Sustainabledevelopment

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Sustainabledevelopmentisaprocessformeetinghumandevelopmentgoals
whilesustainingtheabilityofnaturalsystemstocontinuetoprovidethenatural
resourcesandecosystemservicesuponwhichtheeconomyandsocietydepends.
Whilethemodernconceptofsustainabledevelopmentisderivedmoststrongly
fromthe1987BrundtlandReport,itisrootedinearlierideasaboutsustainable
forestmanagementandtwentiethcenturyenvironmentalconcerns.Astheconcept
developed,ithasshiftedtofocusmoreoneconomicdevelopment,social
developmentandenvironmentalprotection.
Sustainabledevelopmentistheorganizingprincipleforsustainingfiniteresources
necessarytoprovidefortheneedsoffuturegenerationsoflifeontheplanet.Itisa
processthatenvisionsadesirablefuturestateforhumansocietiesinwhichliving
conditionsandresourceusecontinuetomeethumanneedswithoutundermining
the"integrity,stabilityandbeauty"ofnaturalbioticsystems.

Contents
1 History
2 TheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)
3 Dimensions
3.1 Environmental
3.1.1 Agriculture
3.2 Economics
3.2.1 Environmentaleconomics
3.2.2 Energy
3.2.3 Manufacturing
3.2.4 Technology
3.2.5 Transport
3.2.6 Business
3.2.7 Income
3.2.8 Architecture
3.3 Politics
3.4 Culture
4 Themes
4.1 Progress
4.2 Measurement
4.3 Naturalcapital
4.4 Businessasusual
5 Criticism
6 Seealso
7 References
8 Literaturecited
9 Furtherreading
10 Externallinks

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History
Sustainabilitycanbedefinedasthepracticeofmaintainingprocessesof
productivityindefinitelynaturalorhumanmadebyreplacingresources
usedwithresourcesofequalorgreatervaluewithoutdegradingor
endangeringnaturalbioticsystems.[2]Sustainabledevelopmentties
togetherconcernforthecarryingcapacityofnaturalsystemswiththe
social,political,andeconomicchallengesfacedbyhumanity.Sustainability
scienceisthestudyoftheconceptsofsustainabledevelopmentand
environmentalscience.Thereisanadditionalfocusonthepresent
generations'responsibilitytoregenerate,maintainandimproveplanetary
resourcesforusebyfuturegenerations.[3]
Sustainabledevelopmenthasitsrootsinideasaboutsustainableforest
managementwhichweredevelopedinEuropeduringtheseventeenthand
TheBlueMarble,photographedfrom
Apollo17in1972,quicklybecame
eighteenthcenturies.[4][5]Inresponsetoagrowingawarenessofthe
aniconofenvironmental
depletionoftimberresourcesinEngland,JohnEvelynarguedthat"sowing
andplantingoftreeshadtoberegardedasanationaldutyofevery
conservation. [1]
landowner,inordertostopthedestructiveoverexploitationofnatural
resources"inhis1662essaySylva.In1713HansCarlvonCarlowitz,a
seniorminingadministratorintheserviceofElectorFrederickAugustusIofSaxonypublishedSylvicultura
oeconomica,a400pageworkonforestry.BuildingupontheideasofEvelynandFrenchministerJeanBaptiste
Colbert,vonCarlowitzdevelopedtheconceptofmanagingforestsforsustainedyield.[4]Hisworkinfluenced
others,includingAlexandervonHumboldtandGeorgLudwigHartig,eventuallyleadingtothedevelopmentofa
scienceofforestry.ThisinturninfluencedpeoplelikeGiffordPinchot,firstheadoftheUSForestService,whose
approachtoforestmanagementwasdrivenbytheideaofwiseuseofresources,andAldoLeopoldwhoseland
ethicwasinfluentialinthedevelopmentoftheenvironmentalmovementinthe1960s.[4][5]
FollowingthepublicationofRachelCarson'sSilentSpringin1962,thedevelopingenvironmentalmovementdrew
attentiontotherelationshipbetweeneconomicgrowthanddevelopmentandenvironmentaldegradation.Kenneth
E.Bouldinginhisinfluential1966essayTheEconomicsoftheComingSpaceshipEarthidentifiedtheneedforthe
economicsystemtofititselftotheecologicalsystemwithitslimitedpoolsofresources.[5]Oneofthefirstusesof
thetermsustainableinthecontemporarysensewasbytheClubofRomein1972initsclassicreportontheLimits
toGrowth,writtenbyagroupofscientistsledbyDennisandDonellaMeadowsoftheMassachusettsInstituteof
Technology.Describingthedesirable"stateofglobalequilibrium",theauthorswrote:"Wearesearchingfora
modeloutputthatrepresentsaworldsystemthatissustainablewithoutsuddenanduncontrolledcollapseand
capableofsatisfyingthebasicmaterialrequirementsofallofitspeople."[3]
In1980theInternationalUnionfortheConservationofNaturepublishedaworldconservationstrategythat
includedoneofthefirstreferencestosustainabledevelopmentasaglobalpriority[6]andintroducedtheterm
"sustainabledevelopment".[7]Twoyearslater,theUnitedNationsWorldCharterforNatureraisedfiveprinciples
ofconservationbywhichhumanconductaffectingnatureistobeguidedandjudged.[8]In1987theUnitedNations
WorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopmentreleasedthereportOurCommonFuture,commonlycalled
theBrundtlandReport.Thereportincludedwhatisnowoneofthemostwidelyrecogniseddefinitionsof
sustainabledevelopment.[9][10]

Sustainabledevelopmentisdevelopmentthatmeetstheneedsofthepresentwithoutcompromising
theabilityoffuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds.Itcontainswithinittwokeyconcepts:
Theconceptof'needs',inparticular,theessentialneedsoftheworld'spoor,towhichoverriding

priorityshouldbegivenand
Theideaoflimitationsimposedbythestateoftechnologyandsocialorganizationonthe
environment'sabilitytomeetpresentandfutureneeds.

WorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment,OurCommonFuture(1987)

SincetheBrundtlandReport,theconceptofsustainabledevelopmenthasdevelopedbeyondtheinitial
intergenerationalframeworktofocusmoreonthegoalof"sociallyinclusiveandenvironmentallysustainable
economicgrowth".[11]In1992,theUNConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopmentpublishedtheEarthCharter,
whichoutlinesthebuildingofajust,sustainable,andpeacefulglobalsocietyinthe21stcentury.Theactionplan
Agenda21forsustainabledevelopmentidentifiedinformation,integration,andparticipationaskeybuilding
blockstohelpcountriesachievedevelopmentthatrecognisestheseinterdependentpillars.Itemphasisesthatin
sustainabledevelopmenteveryoneisauserandproviderofinformation.Itstressestheneedtochangefromold
sectorcenteredwaysofdoingbusinesstonewapproachesthatinvolvecrosssectoralcoordinationandthe
integrationofenvironmentalandsocialconcernsintoalldevelopmentprocesses.Furthermore,Agenda21
emphasisesthatbroadpublicparticipationindecisionmakingisafundamentalprerequisiteforachieving
sustainabledevelopment.[12]
UndertheprinciplesoftheUnitedNationsChartertheMillenniumDeclarationidentifiedprinciplesandtreatieson
sustainabledevelopment,includingeconomicdevelopment,socialdevelopmentandenvironmentalprotection.
Broadlydefined,sustainabledevelopmentisasystemsapproachtogrowthanddevelopmentandtomanage
natural,produced,andsocialcapitalforthewelfareoftheirownandfuturegenerations.Thetermsustainable
developmentasusedbytheUnitedNationsincorporatesbothissuesassociatedwithlanddevelopmentandbroader
issuesofhumandevelopmentsuchaseducation,publichealth,andstandardofliving.
A2013studyconcludedthatsustainabilityreportingshouldbereframedthroughthelensoffourinterconnected
domains:ecology,economics,politicsandculture.[13]

TheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)
OnSeptember2015,theUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyformallyadoptedthe"universal,integratedand
transformative"2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment(https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs),asetof
17SustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs).
Thegoalsaretobeimplementedandachievedineverycountryfromthe
year2016to2030.

Dimensions
Sustainabledevelopment,orsustainability,hasbeendescribedintermsof
threespheres,dimensions,domainsorpillars,i.e.theenvironment,the
economyandsociety.Thethreesphereframeworkwasinitiallyproposed
bytheeconomistRenPassetin1979.[14]Ithasalsobeenwordedas
"economic,environmentalandsocial"or"ecology,economyand
equity."[15]Thishasbeenexpandedbysomeauthorstoincludea
fourthpillarofculture,[16][17]institutionsorgovernance.[15]

Environmental

Theseiconsrepresentthe17headline
SDGs.Thereare169targetsunder
thegoals.

Theecologicalstabilityofhumansettlementsispartofthe
relationshipbetweenhumansandtheirnatural,socialandbuilt
environments.[18]Alsotermedhumanecology,thisbroadensthe
focusofsustainabledevelopmenttoincludethedomainofhuman
health.Fundamentalhumanneedssuchastheavailabilityand
qualityofair,water,foodandshelterarealsotheecological
foundationsforsustainabledevelopment[19]addressingpublic
healthriskthroughinvestmentsinecosystemservicescanbea
powerfulandtransformativeforceforsustainabledevelopment
which,inthissense,extendstoallspecies.[20]
Environmentalsustainabilityconcernsthenaturalenvironment
andhowitenduresandremainsdiverseandproductive.Since
naturalresourcesarederivedfromtheenvironment,thestateof
air,water,andtheclimateareofparticularconcern.TheIPCC
FifthAssessmentReportoutlinescurrentknowledgeabout
scientific,technicalandsocioeconomicinformation
concerningclimatechange,andlistsoptionsforadaptationand
mitigation.[21]Environmentalsustainabilityrequiressocietyto
designactivitiestomeethumanneedswhilepreservingthelife
supportsystemsoftheplanet.This,forexample,entailsusing
watersustainably,utilizingrenewableenergy,andsustainable
materialsupplies(e.g.harvestingwoodfromforestsatarate
thatmaintainsthebiomassandbiodiversity).

