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Taxonomy(biology)
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Taxonomy(fromAncientGreek:taxis,"arrangement",andnomia,"method"[1])isthescienceof
defininggroupsofbiologicalorganismsonthebasisofsharedcharacteristicsandgivingnamestothosegroups.
Organismsaregroupedtogetherintotaxa(singular:taxon)andthesegroupsaregivenataxonomicrankgroupsof
agivenrankcanbeaggregatedtoformasupergroupofhigherrank,thuscreatingataxonomichierarchy.[2][3]The
SwedishbotanistCarlLinnaeusisregardedasthefatheroftaxonomy,ashedevelopedasystemknownas
Linnaeanclassificationforcategorizationoforganismsandbinomialnomenclaturefornamingorganisms.
Withtheadventofsuchfieldsofstudyasphylogenetics,cladistics,andsystematics,theLinnaeansystemhas
progressedtoasystemofmodernbiologicalclassificationbasedontheevolutionaryrelationshipsbetween
organisms,bothlivingandextinct.Anexampleofamodernclassificationistheonepublishedin2009bythe
AngiospermPhylogenyGroupforalllivingfloweringplantfamilies(theAPGIIIsystem).[4]

Contents
1
2
3
4

Definition
Alphataxonomyandbetataxonomy
Microtaxonomyandmacrotaxonomy
History
4.1 PreLinnaean
4.1.1 Earlytaxonomists
4.1.2 SrimadbhagavataPurana
4.1.3 AristotletoPlinytheElder
4.1.4 Medieval
4.1.5 OtherpreLinnaeantaxonomists
4.2 TheLinnaeanera
5 Modernsystemofclassification
5.1 Kingdomsanddomains
6 Application
6.1 Classifyingorganisms
6.2 Taxonomicdescriptions
6.3 Authorities(authorcitation)
7 Phenetics
8 Databases
9 Seealso
10 Notes
11 References
12 Bibliography
13 Externallinks

Definition
Theexactdefinitionoftaxonomyvariesfromsourcetosource,butthecoreofthedisciplineremains:the
conception,naming,andclassificationofgroupsoforganisms.Twoothertermsarerelatedtotaxonomy,namely
"systematics"and"classification"theirexactrelationshiptotaxonomyalsovariesfromsourcetosourcebecause
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theusageofthethreetermsinbiologyoriginatedindependently.[5]Aspointsofreference,recentdefinitionsof
taxonomyarepresentedbelow:
1.Theoryandpracticeofgroupingindividualsintospecies,arrangingspeciesintolargergroups,andgiving
thosegroupsnames,thusproducingaclassification[2]
2.Afieldofscience(andmajorcomponentofsystematics)thatencompassesdescription,identification,
nomenclature,andclassification[3]
3.Thescienceofclassification,inbiologythearrangementoforganismsintoaclassification[6]
4."Thescienceofclassificationasappliedtolivingorganisms,includingstudyofmeansofformationof
species,etc."[7]
5."Theanalysisofanorganism'scharacteristicsforthepurposeofclassification"[8]
6."[Systematics]studiesphylogenytoprovideapatternthatcanbetranslatedintotheclassificationandnames
ofthemoreinclusivefieldoftaxonomy"(listedasadesirablebutunusualdefinition)[9]
Thevarieddefinitionseitherplacetaxonomyasasubareaofsystematics(definition2),invertthatrelationship
(definition6),orappeartoconsiderthetwotermssynonymous.Thereissomedisagreementastowhether
biologicalnomenclatureisconsideredapartoftaxonomy(definitions1and2),orapartofsystematicsoutside
taxonomy.Forexample,definition6ispairedwiththefollowingdefinitionofsystematicsthatplacesnomenclature
outsidetaxonomy:[8]
Systematics:"Thestudyoftheidentification,taxonomyandnomenclatureoforganisms,includingthe
classificationoflivingthingswithregardtotheirnaturalrelationshipsandthestudyofvariationandthe
evolutionoftaxa".
Taxonomy,systematicbiology,systematics,biosystematics,scientificclassification,biologicalclassification,
phylogenetics:Atvarioustimesinhistory,allthesewordshavehadoverlappingmeaningssometimesthesame,
sometimesslightlydifferent,butalwaysoverlappingandrelated.
Thebroadestmeaningof"taxonomy"isusedhere.Thewordtaxonomywasintroducedin1813byCandolle,inhis
Thorielmentairedelabotanique.[10]

