Shang dynasty

Shangredirects here.
(disambiguation).

For other uses, see Shang Bamboo Annals. The Annals were interred in 296 BC,
but the text has a complex history and the authenticity of
the surviving versions is controversial.* [4]

The Shang dynasty (Chinese: ; pinyin: Shng

cho) or Yin dynasty (Chinese: ; pinyin: Yn
di), according to traditional historiography, ruled in the
Yellow River valley in the second millennium BC, succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Zhou dynasty. The classic account of the Shang comes from
texts such as the Book of Documents, Bamboo Annals and
Records of the Grand Historian. According to the traditional chronology based on calculations made approximately 2,000 years ago by Liu Xin, the Shang ruled from
1766 to 1122 BC, but according to the chronology based
upon the current textof Bamboo Annals, they ruled
from 1556 to 1046 BC. The XiaShangZhou Chronology Project dated them from c. 1600 to 1046 BC.

The name Yn () is used by Sima Qian for the dynasty,

and in the current textversion of the Bamboo Annals
for both the dynasty and its nal capital. It has been a
popular name for the Shang throughout history. Since the
Records of Emperors and Kings by Huangfu Mi (3rd century AD), it has often been used specically to describe
the later half of the Shang dynasty. In Japan and Korea,
the Shang are still referred to almost exclusively as the
Yin (In) dynasty. However it seems to have been a Zhou
name for the earlier dynasty. The word does not appear
in the oracle bones, which refer to the state as Shng (),
and the capital as Dy Shng (Great Settlement
Shang).* [5] It also does not appear in securely-dated
Western Zhou bronze inscriptions.* [6]

The Shang dynasty is the earliest dynasty of traditional Chinese history supported by archaeological evidence. Excavation at the Ruins of Yin (near modern-day
Anyang), which has been identied as the last Shang capital, uncovered eleven major royal tombs and the foundations of palaces and ritual sites, containing weapons
of war and remains from both animal and human sacrices. Tens of thousands of bronze, jade, stone, bone,
and ceramic artifacts have been found.

1.1 Course of the dynasty

Sima Qian's Annals of the Yin begins by describing the

predynastic founder of the Shang lineage, Xie ()
also appearing as Qi () as having been miraculously
conceived when Jiandi, a wife of Emperor Ku, swallowed
an egg dropped by a black bird. Xie is said to have helped
Yu the Great to control the Great Flood and for his service
The Anyang site has yielded the earliest known body of to have been granted a place called Shang as a ef.* [7]
Chinese writing, mostly divinations inscribed on oracle
Sima Qian relates that the dynasty itself was founded 13
bones turtle shells, ox scapulae, or other bones. More
generations later, when Xie's descendant Tang overthrew
than 20,000 were discovered in the initial scientic excathe impious and cruel nal Xia ruler in the Battle of Mingvations during the 1920s and 1930s, and over four times
tiao. The Records recount events from the reigns of Tang,
as many have been found since. The inscriptions provide
Tai Jia, Tai Wu, Pan Geng, Wu Ding, Wu Yi and the
critical insight into many topics from the politics, econdepraved nal king Di Xin, but the rest of the Shang
omy, and religious practices to the art and medicine of
rulers are merely mentioned by name. According to the
this early stage of Chinese civilization.* [2]
Records, the Shang moved their capital ve times, with
the nal move to Yin in the reign of Pan Geng inaugurating the golden age of the dynasty.* [8]

Traditional accounts

Di Xin, the last Shang king, is said to have committed suicide after his army was defeated by Wu of Zhou. Legends
say that his army and his equipped slaves betrayed him by
joining the Zhou rebels in the decisive Battle of Muye.
According to the Yi Zhou Shu and Mencius the battle was
very bloody. The classic, Ming-era novel Fengshen Yanyi
retells the story of the war between Shang and Zhou as a
conict where rival factions of gods supported dierent
sides in the war.