Schemeofsustainabledevelopment:
attheconfluenceofthreeconstituentparts.(2006)

Relationshipbetweenecologicalfootprintand
HumanDevelopmentIndex(HDI)

Anunsustainablesituationoccurswhennaturalcapital(thesumtotalofnature'sresources)isusedupfasterthanit
canbereplenished.Sustainabilityrequiresthathumanactivityonlyusesnature'sresourcesatarateatwhichthey
canbereplenishednaturally.Inherentlytheconceptofsustainabledevelopmentisintertwinedwiththeconceptof
carryingcapacity.Theoretically,thelongtermresultofenvironmentaldegradationistheinabilitytosustainhuman
life.Suchdegradationonaglobalscaleshouldimplyanincreaseinhumandeathrateuntilpopulationfallstowhat
thedegradedenvironmentcansupport.Ifthedegradationcontinuesbeyondacertaintippingpointorcritical
thresholditwouldleadtoeventualextinctionforhumanity.
Consumptionofnonrenewableresources

Stateofenvironment

Sustainability

Morethannature'sabilitytoreplenish

Environmentaldegradation Notsustainable

Equaltonature'sabilitytoreplenish

Environmentalequilibrium Steadystateeconomy

Lessthannature'sabilitytoreplenish

Environmentalrenewal

Environmentallysustainable

Integralelementsforasustainabledevelopmentareresearchandinnovationactivities.Atellingexampleisthe
Europeanenvironmentalresearchandinnovationpolicy,whichaimsatdefiningandimplementinga
transformativeagendatogreeningtheeconomyandthesocietyasawholesotoachieveatrulysustainable
development.ResearchandinnovationinEuropeisfinanciallysupportedbytheprogrammeHorizon2020,which
isalsoopentoparticipationworldwide.[22]Apromisingdirectiontowardssustainabledevelopmentistodesign
systemsthatareflexibleandreversible.[23][24]
Pollutionofthepublicresourcesisreallynotadifferentaction,itjustisareversetragedyofthecommons,inthat
insteadoftakingsomethingout,somethingisputintothecommons.Whenthecostsofpollutingthecommonsare
notcalculatedintothecostoftheitemsconsumed,thenitbecomesonlynaturaltopollute,asthecostofpollution
isexternaltothecostofthegoodsproducedandthecostofcleaningthewastebeforeitisdischargedexceedsthe

costofreleasingthewastedirectlyintothecommons.So,theonlywaytosolvethisproblemisbyprotectingthe
ecologyofthecommonsbymakingit,throughtaxesorfines,morecostlytoreleasethewastedirectlyintothe
commonsthanwouldbethecostofcleaningthewastebeforedischarge.[25]
So,onecantrytoappealtotheethicsofthesituationbydoingtherightthingasanindividual,butintheabsence
ofanydirectconsequences,theindividualwilltendtodowhatisbestforthepersonandnotwhatisbestforthe
commongoodofthepublic.Onceagain,thisissueneedstobeaddressed.Because,leftunaddressed,the
developmentofthecommonlyownedpropertywillbecomeimpossibletoachieveinasustainableway.So,this
topiciscentraltotheunderstandingofcreatingasustainablesituationfromthemanagementofthepublic
resourcesthatareusedforpersonaluse.
Agriculture
Sustainableagricultureconsistsofenvironmentallyfriendlymethodsoffarmingthatallowtheproductionofcrops
orlivestockwithoutdamagetohumanornaturalsystems.Itinvolvespreventingadverseeffectstosoil,water,
biodiversity,surroundingordownstreamresourcesaswellastothoseworkingorlivingonthefarmorin
neighboringareas.Theconceptofsustainableagricultureextendsintergenerationally,passingonaconservedor
improvednaturalresource,biotic,andeconomicbaseratherthanonewhichhasbeendepletedorpolluted.[26]
Elementsofsustainableagricultureincludepermaculture,agroforestry,mixedfarming,multiplecropping,and
croprotation.[27]
Numeroussustainabilitystandardsandcertificationsystemsexist,includingorganiccertification,Rainforest
Alliance,FairTrade,UTZCertified,BirdFriendly,andtheCommonCodefortheCoffeeCommunity(4C).[28][29]

Economics
Ithasbeensuggestedthatbecauseofruralpovertyand
overexploitation,environmentalresourcesshouldbetreatedas
importanteconomicassets,callednaturalcapital.[30]Economic
developmenthastraditionallyrequiredagrowthinthegrossdomestic
product.ThismodelofunlimitedpersonalandGDPgrowthmaybe
over.[31]Sustainabledevelopmentmayinvolveimprovementsinthe
qualityoflifeformanybutmaynecessitateadecreaseinresource
consumption.[32]AccordingtoecologicaleconomistMalteFaber,
ecologicaleconomicsisdefinedbyitsfocusonnature,justice,and
time.Issuesofintergenerationalequity,irreversibilityof
environmentalchange,uncertaintyoflongtermoutcomes,and
sustainabledevelopmentguideecologicaleconomicanalysisand
valuation.[33]

Asewagetreatmentplantthatusessolar
energy,locatedatSantuarideLluc
monastery,Majorca.