Alphataxonomyandbetataxonomy
Theterm"alphataxonomy"isprimarilyusedtodaytorefertothedisciplineoffinding,describing,andnaming
taxa,particularlyspecies.Inearlierliterature,thetermhadadifferentmeaning,referringtomorphological
taxonomy,andtheproductsofresearchthroughtheendofthe19thcentury.
WilliamBertramTurrillintroducedtheterm"alphataxonomy"inaseriesofpaperspublishedin1935and1937in
whichhediscussedthephilosophyandpossiblefuturedirectionsofthedisciplineoftaxonomy.[11]
thereisanincreasingdesireamongsttaxonomiststoconsidertheirproblemsfromwiderview
points,toinvestigatethepossibilitiesofclosercooperationwiththeircytological,ecologicaland
geneticalcolleaguesandtoacknowledgethatsomerevisionorexpansion,perhapsofadrasticnature,
oftheiraimsandmethodsmaybedesirableTurrill(1935)hassuggestedthatwhileacceptingthe
olderinvaluabletaxonomy,basedonstructure,andconvenientlydesignated"alpha",itispossibleto
glimpseafardistanttaxonomybuiltuponaswideabasisofmorphologicalandphysiologicalfactsas
possible,andoneinwhich"placeisfoundforallobservationalandexperimentaldatarelating,evenif
indirectly,totheconstitution,subdivision,originandbehaviourofspeciesandothertaxonomic
groups".Idealscan,itmaybesaid,neverbecompletelyrealized.Theyhave,however,agreatvalueof
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actingaspermanentstimulants,andifwehavesome,evenvague,idealofan"omega"taxonomywe
mayprogressalittlewaydowntheGreekalphabet.Someofuspleaseourselvesbythinkingweare
nowgropingina"beta"taxonomy.[11]
Turrillthusexplicitlyexcludesfromalphataxonomyvariousareasofstudythatheincludeswithintaxonomyasa
whole,suchasecology,physiology,genetics,andcytology.Hefurtherexcludesphylogeneticreconstructionfrom
alphataxonomy(pages365366).
Laterauthorshaveusedtheterminadifferentsense,tomeanthedelimitationofspecies(notsubspeciesortaxaof
otherranks),usingwhateverinvestigativetechniquesareavailable,andincludingsophisticatedcomputationalor
laboratorytechniques.[12]Thus,ErnstMayrin1968definedbetataxonomyastheclassificationofrankshigher
thanspecies.[13]
Anunderstandingofthebiologicalmeaningofvariationandoftheevolutionaryoriginofgroupsof
relatedspeciesisevenmoreimportantforthesecondstageoftaxonomicactivity,thesortingof
speciesintogroupsofrelatives("taxa")andtheirarrangementinahierarchyofhighercategories.This
activityiswhatthetermclassificationdenotesitisalsoreferredtoasbetataxonomy.

Microtaxonomyandmacrotaxonomy
Howspeciesshouldbedefinedinaparticulargroupoforganismsgivesrisetopracticalandtheoreticalproblems
thatarereferredtoasthespeciesproblem.Thescientificworkofdecidinghowtodefinespecieshasbeencalled
microtaxonomy.[14]Byextension,macrotaxonomyisthestudyofgroupsathighertaxonomicranksthanspecies.

History
Whilesomedescriptionsoftaxonomichistoryattempttodatetaxonomytoancientcivilizations,atrulyscientific
attempttoclassifyorganismsdidnotoccuruntilthe18thcentury.Earlierworkswereprimarilydescriptive,and
focusedonplantsthatwereusefulinagricultureormedicine.Thereareanumberofstagesinthisscientific
thinking.Earlytaxonomywasbasedonarbitrarycriteria,thesocalled"artificialsystems",includingLinnaeus's
systemofsexualclassification.Latercamesystemsbasedonamorecompleteconsiderationofthecharacteristics
oftaxa,referredtoas"naturalsystems",suchasthoseofdeJussieu(1789),deCandolle(1813)andBenthamand
Hooker(18621863).Thesewerepreevolutionaryinthinking.ThepublicationofCharlesDarwin'sOriginof
Species(1859)ledtonewwaysofthinkingaboutclassificationbasedonevolutionaryrelationships.Thiswasthe
conceptofphyleticsystems,from1883onwards.ThisapproachwastypifiedbythoseofEichler(1883)andEngler
(18861892).Theadventofmoleculargeneticsandstatisticalmethodologyallowedthecreationofthemodernera
of"phylogeneticsystems"basedoncladistics,ratherthanmorphologyalone.[15][16][17]