Many events concerning the Shang dynasty are mentioned

in various Chinese classics, including the Book of Documents, the Mencius and the Zuo Zhuan. Working from all
the available documents, the Han dynasty historian Sima
Qian assembled a sequential account of the Shang dynasty as part of his Records of the Grand Historian. His
history describes some events in detail, while in other
cases only the name of a king is given.* [3] A closely After the Shang were defeated, King Wu allowed Di Xin's
related, but slightly dierent, account is given by the son Wu Geng to rule the Shang as a vassal kingdom.
1

EARLY BRONZE AGE ARCHAEOLOGY

However, Zhou Wu sent three of his brothers and an army

to ensure that Wu Geng would not rebel.* [9]* [10]* [11]
After Zhou Wu's death, the Shang joined the Rebellion
of the Three Guards against the Duke of Zhou, but the
rebellion collapsed after three years, leaving Zhou in control of Shang territory.

1.2

Descendants

After Shang's collapse, Zhou's rulers forcibly relocated

Yin diehards( ) and scattered them throughout
Zhou territory.* [12] Some surviving members of the
Shang royal family collectively changed their surname
from the ancestral name Zi () to the name of their fallen
dynasty, Yin. The family retained an aristocratic standing
and often provided needed administrative services to the
succeeding Zhou dynasty. The Records of the Grand Historian states that King Cheng of Zhou, with the support of
his regent and uncle, the Duke of Zhou, enfeoed Weiziqi
(), a brother of Di Xin, as the Duke of Song, with
its capital at Shangqiu. This practice was referred to as
. The Dukes of Song would maintain rites honoring the Shang kings until Song was conquered by Qi in
286 BC. Confucius was a descendant of the Shang Kings
through the Dukes of Song.* [13]* [14]* [15] The Dukes of
Yansheng are in turn the descendants of Confucius.
The title of Duke of Song andDuke Who Continues and
Honours the Yin() were bestowed upon Kong
An ( () by the Eastern Han dynasty because he
was part of the Shang dynasty's legacy.* [16]* [17] This
branch of the Confucius family is a separate branch from
the line that held the title of Marquis of Fengsheng village
and later Duke Yansheng.

Fragments; shards Wheel-thrown earthenware with carved designs China, Shang dynasty, about 1700-1023 B.C.

BC) was the earliest Chinese dynasty that could be veried from its own records. However, during the Song dynasty (9601279 AD), antiquarians collected bronze ritual vessels attributed to the Shang era, some of which
bore inscriptions.* [22] These types of early inscriptions
were later traced to the Yinxu site in the Yellow River
valley.

2.1 Yellow River valley

There are several important Shang sites in the Yellow
River valley.
2.1.1 Yinxu site

In 1899, it was found that Chinese pharmacists were

selling "dragon bones" marked with curious and archaic
characters.* [22] These were nally traced back in 1928
to a site (now called Yinxu) near Anyang, north of
the Yellow River in modern Henan province, where the
The vassal state of Guzhu, located in what is now
Academia Sinica undertook archeological excavation unTangshan, was formed by another remnant of the Shang,
til the Japanese invasion in 1937.* [22]
and was destroyed by Duke Huan of Qi.* [18]* [19]* [20]
Many Shang clans that migrated northeast after the dy- Archaeologists focused on the Yellow River valley in
nasty's collapse were integrated into Yan culture during Henan as the most likely site of the states described in
the Western Zhou period. These clans maintained an elite the traditional histories.
status and continued practicing the sacricial and burial
traditions of the Shang.* [21]
2.1.2 Huanbei site
Both Korean and Chinese legends, including reports in
the Book of Documents and the Bamboo Annals, state that The remains of a walled city of about 470 hectares (1,200
a disgruntled Shang prince named Jizi, who had refused acres) were discovered in 1999 across the Huan River
to cede power to the Zhou, left China with a small army. from the well explored Yinxu site. The city, now known
According to these legends, he founded a state known as as Huanbei, was apparently occupied for less than a cenGija Joseon in northwest Korea during the Gojoseon pe- tury and destroyed shortly before the construction of the
riod of ancient Korean history. However, the historical Yinxu complex.* [23]* [24]
accuracy of these legends is widely debated by scholars.
2.1.3 Zhengzhou Shang City