Asearlyasthe1970s,theconceptofsustainabilitywasusedto
describeaneconomy"inequilibriumwithbasicecologicalsupportsystems."[34]Scientistsinmanyfieldshave
highlightedTheLimitstoGrowth,[35][36]andeconomistshavepresentedalternatives,forexamplea'steadystate
economy'[37]toaddressconcernsovertheimpactsofexpandinghumandevelopmentontheplanet.In1987the
economistEdwardBarbierpublishedthestudyTheConceptofSustainableEconomicDevelopment,wherehe
recognisedthatgoalsofenvironmentalconservationandeconomicdevelopmentarenotconflictingandcanbe
reinforcingeachother.[38]

AWorldBankstudyfrom1999concludedthatbasedonthetheoryofgenuinesavings,policymakershavemany
possibleinterventionstoincreasesustainability,inmacroeconomicsorpurelyenvironmental.[39]Astudyfrom
2001notedthatefficientpoliciesforrenewableenergyandpollutionarecompatiblewithincreasinghuman
welfare,eventuallyreachingagoldenrulesteadystate.[40]Thestudy,InterpretingSustainabilityinEconomic
Terms,foundthreepillarsofsustainabledevelopment,interlinkage,intergenerationalequity,anddynamic
efficiency.[41]
ButGilbertRistpointsoutthattheWorldBankhastwistedthenotionofsustainabledevelopmenttoprovethat
economicdevelopmentneednotbedeterredintheinterestofpreservingtheecosystem.Hewrites:"Fromthis
angle,'sustainabledevelopment'lookslikeacoverupoperation....Thethingthatismeanttobesustainedisreally
'development',notthetolerancecapacityoftheecosystemorofhumansocieties."[42]
TheWorldBank,aleadingproducerofenvironmentalknowledge,continuestoadvocatethewinwinprospectsfor
economicgrowthandecologicalstabilityevenasitseconomistsexpresstheirdoubts.[43]HermanDaly,an
economistfortheBankfrom1988to1994,writes:
WhenauthorsofWDR'92[thehighlyinfluential1992WorldDevelopmentReportthatfeaturedthe
environment]weredraftingthereport,theycalledmeaskingforexamplesof"winwin"strategiesin
mywork.WhatcouldIsay?Noneexistsinthatpureformtherearetradeoffs,not"winwins."But
theywanttoseeaworldof"winwins"basedonarticlesoffaith,notfact.Iwantedtocontribute
becauseWDRsareimportantintheBank,[because]taskmanagersread[them]tofindphilosophical
justificationfortheirlatestroundofprojects.Buttheydidnotwanttohearabouthowthingsreally
are,orwhatIfindinmywork..."[44]
Ametareviewin2002lookedatenvironmentalandeconomicvaluationsandfoundalackof"sustainability
policies".[45]Astudyin2004askedifweconsumetoomuch.[46]Astudyconcludedin2007thatknowledge,
manufacturedandhumancapital(healthandeducation)hasnotcompensatedforthedegradationofnaturalcapital
inmanypartsoftheworld.[47]Ithasbeensuggestedthatintergenerationalequitycanbeincorporatedintoa
sustainabledevelopmentanddecisionmaking,ashasbecomecommonineconomicvaluationsofclimate
economics.[48]Ametareviewin2009identifiedconditionsforastrongcasetoactonclimatechange,andcalled
formoreworktofullyaccountoftherelevanteconomicsandhowitaffectshumanwelfare.[49]Accordingtofree
marketenvironmentalistJohnBaden"theimprovementofenvironmentqualitydependsonthemarketeconomy
andtheexistenceoflegitimateandprotectedpropertyrights."Theyenabletheeffectivepracticeofpersonal
responsibilityandthedevelopmentofmechanismstoprotecttheenvironment.TheStatecaninthiscontext"create
conditionswhichencouragethepeopletosavetheenvironment."[50]
Environmentaleconomics
Thetotalenvironmentincludesnotjustthebiosphereofearth,air,andwater,butalsohumaninteractionswith
thesethings,withnature,andwhathumanshavecreatedastheirsurroundings.[51]
Ascountriesaroundtheworldcontinuetoadvanceeconomically,theyputastrainontheabilityofthenatural
environmenttoabsorbthehighlevelofpollutantsthatarecreatedasapartofthiseconomicgrowth.Therefore,
solutionsneedtobefoundsothattheeconomiesoftheworldcancontinuetogrow,butnotattheexpenseofthe
publicgood.Intheworldofeconomicstheamountofenvironmentalqualitymustbeconsideredaslimitedin
supplyandthereforeistreatedasascarceresource.Thisisaresourcetobeprotectedandtheonlyrealefficient
waytodoitinamarketeconomyistolookattheoverallsituationofpollutionfromabenefitcostperspective.It

