (Table 3).
SES explained a small portion of the variance beyond the prior reading measure. The relationships between the remaining predictor variables and eighthgrade reading achievement were significant, but the strength of each
relationship was so small as to be negligible (R2 < .01).
The results for mathematics and science demonstrated the same pattern of
the relationships as those between social behavior and reading. SES had the
strongest relationship with eighth-grade math and eighth-grade science
achievement, respectively. The next largest predictor in both equations was
approaches to learning. The relationship between fifth-grade approaches to
learning and eighth-grade math achievement was positive (R2 = .087), and
the relationship between fifth-grade approaches to learning and eighth grade
science achievement was also positive (R2 = .069). Prior math achievement
and prior science achievement explained the majority of the variance when
entered into the respective equations (Table 3).
Predicting Teacher-Rated Academic Skills

A second set of regression analyses were run with the same predictor variables applied to predict teacher ratings of academic skills (ARS scores)
14
1. Fifth-grade reading
2. Fifth-grade math
3. Fifth-grade science
4.Fifth-grade externalizing
problems
5.Fifth-grade internalizing
problems
6.Fifth-grade approach to
learning
7. Fifth-grade self-control
8.Fifth-grade interpersonal
skills
9. Fifth-grade literacy ARS
10. Fifth-grade math ARS
11. Fifth-grade science ARS
12. Eighth-grade reading
13. Eighth-grade math
14. Eighth-grade science
15. Eighth-grade oral ARS
16. Eighth-grade written ARS
17. Eighth-grade math ARS
18. Eighth-grade science ARS
Note. ARS = Academic Rating Scale.
1.
Characteristic
3.
.729 .759
1
.747
1
2.
.055
.038
.032
1
4.
.004
.007
.027
.526
5.
.106
.109
.095
.419
7.
.135
.128
.118
.357
8.
.301
.289
.251
.162
9.
1
1
.015
.016
.030
1
.023
.001
.044
.044
.044
.003
10.
.531 .292
1 .234
.655 .578 .359
.426 .399 .397 .141
.208
.202
.167
.484
6.
Table 2. Pearson Correlations Between All Tested Variables.
.063
.889
1
.028
.026
.034
.017
.052
.059
.054
.010
11.
.253
.034
.048
1
.099
.130
.200
.001
.729
.631
.658
.064
12.
.271
.034
.055
.678
1
.104
.117
.203
.001
.678
.815
.675
.053
13.
.251
.029
.057
.706
.754
1
.093
.112
.180
.013
.717
.728
.786
.046
14.
.204
.026
.044
.376
.349
.356
1
.078
.121
.147
.014
.401
.358
.357
.039
15.
.221
.035
.043
.423
.395
.388
.681
1
.101
.122
.186
.005
.450
.401
.382
.061
16.
18.
.223
.215
.000
.350
.419
.395
.355
.390
1
.091
.126
.179
.000
.169
.000
.101
.329
.309
.315
.298
.329
.000
1
.116
.124
.178
.024
.379
.328
.420
.312
.357
.312
.036 .034
17.
15
Note. Total sample (N = 9,225). SES = socioeconomic status.