PreLinnaean
Earlytaxonomists
Taxonomyhasbeencalled"theworld'soldestprofession",[18]andnamingandclassifyingoursurroundingshas
likelybeentakingplaceaslongasmankindhasbeenabletocommunicate.Itwouldalwayshavebeenimportantto
knowthenamesofpoisonousandedibleplantsandanimalsinordertocommunicatethisinformationtoother
membersofthefamilyorgroup.
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MedicinalplantillustrationsshowupinEgyptianwallpaintingsfromc.1500BC.[19]Thepaintingsclearlyshow
thatthesesocietiesvaluedandcommunicatedtheusesofdifferentspecies,andthereforehadabasictaxonomyin
place.
SrimadbhagavataPurana
InCanto3,chapter10ofSrimadbhagavatapurana6typesoftreesarerecognisedandtheyare:[20]
1.Vanaspatislargetreesthatgrowfruitswithoutflowering.
2.Drumaslargetreesthatbloomandgivefruits.
3.Osadhistreesthatdiesoonaftertheygivefruits.
4.Latascreepersandtinyplants.
5.Virutsplantsthatgrowasbushes.
6.Tvaksarasplantshollowinsidewithstrongbarkslikebamboos.
AristotletoPlinytheElder
HistoricalrecordsshowthatorganismswereinformallyclassifiedatleastasearlyasAristotle(Greece,384322
BC),[21]whowasthefirsttobegintoclassifyalllivingthings.Aristotleusedaverysimplesystemof
classification.Hedividedalllivingthingsintotwogroups:plantsandanimals.Someofthetermshegaveto
animals,suchas"invertebrates"and"vertebrates",arestillcommonlyusedtoday.HisstudentTheophrastus
(Greece,370285BC)carriedonthistradition,andwroteaclassificationofsome500plantscalledHistoria
Plantarum.Again,severalplantgroupscurrentlystillrecognizedcanbetracedbacktoTheophrastus,suchas
Cornus,Crocus,andNarcissus.ThenextmajortaxonomistwasPlinytheElder(Rome,2379AD).Hiselaborate
160volumeworkNaturalisHistoriadescribedmanyplants.
Medieval
TaxonomyintheMiddleAgeswaslargelybasedontheAristoteliansystem,withadditionsconcerningthe
philosophicalandexistentialorderofcreatures.ThisincludedconceptssuchastheGreatchainofbeinginthe
Westernscholastictradition.However,advanceswerestillmadeinthesecularrealmbyscholarssuchas
Procopius,TimotheosofGaza,DemetriosPepagomenos,andThomasAquinas.
OtherpreLinnaeantaxonomists
Itwasnotuntilabout1500yearslaterthattaxonomicworksbecameambitiousenoughtoreplacetheancienttexts.
Thisisoftencreditedtothedevelopmentofsophisticatedopticallenses,whichallowedthemorphologyof
organismstobestudiedinmuchgreaterdetail.Oneoftheearliestauthorstotakeadvantageofthisleapin
technologywasAndreaCesalpino(Italy,15191603),whoisoftenreferredtoas"thefirsttaxonomist".His
magnumopusDePlantiscameoutin1583,anddescribedover1500plantspecies.Twolargeplantfamiliesthathe
firstrecognizedarestillinusetoday:theAsteraceaeandBrassicaceae.Theninthe17thcenturyJohnRay
(England,16271705)wrotemanyimportanttaxonomicworks.Arguablyhisgreatestaccomplishmentwas
MethodusPlantarumNova(1682),inwhichhepublisheddetailsofover18,000plantspecies.Atthetime,his
classificationswereperhapsthemostcomplexyetproducedbyanytaxonomist,ashebasedhistaxaonmany
combinedcharacters.ThenextmajortaxonomicworkswereproducedbyJosephPittondeTournefort(France,
16561708).Hisworkfrom1700,InstitutionesReiHerbariae,includedover9000speciesin698genera,and
directlyinfluencedLinnaeus,asitwasthetextheusedasayoungstudent.[19]