thenbecomesessentiallyanallocationofresources,basedonanevaluationoftheexpectedcourseofactionand
theconsequencesofthisaction,whencomparedtoanalternativecourseofactionthatmightallocatethelimited
resourcesinadifferentway.
Benefitcostanalysisbasicallycanlookatseveralwaysofsolvingaproblemandthenassigningthebestroutefora
solution,basedonthesetofconsequencesthatwouldresultfromthefurtherdevelopmentoftheindividualcourses
ofaction,andthenchoosingthecourseofactionthatresultsintheleastamountofdamagetotheexpected
outcomefortheenvironmentalqualitythatremainsafterthatdevelopmentorprocesstakesplace.Further
complicatingthisanalysisaretheinterrelationshipsofthevariouspartsoftheenvironmentthatmightbeimpacted
bythechosencourseofaction.Sometimesitisalmostimpossibletopredictthevariousoutcomesofacourseof
action,duetotheunexpectedconsequencesandtheamountofunknownsthatarenotaccountedforinthebenefit
costanalysis.
Energy
Sustainableenergyiscleanandcanbeusedoveralongperiodoftime.Unlikefossilfuelsthatmostcountriesare
using,renewableenergyonlyproduceslittleorevennopollution.[52]Themostcommontypesofrenewableenergy
inUSarehydroelectric,solarandwindenergy.Solarenergyiscommonlyusedonpublicparkingmeters,street
lightsandtheroofofbuildings.[53]Windpowerhasexpandedquickly,it'sshareofworldwideelectricityusageat
theendof2014was3.1%.[54]MostofCaliforniasfossilfuelinfrastructuresaresitedinornearlowincome
communities,andhavetraditionallysufferedthemostfromCaliforniasfossilfuelenergysystem.These
communitiesarehistoricallyleftoutduringthedecisionmakingprocess,andoftenendupwithdirtypowerplants
andotherdirtyenergyprojectsthatpoisontheairandharmthearea.Thesetoxicantsaremajorcontributorsto
healthproblemsinthecommunities.Asrenewableenergybecomesmorecommon,fossilfuelinfrastructuresare
replacedbyrenewables,providingbettersocialequitytothesecommunities.[55]Overall,andinthelongrun,
sustainabledevelopmentinthefieldofenergyisalsodeemedtocontributetoeconomicsustainabilityandnational
securityofcommunities,thusbeingincreasinglyencouragedthroughinvestmentpolicies.[56]
Manufacturing
Technology
Oneofthecoreconceptsinsustainabledevelopmentisthattechnologycanbeusedtoassistpeoplemeettheir
developmentalneeds.Technologytomeetthesesustainabledevelopmentneedsisoftenreferredtoasappropriate
technology,whichisanideologicalmovement(anditsmanifestations)originallyarticulatedasintermediate
technologybytheeconomistE.F.Schumacherinhisinfluentialwork,SmallisBeautiful.andnowcoversawide
rangeoftechnologies.[57]BothSchumacherandmanymoderndayproponentsofappropriatetechnologyalso
emphasisethetechnologyaspeoplecentered.[58]Todayappropriatetechnologyisoftendevelopedusingopen
sourceprinciples,whichhaveledtoopensourceappropriatetechnology(OSAT)andthusmanyoftheplansofthe
technologycanbefreelyfoundontheInternet.[59]OSAThasbeenproposedasanewmodelofenablinginnovation
forsustainabledevelopment.[60][61]
Transport
Transportationisalargecontributortogreenhousegasemissions.Itissaidthatonethirdofallgassesproducedare
duetotransportation.[62]Motorizedtransportalsoreleasesexhaustfumesthatcontainparticulatematterwhichis
hazardoustohumanhealthandacontributortoclimatechange.[63]

Sustainabletransporthasmanysocialandeconomicbenefitsthatcanacceleratelocalsustainabledevelopment.
AccordingtoaseriesofreportsbytheLowEmissionDevelopmentStrategiesGlobalPartnership(LEDSGP),
sustainabletransportcanhelpcreatejobs,[64]improvecommutersafetythroughinvestmentinbicyclelanesand
pedestrianpathways,[65]makeaccesstoemploymentandsocialopportunitiesmoreaffordableandefficient.Italso
offersapracticalopportunitytosavepeoplestimeandhouseholdincomeaswellasgovernmentbudgets,[66]
makinginvestmentinsustainabletransporta'winwin'opportunity.
Somewesterncountriesaremakingtransportationmoresustainableinbothlongtermandshortterm
implementations.[67]AnexampleisthemodificationsinavailabletransportationinFreiburg,Germany.Thecity
hasimplementedextensivemethodsofpublictransportation,cycling,andwalking,alongwithlargeareaswhere
carsarenotallowed.[62]
Sincemanywesterncountriesarehighlyautomobileorientatedareas,themaintransitthatpeopleuseispersonal
vehicles.About80%oftheirtravelinvolvescars.[62]Therefore,California,isoneofthehighestgreenhousegases
emittersintheUnitedStates.Thefederalgovernmenthastocomeupwithsomeplanstoreducethetotalnumber
ofvehicletripsinordertolowergreenhousegasesemission.Suchas:
Improvepublictransitthroughtheprovisionoflargercoverageareainordertoprovidemoremobilityand
accessibility,newtechnologytoprovideamorereliableandresponsivepublictransportationnetwork.[68]
Encouragewalkingandbikingthroughtheprovisionofwiderpedestrianpathway,bikesharestationin
commercialdowntown,locateparkinglotfarfromtheshoppingcenter,limitonstreetparking,slowertraffic
laneindowntownarea.
Increasethecostofcarownershipandgastaxesthroughincreasedparkingfeesandtolls,encouraging
peopletodrivemorefuelefficientvehicles.Theycanproducesocialequityproblem,sincelowerpeople
usuallydriveoldervehicleswithlowerfuelefficiency.Governmentcanusetheextrarevenuecollectedfrom
taxesandtollstoimprovethepublictransportationandbenefitthepoorcommunity.[69]
Otherstatesandnationshavebuilteffortstotranslateknowledgeinbehavioraleconomicsintoevidencebased
sustainabletransportationpolicies.
Business
Themostbroadlyacceptedcriterionforcorporatesustainabilityconstitutesafirmsefficientuseofnaturalcapital.
Thisecoefficiencyisusuallycalculatedastheeconomicvalueaddedbyafirminrelationtoitsaggregated
ecologicalimpact.[70]ThisideahasbeenpopularisedbytheWorldBusinessCouncilforSustainableDevelopment
(WBCSD)underthefollowingdefinition:"Ecoefficiencyisachievedbythedeliveryofcompetitivelypriced
goodsandservicesthatsatisfyhumanneedsandbringqualityoflife,whileprogressivelyreducingecological
impactsandresourceintensitythroughoutthelifecycletoalevelatleastinlinewiththeearthscarryingcapacity."
(DeSimoneandPopoff,1997:47)[71]
Similartotheecoefficiencyconceptbutsofarlessexploredisthesecondcriterionforcorporatesustainability.
Socioefficiency[72]describestherelationbetweenafirm'svalueaddedanditssocialimpact.Whereas,itcanbe
assumedthatmostcorporateimpactsontheenvironmentarenegative(apartfromrareexceptionssuchasthe
plantingoftrees)thisisnottrueforsocialimpacts.Thesecanbeeitherpositive(e.g.corporategiving,creationof
employment)ornegative(e.g.workaccidents,mobbingofemployees,humanrightsabuses).Dependingonthe
typeofimpactsocioefficiencythuseithertriestominimisenegativesocialimpacts(i.e.accidentspervalueadded)
ormaximisepositivesocialimpacts(i.e.donationspervalueadded)inrelationtothevalueadded.