Early Bronze Age archaeology

Main article: Zhengzhou Shang City

Main article: Shang archaeology

Further information: History of Chinese archaeology
After 1950, the remnants of the earlier walled settlement
Before the 20th century, the Zhou dynasty (1046256 of Shang City were discovered near Zhengzhou.* [22] It

2.4

Related and contemporary sites

has been determined that the earth walls at Zhengzhou, 2.4

erected in the 15th century BC, would have been 20 m
(66 ft) wide at the base, rising to a height of 8 m (26 ft),
and formed a roughly rectangular wall 7 km (4 mi) around
the ancient city.* [25]* [26] The rammed earth construction of these walls was an inherited tradition, since much
older fortications of this type have been found at Chinese Neolithic sites of the Longshan culture (c. 3000
2000 BC).* [25]

2.1.4

Related and contemporary sites

Yanshi

Erlitou
Zhengzhou
Panlongcheng
Anyang
Sanxingdui
In 1959, the site of the Erlitou culture was found in
Wucheng
Yanshi, south of the Yellow River near Luoyang.* [25] Major archaeological sites of the second millennium BC
Radiocarbon dating suggests that the Erlitou culture our- in north and central China
ished ca. 2100 BC to 1800 BC. They built large palaces,
suggesting the existence of an organized state.* [27]
The Erligang culture represented by the Yellow River
In 1983, Yanshi Shang City was discovered 6 kilometres sites is found across a wide area of China, even as far
(3.7 mi) north-east of the Erlitou site in Yanshi's Shix- northeast as the area of modern Beijing, where at least
ianggou Township. This was a large walled city dating one burial in this region during this period contained both
from 1600 BC. It had an area of nearly 200 hectares (490 Erligang-style bronzes and local-style gold jewelry.* [21]
acres) and featured pottery characteristic of the Erligang The discovery of a Chenggu-style ge dagger-axe at Xiaoculture.
henan demonstrates that even at this early stage of Chinese history, there were some ties between the distant areas of north China.* [21]
There are two important archaeological sites near the
modern city of Yanshi: Erlitou site, and Yanshi Shang
City. Yanshi lies on the Luo River, which is a tributary of
the Yellow River.

Accidental nds elsewhere in China have revealed advanced civilizations contemporaneous with but culturally
unlike the settlement at Anyang, such as the walled city
of Sanxingdui in Sichuan. Western scholars are hesitant
The Panlongcheng site in the middle Yangtze valley was
to designate such settlements as belonging to the Shang
an important regional center of the Erligang culture.* [28]
dynasty.* [30] Also unlike the Shang, there is no known
evidence that the Sanxingdui culture had a system of writing.

2.2

Panlongcheng site

In contrast, the earliest layers of the Wucheng site, predating Anyang, have yielded pottery fragments containing short sequences of symbols, suggesting that they may
Chinese historians living in later periods were accus- be a form of writing quite dierent in form from oracle
tomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, bone characters, but the sample is too small for decipher*
*
*
and readily identied the Erligang and Erlitou sites with ment. [31] [32] [33]
the early Shang and Xia dynasty of traditional histories.

2.3

Background

The actual political situation in early China may have

been more complicated, with the Xia and Shang being
political entities that existed concurrently, just as the
early Zhou, who established the successor state of the
Shang, are known to have existed at the same time as
the Shang.* [21] It has also been suggested the Xia legend originated during the Shang dynasty, the Shang having a myth of a people preceding them who were their
inverse.* [29]

3 Late Shang at Anyang

The oldest extant direct records date from around 1200
BC at Anyang, covering the reigns of the last nine Shang
kings. The Shang had a fully developed system of writing, preserved on bronze inscriptions and a small number of other writings on pottery, jade and other stones,
horn, etc., but most prolically on oracle bones.* [34] The