All values significant at p < .001.
.074
.065
.006
.228
.019
.011
.083
.001
.001
.355
.146
.013
.306
.027
.050
.051
Prior measure
Background variables
SES
Ethnicity
Gender
Teacher-rated approaches to learning
Relates well to peers
Teacher-rated positive social behavior
Self-control
Interpersonal
Teacher-rated negative social behavior
Externalizing
Internalizing
R2
Predictor variable
.051
.021
.011
.010
.104
.051
.019
.075
.014
.679
.002
.011
.002
.002
.008
.000
.000
.622
R2
Eighth-grade reading
achievement without prior
with prior
.061
.072
.045
.062
.341
.117
.122
.326
.015
.006
.206
.013
.001
.087
.000
.001
R2
.035
.005
.013
.001
.071
.001
.020
.028
.003
.810
.001
.005
.000
.002
.003
.000
.001
.742
R2
Eighth-grade math
with prior
.095
.053
.038
.042
.337
.224
.166
.259
.015
.007
.230
.048
.006
.069
.000
.000
R2
.045
.023
.004
.011
.095
.048
.034
.081
.013
.713
.010
.001
.000
.009
.000
.000
.001
.664
R2
Eighth-grade science
with prior
Table 3. Standardized Regression Coefficients in Predicting Eighth Grade Standardized Test Scores (IRT Scale) With and Without
Prior Measure.
16
instead of performance on standardized tests of achievement. Table 4 presents results of the multiple regression analyses of fifth-grade positive and
negative social behavior predicting eighth-grade oral literacy, written literacy, math, and science ARS score, with and without the use of a prior measure as a covariate. The regression analyses were hierarchical, and the
variables were added step by step. As each variable was added, a change in
R2 was calculated.
Approaches to learning in fifth grade and oral literacy score in eighth
grade were positively related (R2 = .082). Teacher-rated peer relationships
had a negative and significant relationship with oral literacy score (R2 =
.026). Positive social behavior and negative social behavior were both predictors of oral literacy score in eighth grade, but the strength of these relationships was negligible. SES was a positive predictor of oral literacy score
indicating that children with higher SES were rated higher on the oral literacy
score in eighth grade. Ethnicity and gender were both significant predictors
of eighth-grade oral literacy score, but they each explained only 1% of the
variance. Prior reading score explained a large portion of the variance when
entered into the equation (Table 4).
Fifth-grade teachers rated students on reading skills, whereas eighthgrade teachers were asked to rate students on oral literacy and written language skills. As a result, fifth-grade reading ARS score was used as a prior
measure of both oral literacy ARS score and written literacy ARS score.
SES explained a small portion of the variance (R2 = .042). Teacher-rated
peer relationships and oral literacy score exhibited a negative predictive
relationship. The relationships between the remaining predictor variables
and eighth-grade oral literacy were significant, but the strength of each
relationship was negligible.
The relationships between predictor variables and eighth-grade written
language ratings follow a similar pattern to those found with oral literacy.
Approaches to learning in fifth grade and written literacy score in eighth
grade were positively related (R2 = .12). Teacher-rated peer relationships
had a negative relationship with written literacy score (R2 = .02). SES was
a positive predictor of eighth-grade written literacy score and accounted for
the largest proportion of variance. Ethnicity was a predictor of eighth-grade
written literacy score, but the strength of the relationship was negligible.
Gender was a predictor of eighth-grade written literacy score, indicating that
girls were rated higher than boys. When the fifth-grade reading ARS score
was entered into the equation first, however, it accounted for the greatest
proportion of the variance, and all other relationships were negligible.
The predictor variables demonstrated the same pattern of relationships
with math and science ARS scores. Approaches to learning in fifth grade
17
R2
R2
R2
.375 .332
.042
.106
.013
.123
.215
.070
.013
.446
.046
R2
.310 .235
.108
.151 .035
.003
.076 .004
.012
.041 .010
.122
.271 .037
.002 .057 .003
.007
.003
.002
.090
.009
.003
.012
.067
R2
Eighth-grade math ARS

score without prior
with prior
Note. Total sample (N = 9,225). ARS = Academic Rating Scale; SES = socioeconomic status.
All values significant at p < .001.
.152 .214 .047

.000 .033 .001
.046 .090 .015
.120 .176 .017
.020 .132 .016
.004
.002
.029
.055
.004
.001
.022
.032
R2
Eighth-grade writing
ARS score without
prior with prior
Prior measure
.373 .274
Background variables
SES
.273 .131 .199 .042 .289
Ethnicity
.039 .001 .040 .001 .033
Gender
.035 .016 .022 .002 .102
Approaches to learning
.309 .082 .102 .006 .386
Relates well to peers
.164 .026 .152 .021 .144
Positive social behavior
.005
.001
Self-control
.087
.031
.088
Interpersonal
.012
.012
.031
Negative social behavior
.006
.002
Externalizing
.035
.027
.015
Internalizing
.087
.048
.072
Predictor variable
Eighth-grade oral ARS

score without prior
with prior
.033
.002
.133
.099
.305
.085
.029
.289
.122
R2
.260 .211
.171 .237 .072

.006 .073 .003
.017 .050 .014
.090 .189 .035
.014 .129 .015
.005
.002
.072
.076
.000
.000
.001
.022
R2
8th grade science ARS