Bothecoefficiencyandsocioefficiencyareconcernedprimarilywithincreasingeconomicsustainability.Inthis
processtheyinstrumentalisebothnaturalandsocialcapitalaimingtobenefitfromwinwinsituations.However,as
DyllickandHockerts[72]pointoutthebusinesscasealonewillnotbesufficienttorealisesustainabledevelopment.
Theypointtowardsecoeffectiveness,socioeffectiveness,sufficiency,andecoequityasfourcriteriathatneedto
bemetifsustainabledevelopmentistobereached.
Income
Atthepresenttime,sustainabledevelopment,alongwiththesolidaritycalledforinCatholicsocialteaching,can
reducepoverty.Whileovermanythousandsofyearsthestronger(economicallyorphysically)overcamethe
weaker,nowadaysforvariousreasonsCatholicsocialteaching,socialsolidarity,sustainabledevelopmentthe
strongerhelpstheweaker.Thisaidmaytakevariousforms.TheStrongeroffersrealhelpratherthanstrivingfor
theeliminationorannihilationoftheother.Sustainabledevelopmentreducespovertythroughfinancial(among
otherthings,abalancedbudget),environmental(livingconditions),andsocial(includingequalityofincome)
means.[73]
Architecture
InsustainablearchitecturetherecentmovementsofNewUrbanismandNewClassicalarchitecturepromotea
sustainableapproachtowardsconstruction,thatappreciatesanddevelopssmartgrowth,architecturaltraditionand
classicaldesign.[74][75]ThisincontrasttomodernistandInternationalStylearchitecture,aswellasopposingto
solitaryhousingestatesandsuburbansprawl,withlongcommutingdistancesandlargeecologicalfootprints.[76]
Bothtrendsstartedinthe1980s.(Itshouldbenotedthatsustainablearchitectureispredominantlyrelevanttothe
economicsdomainwhilearchitecturallandscapingpertainsmoretotheecologicaldomain.)

Politics
Astudyconcludedthatsocialindicatorsand,therefore,sustainabledevelopmentindicators,arescientific
constructswhoseprincipalobjectiveistoinformpublicpolicymaking.[77]TheInternationalInstitutefor
SustainableDevelopmenthassimilarlydevelopedapoliticalpolicyframework,linkedtoasustainabilityindexfor
establishingmeasurableentitiesandmetrics.Theframeworkconsistsofsixcoreareas,internationaltradeand
investment,economicpolicy,climatechangeandenergy,measurementandassessment,naturalresource
management,andtheroleofcommunicationtechnologiesinsustainabledevelopment.
TheUnitedNationsGlobalCompactCitiesProgrammehasdefinedsustainablepoliticaldevelopmentinawaythat
broadenstheusualdefinitionbeyondstatesandgovernance.Thepoliticalisdefinedasthedomainofpracticesand
meaningsassociatedwithbasicissuesofsocialpowerastheypertaintotheorganisation,authorisation,
legitimationandregulationofasociallifeheldincommon.Thisdefinitionisinaccordwiththeviewthatpolitical
changeisimportantforrespondingtoeconomic,ecologicalandculturalchallenges.Italsomeansthatthepolitics
ofeconomicchangecanbeaddressed.Theyhavelistedsevensubdomainsofthedomainofpolitics:[78]
1.Organizationandgovernance
2.Lawandjustice
3.Communicationandcritique
4.Representationandnegotiation
5.Securityandaccord
6.Dialogueandreconciliation
7.Ethicsandaccountability

ThisaccordswiththeBrundtlandCommissionemphasisondevelopmentthatisguidedbyhumanrightsprinciples
(seeabove).

