Joumal ofMusic 7herapy, XL (1),2003,57-73

0 2003 by the Arnencan Music Therapy Association

Assessment of Factors Associated with

Exercise Enjoyment
Steven R. Wininger, PhD
Western Kentucky University
David Pargman, PhD
The Florida State University
Participating in regular physical activity results in many positive physical and psychological effects. Even though this is
widely known, the majority of Americans do not engage in
regular physical activity and many persons who start an exercise program drop out shortly thereafter. A question of
central importance is "What motivates aperson to adhere to
an exercise program?" A collection of quantitative and qualitative studies has shown enjoyment of exercise to be an important factor in determining adherence to exercise. Despite
these findings, very little research has been conducted on
factors contributing to exercise enjoyment. The purpose of
this study was to examine variables believed to make such a
contribution. Variables were selected based upon results of
past research and theory. These were: satisfaction with the
music used in the exercise environment, satisfaction with the
exercise instructor, and salience of exercise role-identity
(EIS). Subjects for this study were 282 female volunteers
from not-for-credit aerobic dance classes at 2 university activity centers. Results revealed significant positive correlations between all 3 variables and exercise enjoyment, ranging from .34 to .45. Stepwise regression indicated that
satisfaction with music (21%) accounted for the most variance in exercise enjoyment followed by satisfaction with the
instructor (8%), and finally salience of exercise role identity
Follow-up analyses to examine specific components of
(4%1o).
satisfaction with music and the exercise instructor were also
conducted.
Regular physical activity should be an important part of every
person's life. Although many are aware of this, for any number of
reasons participation in regular exercise occurs, at least in North

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Joumal of Music Therapy

American society at woefully low levels. Some individuals embark

upon an exercise program but have difficulty in adhering. Dishman (1982) notes that 50% of persons who start an exercise program will drop out within 6 months. Why? What factors affect one's
adherence? Apparently one factor is a person's enjoyment of exercise. Quantitative studies indicate that enjoyment is an important
predictor of exercise adherence (Emmons & Diener, 1986; Wankel,
1985) and qualitative research has established enjoyment as one of
the most important reasons reported for adhering to exercise programs (Andrew et al., 1981; Boothby, Tungatt, & Townsend, 1981;
Perrin, 1979; Shephard, 1986). Adherence is what allows a person
to attain the physical benefits of exercise, because only with continued engagement are the physical benefits of exercise attained.
Wankel (1993) notes that enjoyment also contributes to the psychological benefits that accrue from physical activity by reducing
stress and facilitating positive psychological health.
It has been over 2 decades since Perrin (1979) reported the results of a survey on physical activity in the Regional Municipality of
Waterloo, Canada. The results from this survey were based on interviews with 769 randomly selected residents. Sixty-one percent of
those interviewed engaged in physical activity at least once a week
and 41 % at least three times a week. When participants were asked
to identify the most important factor for engaging in physical activity, 92% reported enjoyment. Yet, over 2 decades later only a handful of studies have been conducted that purport to examine the relationship between enjoyment and exercise behavior. Moreover,
even fewer studies have been conducted to examine the factors associated with enjoyment of physical activity.
Most of the research examining enjoyment of physical activity is
to date descriptive or qualitative (interviews). Few have attempted
to examine enjoyment vis-ak-vis other constructs and those that
have, have apparent weaknesses in their assessment of the enjoyment concepL Conspicuously absent from some of these reported
studies is the employment of valid and reliable assessment instruments for measuring enjoyment such as the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES, Kendzierski & DeCarlo, 1991). Thus, research
designed to establish links between enjoyment and other constructs, employing an instrument such as the PACES, is needed.
The purpose of this study was to examine variables believed to
contribute to exercise enjoyment using a psychometrically sound

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59

measure of enjbyment. Variables were selected based upon past research and theory. The variables were: satisfaction with the music
used in the exercise environment, satisfaction with the exercise instructor, and salience of exercise role-identity (EIS). The following
three-part discussion of related literature is intended to provide
support for the inclusion of the aforementioned variables.
Music