3 LATE SHANG AT ANYANG

Oracle bones pit at Yin

complexity and sophistication of this writing system indicates an earlier period of development, but direct evidence of that development is still lacking. Other advances
included the invention of many musical instruments and
observations of Mars and various comets by Shang astronomers.* [35]
Their civilization was based on agriculture and augmented by hunting and animal husbandry.* [36] In addition to war, the Shang also practiced human sacrice.* [37] Crania of sacricial victims have been found
to be similar to modern Chinese ones (based on comparisons with remains from Hainan and Taiwan).* [38]* [39]
Oracle shell with inscriptions.
Cowry shells were also excavated at Anyang, suggesting trade with coast-dwellers, but there was very limited
sea trade in ancient China since China was isolated from
other large civilizations during the Shang period.* [40]
Trade relations and diplomatic ties with other formidable
powers via the Silk Road and Chinese voyages to the Indian Ocean did not exist until the reign of Emperor Wu
during the Han dynasty (206 BC221 AD).* [41]* [42]

3.1

Court life

At the excavated royal palace of Yinxu, large stone pillar

bases were found along with rammed earth foundations
and platforms, which according to Fairbank, were as
hard as cement.* [22] These foundations in turn originally supported 53 buildings of wooden post-and-beam Bronzewares from the excavated tomb of Fu Hao
construction.* [22] In close proximity to the main palatial
complex, there were underground pits used for storage,
servants' quarters, and housing quarters.* [22]
of the militant consort to King Wu Ding, as described in
Many Shang royal tombs had been tunneled into and rav- 170 to 180 Shang oracle bones.* [45] Along with bronze
aged by grave robbers in ancient times,* [43] but in the vessels, stoneware and pottery vessels, bronze weapons,
spring of 1976, the discovery of Tomb 5 at Yinxu re- jade gures and hair combs, and bone hairpins were
vealed a tomb that was not only undisturbed, but one of found.* [46]* [47]* [48] Historian Robert L. Thorp states
the most richly furnished Shang tombs that archaeologists that the large assortment of weapons and ritual vessels in
had yet come across.* [44] With over 200 bronze ritual her tomb correlate with the oracle bone accounts of her
vessels and 109 inscriptions of Lady Fu Hao's name, ar- military career and involvement in Wu Ding's ritual anchaeologists realized they had stumbled across the tomb cestral sacrices.* [49]

3.3

Bronze working

The capital was the center of court life. Over time, court
rituals to appease spirits developed, and in addition to his
secular duties, the king would serve as the head of the
ancestor worship cult. Often, the king would even perform oracle bone divinations himself, especially near the
end of the dynasty. Evidence from excavations of the
royal tombs indicates that royalty were buried with articles of value, presumably for use in the afterlife. Perhaps
for the same reason, hundreds of commoners, who may
have been slaves, were buried alive with the royal corpse.
A line of hereditary Shang kings ruled over much of
northern China, and Shang troops fought frequent wars
with neighboring settlements and nomadic herdsmen
from the inner Asian steppes. The Shang king, in his
oracular divinations, repeatedly shows concern about the
fang groups, the barbarians living outside of the civilized
tu regions, which made up the center of Shang territory.
In particular, the tufang group of the Yanshan region were
regularly mentioned as hostile to the Shang.* [21]
Apart from their role as the head military commanders,
Shang kings also asserted their social supremacy by acting as the high priests of society and leading the divination ceremonies.* [50] As the oracle bone texts reveal, the
Shang kings were viewed as the best qualied members
of society to oer sacrices to their royal ancestors and
to the high god Di, who in their beliefs was responsible
for the rain, wind, and thunder.* [50]

3.2

Religion

Shang religion consisted of a mixture of shamanism, divination and sacrice. There were six main recipients of
sacrice: (1) Di, the High God, (2) nature powers like
the sun and mountain powers, (3) former lords, deceased
humans who had been added to the dynastic pantheon,
(4) predynastic ancestors, (5) dynastic ancestors, and (6)
dynastic ancestresses such as the concubines of a past emperor.* [51] The Shang rulers subscribed to the notion that
these ancestors held power over them and performed rituals to ascertain their intentions.* [51]

5
as jade, which the Shang may have believed to protect
against decay or confer immortality.
The degree to which shamanism was a central aspect of
Shang religion is a subject of debate.* [52]* [54]
The Shang religion was highly bureaucratic and meticulously ordered. Oracle bones contained descriptions of
the date, ritual, person, ancestor, and questions associated
with the divination.* [52] Tombs displayed highly ordered
arrangements of bones, with groups of skeletons laid out
facing the same direction.