score without prior
with prior
Table 4. Standardized Regression Coefficients in Predicting Eighth Grade Teacher-Rated ARS Scores With and Without Prior
Measure.
18
were positively related with both math (R2 = .12) and science (R2 = .09)
scores in eighth grade. SES was a positive predictor for both eighth-grade
math and science scores. Teacher ratings of math and science proficiency in
fifth grade explained the largest proportion of the variance when entered into
each equation (Table 4). SES and approaches to learning, however, still demonstrate a positive relationship with both the eighth-grade math (SES R2 =
.035; approaches to learning R2 = .037) science scores (SES R2 = .072;
approaches to learning R2 = .035).
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between social
skills exhibited at the end of elementary school and students academic
adjustment to middle school. Contrary to predictions, the strength of the relationship between positive and negative social behavior in fifth grade and academic skills in eighth grade was negligible across all academic areas,
regardless of the method of measurement (direct assessment or teacher ratings). Consistent with previous research (DiPerna, Lei, & Reid, 2007), fifthgrade approaches to learning was a positive predictor of both academic
achievement and teacher-rated academic skills in eighth grade. However,
when a prior measure of academic achievement was used as a covariate, the
strength of the relationship between fifth-grade approaches to learning and
eighth-grade academic achievement was made negligible. When a prior measure of teacher-rated academic skill was used as a covariate, the strength of
the relationship between fifth-grade approaches to learning and eighth-grade
teacher-rated math and science skill was reduced, and no relationship was
found between fifth-grade approaches to learning and eighth-grade teacherrated oral language and writing skill. Finally, SES was found to be a positive
predictor across all subjects and measures over and above ethnicity and gender, but the relationship was negligible when a prior measure of achievement
was entered into the equation first.
Social behavior was hypothesized to predict academic adjustment over
and above SES, race, gender, academic behaviors, and quality of peer relations. The results of the current analyses did not support this hypothesis. The
magnitude of the relationship between positive and negative social behavior
and academic achievement was so small as to be negligible. In addition, the
relationship between approaches to learning and academic achievement and
teacher-rated academic skill was small. One possible explanation is that
approaches to learning and positive social behavior share an underlying
third construct, such as self-regulatory behavior. Both approaches to learning and positive social behavior contain elements of self-regulatory
Hall and DiPerna
19
behaviors, such as working independently or ignoring distractions, within a

broader construct. Thus, when approaches to learning is included as a predictor, the positive and negative social behavior variables do not explain
anything above and beyond approaches to learning. This potential explanation is further supported by the fact that when approaches to learning was
removed as a covariate, positive social behavior was found to be a positive
predictor, and negative social behavior was found to be a negative predictor,
of academic achievement in eighth grade. Furthermore, several studies (e.g.,
Fennis, 2011; Lopes, Salovey, Ct, Beers, & Petty, 2005; Lopes, Salovey,
& Straus, 2003) have examined the relationships between self-regulatory
behavior and prosocial behavior, and, although the labels assigned to these
behaviors were different from study to study, each found self-regulatory
behavior, similar to the behaviors described by the ECLS-K Approaches to
Learning scale, to be predictive of prosocial behaviors.
The finding that fifth-grade approaches to learning is a positive predictor
of later academic achievement and teacher-rated academic skills is consistent
with prior research concerning academic achievement and social behavior
(DiPerna etal., 2007). Also, consistent with this previous research was the
finding that the magnitude of the relationship was small. It should be noted
that the relationships were reduced and, in many instances, made negligible
when the fifth-grade measure of the outcome variable was used as a covariate. However, findings across studies (e.g., Caprara etal., 2000; DiPerna
etal., 2007; Wentzel, 1993) suggest that approaches to learning has a small
positive relationship with academic achievement. DiPerna etal. (2007) drew
a sample from the same data set as the one in this study (i.e., the ECLS-K)
and found approaches to learning to be a positive predictor of academic
achievement in the elementary grades. Specifically, DiPerna, Lei, and Reid
found approaches to learning at kindergarten entry to be a positive predictor
of growth in mathematics achievement through the end of third grade. The
similarity in instrumentation may have contributed to similarity in findings.
The findings regarding positive and negative social behavior are inconsistent with Wentzel (1993) and Caprara etal. (2000). Both the Wentzel and
Caprara etal. studies examined smaller data sets and used methods, such as
sociometrics, with greater alignment to the research questions regarding the
social behavior of the children in the study. Specifically, the study conducted
by Wentzel used peer nominations to rank students positive and negative
social behavior. Caprara etal. used a similar type of sociometric measure as
the Wentzel study. In addition, both studies used a composite of grades
assigned by teachers as the academic achievement variable. In contrast, the
ECLS-K provides standardized achievement measures and teacher ratings
of academic skills. Both the Caprara etal. and Wentzel studies used
20
a cognitive measure as a covariate, whereas the current study used prior