What characteristics of music used in exercise classes do participants deem most important? The purpose of the first section is to
address results from studies that have examined specific components of music alleged to affect level of enjoyment during exercise.
This is done with an eye toward the construction of a questionnaire
to measure satisfaction with music in an exercise environment.
Wales (1986) found that upbeat music significantly decreased
feelings of anger, fatigue, and depression when compared to slower
music. Lee (1989) examined the effect of musical tempo on affect
during submaximal treadmill running. He found that exercising to
upbeat music led to significantly higher positive mood states and
significantly lower negative mrood states when compared to slower
music. Karageorghis and Terry (1997) concluded that there was
strong evidence that music enhances affective state during exercise.
Steptoe and Cox (1988) examined changes in mood for subjects
exercising to music in comparison to a metronome. They reported
that there was a tendency for subjects to express greater exhilaration while exercising to music. Subjects who exercised to music also
reported lower levels of perceived exertion. They concluded that
background music as opposed to just a rhythmic noise should be
used to enhance mood while exercising.
The interaction between music played in the exercise environment and exercisers' fitness levels has also been studied. Brownley,
McMurray, and Hackney (1995) conducted a study to determine
whether the effects of music differed for trained (6 months or
more) versus untrained (no regular exercise routine) runners.
They found that exercising while listening to upbeat music-as opposed to slow music or no music-resulted in more positive affect
for untrained subjects but not for trained subjects.
Gfeller (1988) conducted a survey in aerobic dance classes to examine participants' attitudes toward music. She asked 70 participants to identify musical characteristics that influenced their be-

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Joumal of Music Therapy

havior most while participating in aerobic dance. She also asked

participants if music influenced their motivation toward exercising.
The results revealed that six characteristics of music were identified
by 50% or more of the participants. The characteristics and percentage of respondents reporting each characteristic were: Style
(97%), Tempo (96%), Rhythm (94%), Extramusical Association
(93%), Lyrics (77%), Volume/intensity (66%). With regard to the
second question addressed by this survey, 91% of the participants
reported that the music helped to increase their motivation to exercise and also distracted them from the discomfort that may be
produced by the physical work in which they were engaged.
The effect of music, in comparison to sensory deprivation, upon
affect and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) was examined by
Boutcher and Trenske (1990). Twenty-four female undergraduate
students served as subjects. Each subject exercised under each condition at low, moderate, and heavy work loads, that is, 60, 75, and
85% of maximum heart rate. As predicted, subjects did have a
higher RPE and lower levels of positive affect during the sensory
deprivation condition and higher levels of positive affect in the music condition. Examination of post-hoc comparisons revealed that
differences between the experimental conditions were strong at
moderate and heavy workloads but not at light workloads.
Although the mechanisms underlying load dependence for the
effect of music on affect remain unclear, Boutcher and Trenske offer two explanations. First, music may act as a distractor preventing
subjects from focusing on physical discomfort. Second, music may
generate positive emotional states due to its content or its association with past experiences. Boutcher and Trenske suggest that if future research supports the findings from this study-that music
helps people enjoy aerobic exercise more-then the use of music
in exercise classes should be advocated as a means of increasing exercise adherence.
It is important to note in the Boutcher and Trenske study that
subjects chose the music to be played. Thus, each subject was exposed to preferred music, that is, preferred tempo, type, and volume. This condition differs from most other studies where music is
assigned rather than chosen.
And lastly, in a validation study of the PACES, Kendzierski and
DeCarlo (1991) established a causal relationship between listening
to preferred music and the degree of enjoyment experienced while