3.3 Bronze working

Main article: Chinese ritual bronzes
Chinese bronze casting and pottery advanced during the
Shang dynasty, with bronze typically being used for ritually signicant, rather than primarily utilitarian, items.
As far back as c. 1500 BC, the early Shang dynasty engaged in large-scale production of bronze-ware vessels
and weapons.* [55] This production required a large labor
force that could handle the mining, rening, and transportation of the necessary copper, tin, and lead ores. This
in turn created a need for ocial managers that could
oversee both hard-laborers and skilled artisans and craftsmen.* [55] The Shang royal court and aristocrats required
a vast amount of dierent bronze vessels for various ceremonial purposes and events of religious divination.* [55]
Ceremonial rules even decreed how many bronze containers of each type a nobleman or noblewoman of a certain
rank could own. With the increased amount of bronze
available, the army could also better equip itself with an
assortment of bronze weaponry. Bronze was also used for
the ttings of spoke-wheeled chariots, which appeared in
China around 1200 BC.* [50]
A Shang dynasty bronze ding vessel
The Shang dynasty Houmuwu Ding is the heaviest
piece of bronze work found in China so far.

One of the most common rituals was divination, which

A late Shang dynasty bronze ding vessel with taotie
often was performed to determine whether ancestors demotif
sired specic sacrices or rituals. Divination involved
cracking a turtle carapace or ox scapula to answer a ques Bronze g ritual wine vessel
tion, and to then record the response to that question on
the bone itself.* [52] It is unknown what criteria the diviners used to determine the response, but it is believed 3.4 Military
to be the sound or pattern of the cracks on the bone.
weapons were an integral part of Shang sociThe Shang also seem to have believed in an afterlife, Bronze
*
ety.
[56]
Shang infantry were armed with a variety of
as evidenced by the elaborate burial tombs built for destone
and
bronze weaponry, including mo () spears,
ceased rulers. Often carriages, utensils, sacricial vesyu
()
pole-axes,
g () pole-based dagger-axes, com*
sels, [and] weaponswould be included in the tomb. [53]
posite
bows,
and
bronze
or leather helmets.* [57]* [58]
A king's burial involved the burial of up to several hundred humans and horses as well to accompany the king The chariot rst appeared in China around 1200 BC, durinto the afterlife, in some cases even numbering four ing the reign of Wu Ding. There is little doubt that the
hundred.* [53] Finally, tombs included ornaments such chariot entered China through the Central Asia and the

KINGS

record the sacrices to previous kings and the ancestors

of the current king, which follow a standard schedule that
scholars have reconstructed. From this evidence, scholars have assembled the implied king list and genealogy,
nding that it is in substantial agreement with the later
accounts, especially for later kings.* [67]
The Shang kings were referred to in the oracle bones by
posthumous names. The last character of each name is
one of the 10 celestial stems, which also denoted the day
of the 10-day Shang week on which sacrices would be
oered to that ancestor within the ritual schedule. There
were more kings than stems, so the names have distinguishing prexes such as D (greater), Zhng (middle), Xio (lesser), B (outer), Z (ancestor) and
a few more obscure names.* [68]
A bronze axe of the Shang dynasty

