Diagnostic Chapter Learning

The Brain, Learning, and Memory

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The process of learning involves a modification in behavior as a result of an increase

in knowledge or skills. In contrast, memory is the ability to recall information or
experiences. Learning and memory, however, are closely linked, with each depending
upon the other. Learning relies upon memory in that it requires the storage and retrieval of
information. Likewise, memory depends on learning because an individual's established
knowledge base provides a stntcture to which incoming data can be attached. Dramatic
breakthroughs in brain research today continue to clarify the details of both, thereby
providing educators and students with valuable academic study ski ll strategies.
2
Using brain-imaging techniques, neuroscientists have tracked three distinct stages of
memory: sensory, short-term, and long-term. Initial perceptions including visual, auditory,
and olfactory* information from the surrounding environment are held in sensory memory
for a period of up to three seconds. l1 Selective attention to specific environmental stimuli
allows for their transfer to short-term memory.
Here, approximately seven single or
cbunked items can be stored for roughly 30 seconds without repetition, which enables
lengthened storage. Dl Short-term memory is also called working memory because it is
often used to solve temporary problems involving reasoning processes.
For instance, in
writing a research paper, a student employs working memory to organize the facts into a
coherent report.
3
The ability to transfer information from short- to long-term memory or encoding is
of particular relevance in the learning process. Attention, repetition, and association with
prior knowledge are the methods people use to encode new information. Neurologically,
this is accomplished by repeatedly processing the information through the hippocampus,
a structure in the brain where associations are formed. The critical factor in the encoding
process is the perceived meaningfulness of incoming data in terms of pre-existing mental
frameworks. The greater number of associations a person can make with established
learning, the better that new information will be retained. This is because memories are not
stored in a single location within the brain . Instead, they are complex neuronal networks
spread throughout its entire surface. Establishing as many connections as possible with a
newly learned item is essential. In this way, it can be more easily recalled at a later date.
4
This neuroscientific understanding can be applied to academic study. Accessing
background knowledge on a topic prior to learning primes the brain to make associations
with existing knowledge. Continually posing mental questions while reading or listening
allows the learner to compare and contrast new data with what is currently understood.
Classifying or categorizing new material facilitates retention because it involves
making connections. The better organized the learning, the easier it is to remember.
Furthermore, because of the brain's patterning abi lities and innate search for meaning,

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Diagnostic Chapter Learning

benefits are gained through a solid grasp of overall concepts. In this way, relevant details
can be classified into their appropriate categories. Therefore, tactics including selectively
highlighting key information in a textbook, taking notes on main ideas, outlining, and
summarizing all boost encoding effectiveness.
5
Mere encoding, however, does not ensure retention or recall. In fact, research reveals
that people forget about 80 percent of what they learn within 48 hours. ln order to secure
permanent long-term memories, the processes of storage and retrieval must be activated.
Storage involves review and REM sleep, where the day's learning is replayed and
reinforced in the hippocampus. In review, the retrieval of information copies it temporarily
into working memory so that it can undergo further processing, again in the hippocampus.
6
In classic research, Herman Ebbinghaus outlined an optimal review schedule. He
demonstrated that the understanding of new material peaks I 0 minutes after learning,
with this being the best time for a preliminary review. Subsequent study after oneday, one-week, one-month, and six-month intervals was noted as the most favorable in
achieving permanent storage. Once permanent, memories no longer need strengthening in
the hippocampus. Instead, the memory traces are stored in neuronal networks related to
regions of the brain where the sensory inputs initially occurred.
*olfactory: related to the sense of smell
Reading Time: _ minutes, _ seconds
664 words/# of minutes =
words per minute

DR2 Test Questions

Reference Question
1. The word each in paragraph I refers to
a)
b)
c)
d)

knowledge and skills

modification or ability
learning and memory
information or experiences

Vocabulary Question
2. The phrase established knowledge base in
paragraph I is closest in meaning to
a)
b)
c)
d)

basic facts
memorized facts
associated knowledge
known information

Paraphrase Question
3. Which of the following best expresses the
essential information in the highlighted
sentence in paragraph I? Incorrect answer
choices change the meaning in important
ways or leave out essential information.
Dramatic breakthroughs in brain research
today continue to clarify the details of
both, thereby providing educators and
students with valuable academic studyskill strategies.
a) The strategies related to the presentday breakthroughs in brain-related

rese~rch make it clear how to improve

educational performance.
b) New study-skill tactics have emerged
as a result of advances in brain
research on learning and memory.
c) Because those involved in the
education process require effective
study-skill techniques, they look to
brain researchers for answers.
d) The ability to acquiie new study
skills is dependent upon the
significant breakthroughs in brainrelated studies.