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61

exercising. In brief, they found that subjects experienced significantly higher levels of enjoyment while exercising to preferred music as opposed to exercising in silence.
ExerciseInstructor
What characteristics of their exercise instructors do exercise participants deem most important? A number of published studies address this question and their findings by and large form the basis of
what fitness experts are advising participants to look for when
choosing a fitness instructor.
Westcott (1991) conducted a study where fitness participants at
Young Men's Christian Associations (YMCA) and health clubs
throughout the New England States were asked to rank-order seven
instructor characteristics in order of importance. Analyses were
based upon 698 properly completed questionnaires. Results'of
Westcott's survey indicate that an instructor's knowledge of physical fitness was the most important factor. The instructor's teaching
skills were considered to be the second most important factor, followed by the instructor's enthusiasm and how much personal attention he or she gave to participants. There was a substantial gap
in terms of importance between the first four factors and the latter
three.
Another relevant study reported results of a survey given at a fitness center in Atlanta, similar to the survey used by Westcott (Lawson, 1994). Fitness center members were asked to rate instructor
characteristics as 1, most important, to 7, least important. The
three most important factors from Lawson's survey were the same
as the top three factors in Westcott's survey. Participants rated the
instructor's knowledge of physical fitness, teaching skills, and enI
thusiasm as most important.
Hasko (1984) examined the relationships between six different
descriptors of aerobic dance instructors and student re-enrollment
percentages. She surveyed 30 classes and obtained a sample of 346
students who had reenrolled in their classes. The descriptors of
aerobic dance instructors that she examined were: presentation
skills, interest in and concern for students, enthusiasm, sense of humor, class management, and appearance. Each instructor received
a mean score for each descriptor. Next, the correlations between
reenrollment percentages for each instructor along with the mean
scores for the descriptors of each instructor were examined. Hasko

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Joumal of Music Therapy

found only one significant correlate for reenrollment rate, namely,

perceptions of the aerobic instructor's appearance. More favorable
perceptions of the instructor's appearance were related to higher
reenrollment rates.
Another study with results pointing towards the influence of the
instructor attributes upon perceived exercise enjoyment was conducted by Patton (1991). Patton examined the effect of music preference on affective state, heart rate, and perceived exertion rate.
Results revealed that there were no differences in subjects' affective
states, heart rates, nor perceived exertion rates when comparing
exercise sessions with preferred music and without preferred music. After finding no effect of musical preference, Patton conducted postexperimental interviews with the subjects. Subjects reported that the instructor's enthusiasm and support were more
important in determining their level of exercise enjoyment as
compared to music preferences. Feedback from the postexperimental interviews suggested that future research investigating determinants of exercise enjoyment should examine the effect of the
instructor's enthusiasm and supportiveness.
Tammen, Welsh, and Williams (1996) conducted a study designed to examine the relationships betveen instructor characteristics and class participant satisfaction. They surveyed participants
from five fitness centers (N= 90). Participants rated their instructors on the following characteristics: voice clarity, enthusiasm, appearance, professionalism, interaction, instruction, and technique.
A stepwise regression was conducted with "satisfaction with instructor" as the dependent variable. Only two of the characteristics met
the inclusion criteria and were subsequently included in the regression equation, professionalism and instructor interaction. The
authors explained the results by arguing that aerobics is a business
and that participants expect a professional.
Wininger (2002) examined the relationships between perceptions of the exercise instructor and participant enjoyment. Female
volunteers participating in not-for-credit aerobic classes at a university activity center served as subjects (N= 296). A collection of
four items designed to measure participants' perceptions of the exercise instructor were created. The Physical Activity Enjoyment
Scale (Kendzierski and DeCarlo, 1991) was used to assess participant enjoyment. Stepwise regression was employed to analyze the
results, with enjoyment as the dependent variable. Two of the four