Northern Steppe, possibly indicating some form of contact with the Indo-Europeans.* [59] Recent archaeological nds have shown that the late Shang used horses, chariots, bows and practiced horse burials that are similar to
the steppe peoples to the west.* [60] These inuences led
Christopher I. Beckwith to speculate that Indo-Europeans
may even have been responsible for the foundation of
the Shang Dynasty,though he admits there is no direct
evidence.* [61] Oracle bone inscriptions suggest that the
Shang used chariots in royal hunts and in battle only as
mobile command vehicles.* [62] In contrast, the western
enemies of the Shang, such as the Zhou, began to use limited numbers of chariots in battle towards the end of the
Shang period.* [63]
Although the Shang depended upon the military skills of
their nobility, Shang rulers could mobilize the masses of
town-dwelling and rural commoners as conscript laborers and soldiers for both campaigns of defense and conquest.* [64] Aristocrats and other state rulers were obligated to furnish their local garrisons with all necessary equipment, armor, and armaments. The Shang king
maintained a force of about a thousand troops at his capital and would personally lead this force into battle.* [65]
A rudimentary military bureaucracy was also needed in
order to muster forces ranging from three to ve thousand
troops for border campaigns to thirteen thousand troops
for suppressing rebellions against the Shang dynasty.

The kings, in the order of succession derived from the oracle bones, are here grouped by generation. Later reigns
were assigned to oracle bone diviner groups by Dong
Zuobin:* [69]
Decline of Shang Dynasty
The Shang rule was ended by the Zhou dynasty which
came from the further up the Huang He or the Yellow
river. The Zhou emperor , King Wu exercised a certain
degree of imperial power over most of central China.
Notes
[1] The rst king is known as Tang in the Historical Records.
The oracle bones also identify six pre-dynastic ancestors:
Shng Ji, Bo Y, Bo Bng, Bo
Dng, Sh Rn and Sh Gu.
[2] There is no rm evidence of oracle bone inscriptions before the reign of Wu Ding.
[3] According to the Historical Records and the Mencius, Da
Ding (there called Tai Ding) died before he could ascend
to the throne. However in the oracle bones he receives
rituals like any other king.
[4] According to the Historical Records, Bu Bing (there called
Wai Bing) and Zhong Ren (not mentioned in the oracle bones) were younger brothers of Dai Ting and preceded Da Jia (also known as Dai Jia). However the Mencius, the Commentary of Zuo and the Book of History state
that he reigned after Da Jia, as also implied by the oracle
bones.
[5] The Historical Records include a king Wo Ding not mentioned in the oracle bones.

Kings

See also: List of monarchs and The family tree of the

Shang kings
The earliest records are the oracle bones inscribed during the reigns of the Shang kings from Wu Ding.* [66]
The oracle bones do not contain king lists, but they do

[6] The Historical Records have Xiao Jia as the son of Da

Geng (known as Tai Geng) in the Annals of Yin, but
as a younger brother (as implied by the oracle bones) in
the Genealogical Table of the Three Ages.
[7] According to the Historical Records, L Ji (there called
Yong Ji) reigned before Da Wu (there called Tai Wu).
[8] The kings from Zhong Ding to Nan Geng are placed in the
same order by the Historical Records and the oracle bones,

but there are some dierences in genealogy, as described

in the articles on individual kings.

[11] " "

(breaking ground on Kangshu problem)

[9] The status of Qiang Jia varies over the history of the oracle
bones. During the reigns of Wu Ding, Di Yi and Di Xin,
he was not included in the main line of descent, a position
also held by the Historical Records, but in the intervening
reigns he was included as a direct ancestor.

[12] (Expoited by the presence of...)

[10] According to the Historical Records, Nan Geng was the

son of Qiang Jia (there called Wo Jia).
[11] The oracle bones and the Historical Records include an
older brother Z J who did not reign.
[12] Lin Xin is named as a king in the Historical Records and
oracle bones of succeeding reigns, but not those of the last
two kings.* [70]
[13] There are no ancestral sacrices to the last two kings on
the oracles bones, due to the fall of Shang. Their names,
including the character Demperor, come from the
much later Bamboo Annals and Historical Records.* [71]

[14] Xinzhong Yao (1997). Confucianism and Christianity: A

Comparative Study of Jen and Agape. Sussex Academic
Press. p. 29. ISBN 1898723761.
[15] Lee Dian Rainey (2010). Confucius & Confucianism:
The Essentials. John Wiley & Sons. p. 66. ISBN
1405188413.
[16] Rafe de Crespigny (28 December 2006). A Biographical
Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220
AD). BRILL. pp. 389. ISBN 978-90-474-1184-0.