Culture
Workingwithadifferentemphasis,someresearchersandinstitutions
havepointedoutthatafourthdimensionshouldbeaddedtothe
dimensionsofsustainabledevelopment,sincethetriplebottomline
dimensionsofeconomic,environmentalandsocialdonotseemtobe
enoughtoreflectthecomplexityofcontemporarysociety.Inthis
context,theAgenda21forcultureandtheUnitedCitiesandLocal
Governments(UCLG)ExecutiveBureauleadthepreparationofthe
policystatement"Culture:FourthPillarofSustainableDevelopment",
passedon17November2010,intheframeworkoftheWorldSummit
ofLocalandRegionalLeaders3rdWorldCongressofUCLG,held
inMexicoCity.althoughsomewhichstillarguethateconomicsis
primary,andcultureandpoliticsshouldbeincludedin'thesocial'.This
documentinauguratesanewperspectiveandpointstotherelation
betweencultureandsustainabledevelopmentthroughadualapproach:
developingasolidculturalpolicyandadvocatingaculturaldimension
inallpublicpolicies.TheCirclesofSustainabilityapproach
distinguishesthefourdomainsofeconomic,ecological,politicaland
culturalsustainability.[79][80]

Framingofsustainabledevelopment
progressaccordingtotheCirclesof
Sustainability,usedbytheUnitedNations.

Otherorganizationshavealsosupportedtheideaofafourthdomainofsustainabledevelopment.TheNetworkof
Excellence"SustainableDevelopmentinaDiverseWorld",[81]sponsoredbytheEuropeanUnion,integrates
multidisciplinarycapacitiesandinterpretsculturaldiversityasakeyelementofanewstrategyforsustainable
development.TheFourthPillarofSustainableDevelopmentTheoryhasbeenreferencedbyexecutivedirectorof
IMIInstituteatUNESCOVitoDiBari[82]inhismanifestoofartandarchitecturalmovementNeoFuturism,whose
namewasinspiredbythe1987UnitedNationsreportOurCommonFuture.TheCirclesofSustainability
approachusedbyMetropolisdefinesthe(fourth)culturaldomainaspractices,discourses,andmaterial
expressions,which,overtime,expresscontinuitiesanddiscontinuitiesofsocialmeaning.[78]

Themes
Progress
TheUnitedNationsConferenceonSustainableDevelopment(UNCSDalsoknownasRio2012)wasthethird
internationalconferenceonsustainabledevelopment,whichaimedatreconcilingtheeconomicandenvironmental
goalsoftheglobalcommunity.AnoutcomeofthisconferencewasthedevelopmentoftheSustainable
DevelopmentGoalsthataimtopromotesustainableprogressandeliminateinequalitiesaroundtheworld.
However,fewnationsmettheWorldWideFundforNature'sdefinitionofsustainabledevelopmentcriteria
establishedin2006.[83]Althoughsomenationsaremoredevelopedthanothers,allnationsareconstantly
developingbecauseeachnationstruggleswithperpetuatingdisparities,inequalitiesandunequalaccessto
fundamentalrightsandfreedoms.[84]

Measurement

In2007areportfortheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencystated:
"Whilemuchdiscussionandefforthasgoneintosustainability
indicators,noneoftheresultingsystemsclearlytellsuswhetherour
societyissustainable.Atbest,theycantellusthatweareheadingin
thewrongdirection,orthatourcurrentactivitiesarenotsustainable.
Moreoften,theysimplydrawourattentiontotheexistenceof
problems,doinglittletotellustheoriginofthoseproblemsand
nothingtotellushowtosolvethem."[85]Nevertheless,amajorityof
authorsassumethatasetofwelldefinedandharmonisedindicatorsis
theonlywaytomakesustainabilitytangible.Thoseindicatorsare
expectedtobeidentifiedandadjustedthroughempiricalobservations
(trialanderror).[86]
Themostcommoncritiquesarerelatedtoissueslikedataquality,
comparability,objectivefunctionandthenecessaryresources.[87]
Howeveramoregeneralcriticismiscomingfromtheproject
managementcommunity:Howcanasustainabledevelopmentbe
achievedatgloballevelifwecannotmonitoritinanysingle
project?[88][89]

Deforestationandincreasedroadbuilding
intheAmazonRainforestareaconcern
becauseofincreasedhumanencroachment
uponwildernessareas,increasedresource
extractionandfurtherthreatsto
biodiversity.

TheCubanbornresearcherandentrepreneurSoniaBuenosuggestsanalternativeapproachthatisbaseduponthe
integral,longtermcostbenefitrelationshipasameasureandmonitoringtoolforthesustainabilityofevery
project,activityorenterprise.[90][91]Furthermore,thisconceptaimstobeapracticalguidelinetowardssustainable
developmentfollowingtheprincipleofconservationandincrementofvalueratherthanrestrictingthe
consumptionofresources.
ReasonablequalificationsofsustainabilityareseenU.S.GreenBuildingCouncils(USGBC)LeadershipinEnergy
andEnvironmentalDesign(LEED).Thisdesignincorporatessomeecological,economic,andsocialelements.The
goalspresentedbyLEEDdesigngoalsaresustainablesites,waterefficiency,energyandatmosphericemission
reduction,materialandresourcesefficiency,andindoorenvironmentalquality.Althoughamountofstructuresfor
sustainabilitydevelopmentismany,thesequalificationhasbecomeastandardforsustainablebuilding.
RecentresearcheffortscreatedalsotheSDEWESIndextobenchmarktheperformanceofcitiesacrossaspectsthat
arerelatedtoenergy,waterandenvironmentsystems.TheSDEWESIndexconsistsof7dimensions,35indicators,
andcloseto20subindicators.Itiscurrentlyappliedto58cities.[92]