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63

items designed to measure perceptions of the instructor entered

into the regression equation: instructor's personal knowledge of
fitness and ability to communicate instruction. It is important to
note that these factors were ranked as most important by participants in studies by Westcott (1991) and Lawson (1994).
Based on the literature reviewed, research on perceptions of exercise leaders should employ the following instructor characteristics: instructor's knowledge of physical fitness (Lawson, 1994; Westcott, 1991; Wininger, 2002), instructor's teaching skills or clarity of
instruction (Lawson, 1994; Westcott, 1991; Wininger, 2002), instructor's enthusiasm (Lawson, 1994; Patton, 1991; Westcott, 1991),
the instructor's apparent interest in participants (Tammen et al.,
1996; Westcott, 1991), the instructor's apparent supportiveness
(Patton, 1991), and the instructor's appearanice or fitness level
(Hasko, 1984; Tammen et al., 1996).
RoleIdentity
Baron and Byrne (1991) use the terms self-identity and selfconcept interchangeably, noting that an individual's self-concept
strongly influences his processing of social information, motivation, and affective states. Callero (1985) states that an individual's
self-concept is composed of numerous role-identities. Thus, a specific role-identity would be defined as one dimension of an individual's self-concept. These role-identities are formed based on an
individual's behavior and the individual's perceived feedback from
society about the behavior-not necessarily in that order.
The salience of an individual's role-identity carries with it several
consequences. The higher the salience for a given role-identity the
more likely the individual is to define herself by this role-identity.
Thus, if someone has a high salience for the role-identity of being
an exerciser then she would be expected to frequently describe
herself to others as an exerciser. Callero (1985) proclaims that the
most visible consequence of role-identity salience is one's behavior,
that is, what does it mean to be an exerciser? The answer is that you
engage in exercise. As a result the more salient the role identity the
more frequently the individual will engage in behaviors that validate it. According to Callero, the variance for the salience of a particular role-identity is directly related to the variance in typical behaviors associated with that particular role identity. Salience of
role-identity also affects how one is recognized by others. In other

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Joumal of Music Therapy

words, an individual will be better known for his most salient role
identities. This ties in with the other properties related to salience.
The higher the role-identity salience the more often the individual
will (a) engage in typical role behaviors, (b) associate with others
who share the same role-identity, (c) evaluate one's self-worth
based on one's engagement in typical role behaviors, and (d) define oneself using that particular role identity.
Curry and Weaner (1987) examined sport identity salience and
its relationship to commitment, enjoyment, and time spent in role
behavior. Subjects consisted of 220 male students taken from the
following groups: varsity athletic teams, physical education and
sport sociology classes, introduction and advanced sociology
classes, and an honors dormitory.
Enjoyment was assessed by asking subjects how much they enjoyed participating in sports, from very unenjoyable (1) to very enjoyable (5). The authors reported a number of significant correlations between the salience of sport identity and the other variables
(commitment to activity, enjoyment of activity, and time spent engaging in activity). All of the correlations were positive. Thus, as
salience of the sport identity increases the more participants enjoy
the sport, and the more time they spend engaging in it.
One other study also supports the relationship between role
identity and enjoyment of an activity. Yukelson, Weinberg, and
Jackson (1984) developed a group cohesion instrument using a
sample of 196 male and female collegiate basketball players. Using
factor analysis they ultimately constructed a 22 item instrument
(out of 41 items originally identified) with four factors. The second
factor supports a link between role-identity and enjoyment of an
activity. The first item of this factor was "feelings of enjoyment"; the
latter three items were: intentions to continue group membership,
pride in group membership, value placed upon group membership. Since these items loaded onto the same factor the implications are that they are highly related to each other. Thus, the results of this study provide additional evidence supporting the
existence of a relationship betwveen enjoyment of a behavior and
salience of the role identity of that behavior.
The salience of role-identities also contributes to level of selfesteem (Callero, 1985;James, 1890). Thus, if someone defines himself as an exerciser, then engaging in exercise would validate his
role-identity and in turn make him feel good about himself. Feel-

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VoL XL, No. 1, Spring 2003

ing good about oneself could perceivably lead to positive affect or

enjoyment of the exercise. One could logically conclude that a person with a higher salience for the exercise role-identity would experience a greater degree of self-satisfaction from validating it as
compared to someone with a lower salience. Likewise, a person
with a higher salience for the exercise role-identity would experience a higher degree of angst from persistently failing to engage in
exercise as compared to someone with a lower salience for the exercise role-identity. Acceptance of the previous theoretical rationale would lead to additional support for the inclusion of exercise
role-identity as a predictor of enjoyment.
Hypotheses

The case for including the three independent variables in this

study, satisfaction with music, satisfaction with exercise instructor,
and role-identity, rests upon their linkage to enjoyment of exercise.
It was anticipated that there would be significant positive correlations between each of these variables and enjoyment. Additionally
it was hypothesized that music would account for the most variahce
in enjoyment, followed by satisfaction with the instructor, and
salience of exercise role identity. This prediction is predicated
upon findings reported in the literature.
Method
Participants