Chinese sovereign

[17]

Chinese mythology

[18] (Chinese Guzhu Cultural Network)

Historical capitals of China

[19] (unlocking the ancient

mystery of Guzhu)

[14] also referred to as Zhu (), Zhu Xn () or Zhu

Wng () or by adding Shng() in front of any
of these names.

[13] Xinzhong Yao (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism.

Cambridge University Press. p. 23. ISBN 0521644305.

See also

References

Citations
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[4] Keightley (1978b).
[5] Keightley (1999), p. 232.
[6] Keightley (1978a), p. xiv.
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[8] Keightley (1999), p. 233.
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[10] " " (Bei, Yong, Wei
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[31] Wilkinson (2013), p. 669.
[32] Wagner (1993), p. 20.

[33] Cheung (1983).

[61] Beckwith (2009), pp. 4348.

[34] Qiu (2000), p. 60.

[62] Shaughnessy (1988), pp. 213221.

[35] A Short History of China.

[63] Shaughnessy (1988), pp. 218221.

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[54] Keightley (1998).
[55] Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), p. 17.
[56] Sawyer & Sawyer (1994).
[57] Wang (1993).
[58] Sawyer & Sawyer (1994), p. 35.
[59] Shaughnessy (1988), p. 190.
[60] Mair (2011), p. 100.

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[64] Sawyer & Sawyer (1994), p. 33.

[65] Sawyer & Sawyer (1994), p. 34.
[66] Wilkinson (2013), p. 684.
[67] Keightley (1999), p. 235.
[68] Smith (2011), pp. 35.
[69] Keightley (1999), pp. 234235, 240241.
[70] Keightley (1978a), p. 187.
[71] Keightley (1978a), pp. 187, 207, 209.

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Wilkinson, Endymion (2013), Chinese History: A
New Manual, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ Asia
Center, ISBN 978-0-674-06715-8.

7 Further reading
Allan, Sarah (1991), The Shape of the Turtle: Myth,
Art, and Cosmos in Early China, SUNY Press, ISBN
978-0-7914-9449-3.
Allen, Herbert J. (translator) (1895), Ssma
Ch'ien's Historical Records, Chapter III The Yin
Dynasty, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 27
(3): 601615, doi:10.1017/S0035869X00145083.
Chang, Kwang-Chih (1980), Shang Civilization,
Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-02885-7.
Duan, Chang-Qun; Gan, Xue-Chun; Wang, Jeanny;
Chien, Paul K. (1998), Relocation of Civilization
Centers in Ancient China: Environmental Factors
, Ambio, 27 (7): 572575, JSTOR 4314793.
Legge, James (translator) (1865), The Annals of
the Bamboo Books: The Dynasty of Shang, The
Chinese Classics, volume 3, part 1, pp. 128141.

10

Lee, Yuan-Yuan; Shen, Sin-yan (1999), Chinese

Musical Instruments, Chinese Music Monograph
Series, Chinese Music Society of North America
Press, ISBN 1-880464-03-9.
Needham, Joseph (1971), Science and Civilization
in China: Volume 4, Part 3, Cambridge University
Press, ISBN 978-0-521-07060-7.
Shen, Sinyan (1987), Acoustics of Ancient
Chinese Bells, Scientic American, 256: 94,
doi:10.1038/scienticamerican0487-104.
Timperley, Harold J. (1936), The Awakening of
China in Archaeology; Further Discoveries in HoNan Province, Royal Tombs of the Shang Dynasty,
Dated Traditionally from 1766 to 1122 B.C..

External links
Zhengzhou Shang City Site

EXTERNAL LINKS

11

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