TheLinnaeanera
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TheSwedishbotanistCarlLinnaeus(17071778)usheredinaneweraof
taxonomy.WithhismajorworksSystemaNaturae1stEditionin1735,[22]
SpeciesPlantarumin1753,[23]andSystemaNaturae10thEdition,[24]he
revolutionizedmoderntaxonomy.Hisworksimplementedastandardized
binomialnamingsystemforanimalandplantspecies,whichprovedtobean
elegantsolutiontoachaoticanddisorganizedtaxonomicliterature.Thusthe
Linnaeansystemwasborn,andisstillusedinessentiallythesamewaytoday
asitwasinthe18thcentury.Currently,plantandanimaltaxonomistsregard
Linnaeus'workasthe"startingpoint"forvalidnames(at1753and1758
respectively).[25]Namespublishedbeforethesedatesarereferredtoas"pre
Linnaean",andnotconsideredvalid(withtheexceptionofspiderspublished
inSvenskaSpindlar).EventaxonomicnamespublishedbyLinnaeushimself
beforethesedatesareconsideredpreLinnaean.[19]

Modernsystemofclassification
WhereasLinnaeusclassifiedforeaseofidentification,theideaofthe
LinnaeantaxonomyastranslatingintoasortofdendrogramoftheAnimal
andPlantKingdomswasformulatedtowardtheendofthe18thcentury,
wellbeforeOntheOriginofSpecieswaspublished.Amongearlyworks
exploringtheideaofatransmutationofspecieswereErasmusDarwin's
1796ZonomiaandJeanBaptisteLamarck'sPhilosophieZoologiqueof
1809.TheideawaspopularisedintheAnglophoneworldbythe
speculative,butwidelyreadVestigesoftheNaturalHistoryofCreation,
publishedanonymouslybyRobertChambersin1844.[26]

TitlepageofSystemaNaturae,
Leiden,1735

Evolutionofthevertebratesatclass
level,widthofspindlesindicating
numberoffamilies.Spindlediagrams
aretypicalforEvolutionary
taxonomy

WithDarwin'stheory,ageneralacceptancethatclassificationshouldreflect
theDarwinianprincipleofcommondescentquicklyappeared.TreeofLife
representationsbecamepopularinscientificworks,withknownfossil
groupsincorporated.Oneofthefirstmoderngroupstiedtofossilancestors
wasbirds.UsingthethennewlydiscoveredfossilsofArchaeopteryxand
Hesperornis,ThomasHenryHuxleypronouncedthattheyhadevolved
fromdinosaurs,agroupformallynamedbyRichardOwenin1842.[27]The
resultingdescription,thatofdinosaurs"givingriseto"orbeing"the
ancestorsof"birds,istheessentialhallmarkofevolutionarytaxonomic
thinking.Asmoreandmorefossilgroupswerefoundandrecognizedinthe
late19thandearly20thcenturies,palaeontologistsworkedtounderstand
Thesamerelationship,expressedasa
thehistoryofanimalsthroughtheagesbylinkingtogetherknown
cladogramtypicalforcladistics
groups.[28]Withthemodernevolutionarysynthesisoftheearly1940s,an
essentiallymodernunderstandingoftheevolutionofthemajorgroupswas
inplace.AsevolutionarytaxonomyisbasedonLinnaeantaxonomicranks,thetwotermsarelargely
interchangeableinmodernuse.

Sincethe1960s,atrendcalledphylogeneticnomenclature(orcladism)hasemerged,inspiredbythecladistic
method.Thesalientfeatureisarrangingtaxainahierarchicalevolutionarytree,ignoringranks.Ifataxonincludes
allthedescendantsofsomeancestralform,itiscalledmonophyletic.Groupsthathavedescendantgroupsremoved
fromthem(e.g.dinosaurs,withbirdsasoffspringgroup)aretermedparaphyletic,whilegroupsrepresentingmore

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thanonebranchfromthetreeoflifearecalledpolyphyletic.TheInternationalCodeofPhylogeneticNomenclature
orPhyloCodeisintendedtoregulatetheformalnamingofclades.Linnaeanrankswillbeoptionalunderthe
PhyloCode,whichisintendedtocoexistwiththecurrent,rankbasedcodes.