Participants in this study were female student volunteers (N=

282) participating in aerobic dance classes at two large southern
state universities. Males were not included because of the extremely low number of male participants in the classes. The average age of the 282 female volunteers was 21.06 (SD = 4.18) years.
Facilities

The aerobic dance classes were held in large mirrored rooms in

the activity center on the university campuses. The room capacities
were for approximately 60 to 75 participants. Most of the classes
surveyed in this study were at or near capacity. Every class was
taught by a certified aerobics instructor and all instructors were female. Each class was offered approximately two times each week.
Aerobic classes usually consist of a warm-up (5-7 minutes), fol-

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Joumal of Music Therapy

lowed by a prolonged aerobic workout (30-40 minutes), and ending with a cool down (5-7 minutes). Typical movements include
stepping, lunging,jumping, turning, sliding, and moving the arms.
Some classes incorporated a plastic step and a stepping activity designed to increase the intensity of the workout. Music accompanied
the workout and each instructor chose her own music. Instructors
also controlled the music's volume. All of the music was contemporary music (primarily pop), as opposed to classical, opera, or
other styles.
Procedure
Ten to 15 minutes prior to the beginning of each aerobics class
the director or assistant director of aerobics for each university activity center informed subjects that she would appreciate it if they
would complete a survey. Subjects were informed that completion
of the survey was voluntary and that they would remain anonymous. Class members were asked to abstain from taking the survey
if they had already taken it in another class or if they had not participated in the class prior to the day of testing with the specific instructor. Volunteers were given a copy of the survey and a pencil.
Completed surveys were placed in a box.
Measures
The physical activity enjoyment scale (PACES) (Kendzierski &
DeCarlo, 1991) was employed to measure each participant's enjoyment of aerobic dance. Developmental data on the PACES reported by Kendzierski and DeCarlo have shown that the instrument possesses content, predictive, and concurrent validity.
Content validity was established via an evaluation of the items by
three experts in the field of exercise adherence. Developmental research demonstrated the PACES's ability to predict the activity in
which participants will engage. Subjects chose the activities for
which their scores on the PACES were highest, demonstrating its
predictive validity. There is also evidence of concurrent validity for
the PACES. Scores on the PACES were shown to be significantly related to a measure of boredom (a negative relationship). In addition, it has been showvn that scores on the PACES are not related to
scores on a scale designed to measure social desirability, providing
evidence for discriminant validity. In terms of reliability of the measure in the present study, a coefficient alpha estimate of 0.92 was
reported.

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67

The PACES was used to measure participants' retrospective or

cumulative perceptions of how much they enjoyed engaging in the
aerobics class over a duration of several weeks. Kendzierski, Furr,
and Schiavoni (1998) recently used the PACES for similar purposes. Like Kendzierski et al. (1998), we modified the instructions
of the PACES in order to ascertain participants' usual or general
perceptions of enjoyment for the activity of interest.
In the absence of a standardized instrument designed specifically to permit identification of musical preference (none available in the literature) a series of questions about musical preference were created by the authors. It incorporated the following
music characteristics: type or style (Gfeller, 1988; Linda & Rekha,
1991), tempo or beat (Brownley et al., 1995; Gfeller, 1988; Lee, as
cited in Karageorghis & Terry, 1997; and Wales, as cited in Karageorghis & Terry, 1997), and volume or intensity (Gfeller, 1988).
In addition the appropriateness of including these components
was addressed by reviewing a popularly used catalogue of aerobic
dance music (Power Music, 2002). In the catalogue, music is subdivided by type and, by tempo (beats per minute). Thus, perceptions about the music used in the aerobic classes were assessed via'
four items designed to evaluate style or type, tempo, beat or
rhythm, and intensity or volume. Perceptions of these characteristics were assessed via Likert-type items ranging from 1 to 7 (i.e.,
1-Strongly Disagree to 7-Strongly Agree). The range of possible
scores, therefore, was from 4 to 28. The content of these items
were presented to two Psychology of Music experts who verified
their validity for the purposes of this study. In terms of reliability
of the measure in the present study, a coefficient alpha estimate of
0.90 was reported.
As was the case with musical preference, no standardized instrument was available that permits assessment of satisfaction with the
instructor. Therefore-this factor was assessed via six items constructed to evaluate the following instructor characteristics: enthusiasm, ability to communicate instruction, appearance, exercise
knowledge, interest in participants, and degree of positive reinforcement given. The exercisers' perceptions of these characteristics were assessed via Likert-type items ranging from I to 7 (i.e., 1very poor to 7-excellent). Thus, the range of possible scores was
from 6 to 42. In terms of reliability of the measure in the present
study, a coefficient alpha estimate of 0.90 was reported.
The Exercise Identity Scale (EIS) developed by Anderson and