Inference Question
4. According to paragraph 2, which of the
following can be inferred about short-term
memory'?
a) Short-term memory is less important
than long-term memory.
b) A lack of attention contributes to the
transfer of sensory stimuli to shortterm memory.
c) You can maintain information in
short-term memory for a longer period
by repeating it.
d) People use short-term memory when
they recall ch ildhood memories.
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Diagnostic Chapter Learning

Insert Text Question

5. Look at the four squares that indicate
where the following sentence could be
added to paragraph 2.

An example of short-term memory is

the ability to recall a phone number
just looked up as it is dialed.
Where would the sentence best fit?

Vocabulary Question
9. According to paragraph 4, the word
primes is closest in meaning to
a)
b)
c)
d)

allows
facilitates
prioritizes
prepares

a)

Negative Factual Information Question

b)

10. According to paragraph 4, which of the

following is NOT an effective study skill?

c)

d)
Purpose Question
6. The author mentions writing a research
paper in paragraph 2 in order to
a) give an example of how a person
could use reasoning processes with
information in short-term memory
b) draw a conclusion about working
memory and the writing process
c) compare working memory with shortterm memory
d) show how working memory differs
from short-term memory

Vocabulary Question
7. According to paragraph 3, the word
critical is closest in meaning to
a)
b)
c)
d)

negative
key
dependent
serious

a) Thinking about your current

knowledge of a topic
b) Asking internal questions while
reading
c) Explaining the material to a classmate
d) Understanding the main idea so that
individual facts make sense

Factual Information Question

11. According to paragraph 5, how is sleep
related to learning?
a) Daily events undergo processing in
working memory during REM sleep.
b) In REM sleep, the day's memories
are reviewed and strengthened in the
hippocampus.
c) Permanent long-term memories are
associated with new learning in REM
sleep.
d) Sleep promotes an increased ability to
focus and concentrate.

Factual Information Question

Factual Information Question
8. According to paragraph 3, what
determines whether a memory will be
remembered?
a) The storage of the memory in the
hippocampus
b) Associating the memory with a
person
c) Its relationship to what is already
known
d) The amount of repetition

12. According to paragraph 6, where are

permanent memories stored?
a) The hippocampus
b) fn the frontal lobes
c) In neuronal networks connecting
initial sensory inputs with the
hippocampus
d) In groups of connected neurons
located in the various areas where
the sensory information was first
perceived

Diagnostic Chapter Learning

Prose Summary Question

13. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below.
Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most
important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because
they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.
This question is worth two points (3/3 = 2, 2/3 = I, 1/3 = 0).
Brain research has contributed to improved study-skill techniques.
a) Long-term memory storage involves well-encoded information that is re-accessed and
re-processed over time.
b) The hippocampus is central in the memorization process because it is the location
where new learning is assodated with an individual 's established knowledge base.
c) Learning and memory are two distinct phenomena that are closely linked. Each is
reliant on the other.
d) While there are three types of memory, the transfer of information from short- to
long-term memory is most significant in the field of education.
e) A modulated review schedule as outlined by Hermann Ebbinghaus whereby material
is recalJed and reprocessed is the most effective in achieving long-term retention.
f) Academic learning strategies involving patterning, making associations with prior
knowledge, and review methods relate to current neuroscientific findings.
Test Time:

minutes
Score: /14
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Answer Key
Refer to the answer key to correct your test and find out why you made errors. Here you will
find information about why each answer choice is either correct or incorrect.

Reading Test Diagnostic Chart

Which types of questions did you get wrong? Fill in the Reading Test Diagnostic chart (DR2)
on page 604 to determine which question types or skills you find difficult. Afterwards, study
the corresponding pages in your book.

Reading Test Score Chart

Record your test score in the Reading Test Score Chart (DR2) on page 605. Keep track of
your progress to see whether you improve.

Speed-reading Chart
Record the amount of time it took you to read the passage in the Speed-reading Chart (DT)
on page 605.

Reading Test Speed Chart

Record the time it took you to read the passage and answer the questions in the
Reading Test Speed Chart (D) on page 605.

DR3 Understanding TOEFL Reading Question Types

Match the reading question type with the TOEFL Question name (marked in bold) before
the reading questions on pages xlix- li. Indicate which question numbers correspond to each
question type. Number 1 is done for you. Complete the rest of the chart.

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