Kingdomsanddomains
WellbeforeLinnaeus,plantsandanimalswereconsideredseparate
Kingdoms.Linnaeususedthisasthetoprank,dividingthephysicalworld
intotheplant,animalandmineralkingdoms.Asadvancesinmicroscopy
madeclassificationofmicroorganismspossible,thenumberofkingdoms
increased,fiveandsixkingdomsystemsbeingthemostcommon.
Domainsarearelativelynewgrouping.Thethreedomainsystemwasfirst
proposedin1990,butnotgenerallyaccepteduntillater.Onemain
characteristicofthethreedomainmethodistheseparationofArchaeaand
Bacteria,previouslygroupedintothesinglekingdomBacteria(akingdom
alsosometimescalledMonera).Consequently,thethreedomainsoflifeare
conceptualizedasArchaea,Bacteria,andEukaryota(comprisingthenuclei
bearingeukaryotes).[29]AsmallminorityofscientistsaddArchaeaasa
sixthkingdom,butdonotacceptthedomainmethod.
ThomasCavalierSmith,whohaspublishedextensivelyonthe
classificationofprotists,hasrecentlyproposedthattheNeomura,theclade
thatgroupstogethertheArchaeaandEukarya,wouldhaveevolvedfrom
Bacteria,morepreciselyfromActinobacteria.Hisclassificationof2004
treatsthearchaeobacteriaaspartofasubkingdomoftheKingdom
Bacteria,i.e.herejectsthethreedomainsystementirely.[30]StefanLuketa
in2012proposedafive"dominion"system,addingPrionobiota(acellular
andwithoutnucleicacid)andVirusobiota(acellularbutwithnucleicacid)
tothetraditionalthreedomains.[31]

ModernClassification

Linnaeus
Haeckel
Chatton Copeland Whittaker Woeseetal. CavalierSmith
[32]
[33]
1735
1866
1925[34]
1938[35]
1969[36]
1990[37]
1998[30]
2kingdoms 3kingdoms 2empires 4kingdoms 5kingdoms 3domains
6kingdoms
Bacteria
Prokaryota Monera
Monera
Bacteria
Archaea
(nottreated) Protista
Protozoa
Protoctista Protista
Chromista
Eukaryota Plantae
Plantae
Eucarya
Plantae
Vegetabilia Plantae
Fungi
Fungi
Animalia

Animalia

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Animalia

Animalia

Animalia
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Application
Biologicaltaxonomyisasubdisciplineofbiology,andisgenerallypractisedbybiologistsknownas
"taxonomists",thoughenthusiasticnaturalistsarealsofrequentlyinvolvedinthepublicationofnewtaxa.The
workcarriedoutbytaxonomistsiscrucialfortheunderstandingofbiologyingeneral.Twofieldsofapplied
biologyinwhichtaxonomicworkisoffundamentalimportancearethestudiesofbiodiversityandconservation.[38]
Withoutaworkingclassificationoftheorganismsinanygivenarea,estimatingtheamountofdiversitypresentis
unrealistic,makinginformedconservationdecisionsimpossible.Asconservationbecomesevermorepolitically
important,ithasbeenclaimedthattaxonomicworkimpactsnotonlythescientificcommunity,butsocietyasa
whole.[18]

Classifyingorganisms
Biologicalclassificationisacriticalcomponentofthetaxonomicprocess.Asaresult,itinformstheuserastowhat
therelativesofthetaxonarehypothesizedtobe.Biologicalclassificationusestaxonomicranks,includingamong
others(inorderfrommostinclusivetoleastinclusive):Domain,Kingdom,Phylum,Class,Order,Family,Genus,
andSpecies.[Note1]

Taxonomicdescriptions
The"definition"ofataxonisencapsulatedbyitsdescriptionand/orits
diagnosis.Therearenosetrulesgoverningthedefinitionoftaxa,butthe
namingandpublicationofnewtaxaisgovernedbysetsofrules.Inzoology,
thenomenclatureforthemorecommonlyusedranks(superfamilyto
subspecies),isregulatedbytheInternationalCodeofZoological
Nomenclature(ICZNCode).Inthefieldsofbotany,phycology,andmycology,
thenamingoftaxaisgovernedbytheInternationalCodeofNomenclaturefor
algae,fungi,andplants(ICN).
Theinitialdescriptionofataxoninvolvesfivemainrequirements:[39]
1.Thetaxonmustbegivenanamebasedonthe26lettersintheLatin
alphabet(abinomialfornewspecies,oruninomialforotherranks).
2.Thenamemustbeunique(i.e.notahomonym).
3.Thedescriptionmustbebasedonatleastonenamebearingtype
specimen.
TypespecimenforNepenthes
4.Itshouldincludestatementsaboutappropriateattributeseitherto
smilesii,atropicalpitcherplant.
describe(define)thetaxon,and/ortodifferentiateitfromothertaxa(the
diagnosis,ICZNCode,Article13.1.1,ICN,Article38).Bothcodes
deliberatelyseparatedefiningthecontentofataxon(itscircumscription)fromdefiningitsname.
5.Thesefirstfourrequirementsmustbepublishedinaworkthatisobtainableinnumerousidenticalcopies,as
apermanentscientificrecord.
However,oftenmuchmoreinformationisincluded,likethegeographicrangeofthetaxon,ecologicalnotes,
chemistry,behavior,etc.Howresearchersarriveattheirtaxavaries:dependingontheavailabledata,and
resources,methodsvaryfromsimplequantitativeorqualitativecomparisonsofstrikingfeatures,toelaborate
computeranalysesoflargeamountsofDNAsequencedata.