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68

TABLE I

PossibleRanges and DescriptiveStatistics

Variable

Possible mnge

At

sD

Enjoyment
Music
Instructor
Identity

18-136
4-28
6-42
9-63

109.86
23.99
38.40
48.44

14.29
4.07
4.23
10.38

*Cychosz (1994) was used to measure the salience of exercise roleidentity. The EIS consists of nine items with Likert-type responses
ranging from 1-strongly disagree to 7-strongly agree, thus the
range of scores is from 9 to 63. The items were developed based on
previous studies'examining the relationships between role identity
and blood donation behavior (Callero, 1985), college dropout
(Biddle, Bank, & Slavings, 1987), religious involvement (Stryker &
Serpe, 1982), and sport involvement (Curry & Weaner, 1987).
The EIS has been shown to possess adequate reliability. Anderson and Cychosz (1994) reported a coefficient alpha of .94 and a
test-retest reliability of .93 over a period of 1 week. In the present
study a coefficient alpha estimate of .92 was reported. In terms of
validity, Anderson and Cychosz (1994) reported a correlation of .68
between scores on the EIS and the number of weeks persons reported having engaged in exercise. Anderson; Cychosz, and Frank
(1998) reported significant positive relationships between scores
on the EIS and number of weeks participants reported exercising,
frequency of exercise per week, as well as reported intensity while
exercising. Examination of the previous studies would lead one to
conclude that the EIS appears to be a valid instrument as it definitely supports part of its theoretical definition in terms of the relationship between salience of the exercise role identity and exercise behavior.
In order to protect against any order effect two versions of the survey (i.e., collection of measures) were used: Cover sheet, EIS, Music,
Instructor, and PACES; and Cover sheet, PACES, Music, Instructor,
and EIS. Of primary concern was alternating the criterion variable
of enjoyment from first to last in order to counter any order effect.
Results
The possible range of scores for each variable as well as means
and standard deviations are reported in Table 1. Correlations

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VoL XL, No. 1, Spring 2003

TABLE 2

CorrelationsAmong Vaniables
Variable

Enjoyment

blusic

Instructor

Identiy

Music
Instructor
Identity

.45
.44
.34

1.00
.39
.23

1.00
.18

1.00

Note. All correlations were significant at p < .01.

among the variables are reported in Table 2. Participants' satisfaction with the music was most strongly correlated with enjoyment
followed by satisfaction with the instructor, and finally EIS. All of
the correlations were positive and significant at p < .01. Stepwise regression analysis revealed that satisfaction with the music was the
best predictor of exercise enjoyment accounting for 21% of the
variance. The addition of satisfaction with the instructor accounted
for another 8% of the variance and in the third step EIS accounted
for an additional 4%. The total model accounted for 33% of the
variance for exercise enjoyment. Raw and standardized regression
coefficients are reported in Table 3.
Because satisfaction with music and the exercise instructor consisted of characteristics of each, follow-up stepwise regression analyses were conducted in order to examine the relative importance of
each item in explaining exercise enjoyment. The analyses for music revealed that tempo/beat was the most important factor, accounting for 17% of the variance in enjoyment. Intensity or volume'
added an additional 3%. The analyses for instructor indicated that
the amount of positive reinforcement/encouragement given accounted for 19% of the variability in exercise enjoyment and that
the instructor's level of enthusiasm added an additional 2%.
Discussion
It was hypothesized that there would be significant positive correlations between the three independent variables and enjoyment
3
Regressions StatisticsforFinalPredictionModel ofExerciseEnjoyment
TABLE