measures of achievement. Finally, the smaller sample in the Wentzel and
Caprara studies may have created the opportunity for the use of more comprehensive, time-intensive measures, which would allow for greater alignment between the research questions and the constructs being measured.
Conversely, the use of a smaller sample can lead to a reduction in external
validity due to a less representative sample. The Caprara etal. study, for
example, drew its sample from a single community near Rome, Italy, and the
sample from the Wentzel study was drawn from a single middle school from
a Midwestern community, whereas the ECLS-K sample was drawn from a
representative national sample.
The relationships between approaches to learning and teacher ratings of
academic skills were found to be stronger than the relationships between
approaches to learning and academic achievement scores. The difference
ranged from 2% to 4% of the variance explained, and this finding held true
regardless of whether or not a prior measure was entered into the equation.
The relationship between teacher ratings of oral language academic skills and
approaches to learning was the only relationship smaller than its academic
achievement counterpart (i.e., reading achievement scores), and the relationship was only slightly smaller regardless of the inclusion of a prior measure
in the equation.
The finding that fifth-grade approaches to learning has the most robust
relationship with teacher ratings of math and science skills in eighth grade is
consistent with previous studies (DiPerna etal., 2007). The magnitude of the
relationships was substantially reduced after a prior measure was introduced
to the equation. The relationships between teacher ratings of math and science skills and approaches to learning were the only relationships that were
maintained after a prior measure was included. DiPerna etal. (2007) examined relationships between social behavior and mathematics achievement
using the same data set and found similar results.
The relatively stronger relationship between approaches to learning and
the teacher ratings of academic skill may be explained by teachers inclusion
of additional factors in assigning academic skill ratings. There is evidence to
suggest that teachers consider other elements of a students work when
assigning grades, such as effort and participation (Hamre & Pianta, 2001).
Teachers may have included these aspects of classroom behavior when
assigning the ratings of academic skill. Thus, the teacher ratings of academic
skills involve elements that are missed in a strict assessment of academic
achievement.
Examination of the differences in relationships between student SES and
student minority status with academic achievement produced an additional
Hall and DiPerna
21
outcome worthy of note. After the prior measure, student SES was consistently the strongest predictor of academic achievement across all subjects and
teacher ratings. In contrast, student minority status demonstrated a weak or
no relationship with academic achievement and teacher ratings of academic
skill. The analyses were completed again while entering student minority status into the equation first, and student SES remained the strongest predictor
of academic achievement. This finding contradicts a number of studies (e.g.,
Posselt, Jaquette, Bielby, & Bastedo, 2012) suggesting that the differences in
academic achievement are a result of minority status. The findings from this
study, consistent with the work of Sirin (2005), suggest that student socioeconomic status is the strongest predictor of academic achievement, over and
above student minority status.
Limitations and Directions for Future Research