Authorities(authorcitation)
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An"authority"maybeplacedafterascientificname.Theauthorityisthenameofthescientistwhofirstvalidly
publishedthename.Forexample,in1758LinnaeusgavetheAsianelephantthescientificnameElephasmaximus,
sothenameissometimeswrittenas"ElephasmaximusLinnaeus,1758".Thenamesofauthorsarefrequently
abbreviated:theabbreviationL.isuniversallyacceptedforLinnaeus,andinbotanythereisaregulatedlistof
standardabbreviations(seelistofbotanistsbyauthorabbreviation).Thesystemforassigningauthoritiesdiffers
slightlybetweenbotanyandzoology.However,itisstandardthatifaspecies'nameorplacementhasbeen
changedsincetheoriginaldescription,theoriginalauthority'snameisplacedinparentheses.

Phenetics
Inphenetics,alsoknownastaximetrics,organismsareclassifiedbasedonoverallsimilarity,regardlessoftheir
phylogenyorevolutionaryrelationships.Itresultsinameasureofevolutionary"distance"betweentaxa.Phenetic
methodshavebecomerelativelyrareinmoderntimes,largelysupersededbycladisticanalyses,asphenetic
methodsdonotdistinguishplesiomorphicfromapomorphictraits.However,certainpheneticmethods,suchas
neighborjoining,havefoundtheirwayintocladistics,asareasonableapproximationofphylogenywhenmore
advancedmethods(suchasBayesianinference)aretoocomputationallyexpensive.

Databases
Moderntaxonomyusesdatabasetechnologiestosearchandcatalogueclassificationsandtheirdocumentation.
Whilethereisnocommonlyuseddatabase,therearecomprehensivedatabasessuchastheCatalogueofLife,
whichattemptstolisteverydocumentedspecies.Thecataloguelisted1.64millionspeciesforallkingdomsasof
April2016,claimingcoverageofmorethanthreequartersoftheestimatedspeciesknowntomodernscience.[40]

Seealso
BarcodeofLife
Evolutionarytaxonomy
Genetypes
Glossaryofscientificnaming
Identification(biology)
Incertaesedis,or"ofuncertainplacement",atermusedforataxonomicgroupwhereitsbroader
relationshipsareunknownorundefined
Lifetimeline
Naturetimeline
Nomenclature
Phylogenetics
Speciesdescription
Systematics
Taxonomy(general)
Type(biology)

Notes
1.Thisrankingsystemcanberememberedbythemnemonic"DoKingsPlayChessOnFineGlassSets?"

References
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Externallinks
Whatistaxonomy?(http://www.nhm.ac.uk/natureonline/scienceof
Lookuptaxonomyin
naturalhistory/taxonomysystematics/whatistaxonomy/index.html)
Wiktionary,thefree
attheNaturalHistoryMuseumLondon(http://www.nhm.ac.uk/)
dictionary.
Whatistaxonomy?(http://www.etaxonomy.eu/node/5)atthe
EuropeanDistributedInstituteofTaxonomy(http://www.etaxonomy.
Wikiquotehasquotations
eu/)
relatedto:Taxonomy
Taxonomyrelatedarticles(http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/taxono
(biology)
my)atTheGuardian(http://www.guardian.co.uk/)
Taxonomy(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/)atNCBI(htt
WikimediaCommonshas
p://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/)theNationalCenterforBiotechnology
mediarelatedtoTaxonomy.
Information
Taxonomy(http://www.uniprot.org/taxonomy/)atUniProt(http://ww
Wikisourcehasoriginal
w.uniprot.org/)theUniversalProteinResource
worksonthetopic:
ITIS(http://www.itis.gov/)theIntegratedTaxonomicInformation
Taxonomy
System
GTI(http://www.cbd.int/gti/)theGlobalTaxonomicInitiative
TRIN(http://web.archive.org/web/20111210102636/http://www.taxonomy.org.au/index.html)theTaxonomy
Research&InformationNetwork
CETaF(http://www.cetaf.org/)theConsortiumofEuropeanTaxonomicFacilities
Wikispecies(http://species.wikimedia.org/)freespeciesdirectory
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