Variable

Beta

RI Change

Cumulative R2

Music
Instructor
Identity

1.02
.96
.30

.29
.29
.22

.21
.08
.04

.21
.29
.33

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Joumal of Music Therapy

This hypothesis was suipported as the correlations were all positive

and significant ranging from .34 to .45. Additionally it was hypothesized that music would account for the most variance in enjoyment, followed by satisfaction with the instructor, and salience of
exercise role identity. This order was predicated upon results reported in the literature and was supported by a regression model.
This hypothesis was also supported with all three variables entering
into the regression model. Satisfaction with music accounted for
21 % of the variance for exercise enjoyment on the first step. Satisfaction with the instructor accounted for an additional 8% on the
second step and EIS added another 4% on the third step.
Further regression analyses allowed for the identification of the
most important characteristics of the music and instructor. The
most important characteristics of the music were tempo/beat and
intensity/volume. This finding is congruent with past research as
tempo or beat of exercise music was indicated as highly important
to participants in the survey by Gfeller (1988) and tempo has been
linked to improvement of affect in numerous studies (Brownley et
al., 1995; Lee, as cited in Karageorghis & Terry, 1997; and Wales, as
cited in Karageorghis & Terry, 1997). It is also interesting to note
that perusal of a catalogue of aerobic dance music (Power Music,
2002) reveals that exercise music is subdivided by tempo (beats per
minute). Intensity or volume was also deemed as an important
characteristic in the survey by Gfeller (1988) but has not been
linked to affect prior to this study.
The most important characteristics of the instructor were
amount of positive reinforcement/encouragement and enthusiasm. This is consistent with past research supporting the importance of encouragement and supportive comments by instructors
(Patton, 1991). Enthusiasm was cited repeatedly as an important instructor characteristic cited by participants from the literature reviewed (Lawson, 1994; Patton, 1991; Westcott, 1991).
There is a paucity of past research on exercise role-identity and
enjoyment. Most of the literature reviewed for role-identity was for
sport role identity and enjoyment (Curry & Weaner, 1987; Yukelson et al., 1984). The results of this study were consistent with past
research on sport role-identity and role-identity theory. The correlation between EIS and enjoyment was .34, suggesting that persons
with a higher salience for the exercise role-identity experience
higher levels of exercise enjoyment.

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71

It is important to note that generalizations from this study are limited to college age females participating in not-for-credit aerobic
dance who volunteered to take the survey. Results may differ with
different populations and for different types of physical activity.
The focus of this study was enjoyment of exercise, which is important for a variety of reasons. First, research has shown that if a
person enjoys the activity she is participating in she will be more
likely to reengage in that activity, that is, adhere to a regular program. Adherence to an exercise program allows one to attain physiological benefits. Second, enjoyment of an activity is inherently
valuable. Feelings of enjoyment may replace feelings of depression
or anxiety that some persons may be experiencing, thus, there are
potential psychological benefits.
The results of this study suggest that exercise instructors should
focus first on the music used during exercise, specifically the
tempo/beat of the music. The exercise instructor could ask participants for feedback about their satisfaction with the -music used. Results of this study also suggest that the second most important factor
in determining one's exercise enjoyment would be the characteristics of the exercise instructor, specifically the use of positive reinforcement/encouragemenLt Thus, instructors should make a conscious effort to encourage participants in their classes and to praise
them for their efforts.
Future studies should be conducted with more heterogeneous
populations (i.e., different age groups, different facilities, males).
This would permit application of the model tested in this study to
be generalized to other populations and settings. Future studies
should also be conducted with different types of physical activity
and with individual participants (e.g., one on one with a personal
trainer) as opposed to exercise classes.
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Anderson, D., Cychosz, C., &Frank, W. (1998). Association of exercise identity wvith
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Andrewv, G., Oldridge, N., Parker, J., Cunningham, D., Rechnitzer, P., Jones, N.,
Buck, C., Kavanaugh, T., Shephard, R., &McDonald, W. (1981). Reasons for
dropout from exercise programs in post-coronary patients. Medicine and Science
in Sports and Exercise, 13, 164-168.

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Baron, R, &Byrne, D. (1991). Socialpsychology: Understandinghuman interaction (6th

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