There are a number of limitations to this study. First, the study is nonexperimental and all relationships are correlational. Another such limitation
was that student grades were not collected. Evidence suggests that grades are
often assigned based on not only student academic achievement but also their
approach to learning and behavior in the classroom. Teachers frequently take
additional factors, such as perseverance and class participation, into account
when assigning grades (Hamre & Pianta, 2001). Subsequently, grades may
have provided a better understanding of how the student had adjusted to middle school because the grades would have also represented the effort spent in
the classroom or the behavior of the student. It should also be noted that
teachers may have taken additional factors, such as perseverance or participation, into account when assigning the ratings of academic skill. A second
limitation is that the teacher rating scales of social behavior were designed
for a very large study. As a result, these measures were intentionally brief and
may not have adequately sampled the breadth of the key constructs in this
study. In addition, as the developers of the ECLS-K acknowledged, it is difficult to assess all of the curricula being taught across schools that have
decentralized control of curricula (Rock & Pollack, 2002). Despite the robust
psychometric properties of the achievement measures developed for the
ECLS-K, those measures may not have included curricula specific to a region
or a school. As a result, students with growth in these areas would have gone
unmeasured.
The ECLS-K was, by design, a study that included many different measures from multiple respondents. As a result, many of the instruments used to
measure key variables, such as the behavioral constructs, had to strike a balance between brevity and depth of coverage. Furthermore, the measures used
22
to assess social behavior were selected by the authors of the ECLS-K and
were not necessarily selected to answer the research questions of the present
study. The social skill measures selected for the present study were the ones
that were most closely aligned with the hypothesized positive social behavior. In similar fashion, the measures used to assess academic achievement
have excellent psychometric properties for capturing academic achievement.
However, Rock and Pollack (2002), in an article describing the development
of the ECLS-K achievement measures, noted that determining the academic
skills typically taught in an education system with decentralized control
proved to be a challenge. The academic measures may have missed some of
the broader aspects of the curricula taught in the transition across middle
school.
Finally, the predictors and covariates for this study had to be selected from
those available within the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. In contrast,
the Wentzel (1993) and Caprara etal. (2000) studies both used measures specific to their purposes. As a result, the Wentzel and Caprara etal. studies both
had a strong alignment between the research questions and the constructs
being measured, but the psychometric properties of the instruments were not
as strong as those in the ECLS-K. In addition, the possibility of researching
possible mediators or other potential predictors of academic adjustment in
middle school is restricted by the variables available within the ECLS-K.
Several important directions for future research should be considered.
First, the analyses conducted in this study should be repeated with other data
sets to determine if the pattern of results is unique to the ECLS-K, or if different instrumentation or samples may yield different results. Second, possible mediators between early social behavior and later academic achievement
should be considered. Wentzel found academic behavior and teachers preferences for students to be potential mediators between social behavior and
grade point average (GPA). A structural equation model, such as the one used
by Caprara etal. (2000) may further illuminate the relationships between
social behavior, academic behavior, and later achievement. Finally, this study
focused specifically on academic adjustment to middle school, but other indicators of adjustment to middle school such as self-esteem, peer acceptance,
peer rejection, and well-being could be considered in future studies.
Conclusion
Results of the current study provide insights regarding the way behaviors in
elementary school relate to academic adjustment to middle school. Prior
research (e.g., Caprara etal., 2000; Wentzel, 1993) demonstrated a relationship between social skills in elementary school and academic achievement in
Hall and DiPerna
23
middle school. The results of this study indicate that fifth-grade approaches
to learning is a small positive predictor of both academic achievement and
teacher-rated academic skills in eighth grade. The inclusion of a prior measure of achievement as a covariate, however, yielded no relationship between
fifth-grade approaches to learning and eighth-grade academic achievement.
The inclusion of a prior measure of teacher-rated academic skills yielded
weak relationships between fifth-grade approaches to learning and eighthgrade teacher-rated academic skills in math and science and no relationship
with eighth-grade teacher-rated academic skills in oral language and writing.
However, considering these results in conjunction with similar studies (e.g.,
DiPerna etal., 2007; Wentzel, 1993), it is likely that approaches to learning
and later academic achievement have a small positive relationship. Behaviors
associated with approaches to learning, such as persistence and attention
regulation, have demonstrated a positive relationship with academic achievement (DiPerna etal., 2007; Schaefer & McDermott, 1999). Furthermore, the
finding of a small positive relationship between approaches to learning and
later academic achievement in a large nationally representative data set suggests that behaviors associated with approaches to learning influence academic success across settings. The results indicated no relationship between
social behavior in fifth grade and academic achievement in eighth grade.
Researchers interested in developing interventions for the adolescent period
may use the results of this study by focusing on the instruction of self-regulatory social skills associated with academic behaviors, such as diligence and
goal-oriented behavior, because these skills as measured by the approaches to
learning variable showed the strongest and most consistent relationship with
later academic achievement and may be used to better predict academic
achievement.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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Author Biographies
Gordon Emmett Hall is a doctoral candidate in the school psychology program at the
Pennsylvania State University. He is most interested in social and emotional development and school-based intervention and prevention programs that promote positive
academic outcomes. His adviser is Dr. James DiPerna.
James Clyde DiPerna is an associate professor in the Department of School
Psychology, Special Education, and Educational Psychology. His research interests
include academic and emotional competence, school-based prevention programs, and
the use of technology to facilitate learning.

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JEAXXX10.1177/0272431615624566Journal of Early AdolescenceHall and DiPerna

Childhood Social Skills

Journal of Early Adolescence

Gordon Emmett Hall1 and James Clyde DiPerna1

State University, University Park, USA

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Journal of Early Adolescence

Numerous educational policy statements (e.g., Adler, 1982; Boyer, 1983)

Adjustment to Middle School

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Middle School and Negative Adjustment

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Journal of Early Adolescence

Adjustment During Early Adolescence

Contribution of Late Elementary Social and

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Hall and DiPerna

Similarly, Wentzel (1993) reported that the ability to engage in certain

Rationale and Hypotheses

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Hall and DiPerna

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Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Participants (N = 9,225).

Note. Characteristics of the Wave 1 sample. SES = socioeconomic status.

Three subject-matter questionnaires were developed for the areas of

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Hall and DiPerna

Questions regarding the childs academic skills were based on the

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Hall and DiPerna

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The specific regression equation used to predict each of the eighth-grade

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Predicting Achievement on Tests of Academic Skills

Predicting Teacher-Rated Academic Skills

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Note. ARS = Academic Rating Scale.

.655 .578 .359

.426 .399 .397 .141

Table 2. Pearson Correlations Between All Tested Variables.

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Note. Total sample (N = 9,225). SES = socioeconomic status.

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Eighth-grade math ARS

.152 .214 .047

Eighth-grade oral ARS

.171 .237 .072

8th grade science ARS

Journal of Early Adolescence

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Hall and DiPerna

behaviors, such as working independently or ignoring distractions, within a