Naturalcapital
Thesustainabledevelopmentdebateisbasedontheassumptionthatsocietiesneedtomanagethreetypesofcapital
(economic,social,andnatural),whichmaybenonsubstitutableandwhoseconsumptionmightbeirreversible.[93]
LeadingecologicaleconomistandsteadystatetheoristHermanDaly,[37]forexample,pointstothefactthatnatural
capitalcannotnecessarilybesubstitutedbyeconomiccapital.Whileitispossiblethatwecanfindwaystoreplace
somenaturalresources,itismuchmoreunlikelythattheywilleverbeabletoreplaceecosystemservices,suchas
theprotectionprovidedbytheozonelayer,ortheclimatestabilizingfunctionoftheAmazonianforest.Infact
naturalcapital,socialcapitalandeconomiccapitalareoftencomplementarities.Afurtherobstacleto
substitutabilityliesalsointhemultifunctionalityofmanynaturalresources.Forests,forexample,notonlyprovide
therawmaterialforpaper(whichcanbesubstitutedquiteeasily),buttheyalsomaintainbiodiversity,regulate
waterflow,andabsorbCO2.

Anotherproblemofnaturalandsocialcapitaldeteriorationlies
intheirpartialirreversibility.Thelossofbiodiversity,for
example,isoftendefinitive.Thesamecanbetrueforcultural
diversity.Forexample,withglobalisationadvancingquickly
thenumberofindigenouslanguagesisdroppingatalarming
rates.Moreover,thedepletionofnaturalandsocialcapitalmay
havenonlinearconsequences.Consumptionofnaturaland
socialcapitalmayhavenoobservableimpactuntilacertain
thresholdisreached.Alakecan,forexample,absorbnutrients
foralongtimewhileactuallyincreasingitsproductivity.
However,onceacertainlevelofalgaeisreachedlackof
oxygencausesthelakesecosystemtobreakdownsuddenly.

Businessasusual

DeforestationofnativerainforestinRiodeJaneiro
Cityforextractionofclayforcivilengineering
(2009picture).

Ifthedegradationofnaturalandsocialcapitalhassuch
importantconsequencethequestionariseswhyactionisnottakenmore
systematicallytoalleviateit.CohenandWinn[94]pointtofourtypesof
marketfailureaspossibleexplanations:First,whilethebenefitsof
naturalorsocialcapitaldepletioncanusuallybeprivatised,thecostsare
oftenexternalised(i.e.theyarebornenotbythepartyresponsiblebutby
societyingeneral).Second,naturalcapitalisoftenundervaluedby
societysincewearenotfullyawareoftherealcostofthedepletionof
naturalcapital.Informationasymmetryisathirdreasonoftenthelink
betweencauseandeffectisobscured,makingitdifficultforactorsto
makeinformedchoices.CohenandWinnclosewiththerealizationthat
contrarytoeconomictheorymanyfirmsarenotperfectoptimisers.They
postulatethatfirmsoftendonotoptimiseresourceallocationbecause
theyarecaughtina"businessasusual"mentality.

Beforefluegasdesulfurizationwas
installed,theairpollutingemissions
fromthispowerplantinNewMexico
containedexcessiveamountsofsulfur
dioxide.

Criticism
Ithasbeenarguedthatsincethe1960s,theconceptofsustainabledevelopmenthaschangedfrom'conservation
management'to'economicdevelopment',wherebytheoriginalmeaningoftheconcepthasbeenstretched
somewhat.[95]:4854
Inthe1960s,theinternationalcommunityrealisedthatmanyAfricancountriesneedednationalplanstosafeguard
wildlifehabitats,andthatruralareashadtoconfrontthelimitsimposedbysoil,climateandwateravailability.This
wasastrategyofconservationmanagement.Inthe70s,however,thefocusshiftedtothebroaderissuesofthe
provisioningofbasichumanneeds,communityparticipationaswellasappropriatetechnologyusethroughoutthe
developingcountries(andnotjustinAfrica).Thiswasastrategyofeconomicdevelopment,andthestrategywas
carriedevenfurtherbytheBrundtlandReportwhentheissueswentfromregionaltointernationalinscopeand
application.[95]:4854Ineffect,theconservationistswerecrowdedoutandsupersededbythedevelopers.
Butshiftingthefocusofsustainabledevelopmentfromconservationtodevelopmenthashadtheimperceptible
effectofstretchingtheoriginalforestmanagementtermofsustainableyieldfromtheuseofrenewableresources
only(likeforestry),tonowalsoaccountingfortheuseofnonrenewableresources(likeminerals).[96]:13This
stretchingofthetermhasbeenquestioned.Thus,environmentaleconomistKerryTurnerhasarguedthatliterally,
therecanbenosuchthingasoverall'sustainabledevelopment'inanindustrialisedworldeconomythatremains
heavilydependentontheextractionofEarth'sfinitestockofexhaustiblemineralresources:

Itmakesnosensetotalkaboutthesustainableuseofanonrenewableresource(evenwith
substantialrecyclingeffortanduserates).Anypositiverateofexploitationwilleventuallyleadto
exhaustionofthefinitestock.[96]:13

Ineffect,ithasbeenarguedthattheIndustrialRevolutionasawholeisunsustainable.[97]:20f[37]:22f[98]:6167

Seealso
Appliedsustainability
Circulareconomy
Computationalsustainability
Conservationbiology
Conservationdevelopment
Cradletocradle
Ecologicalmodernization
Ecologicallysustainabledevelopment
Environmentalissue
Environmentaljustice
Greendevelopment
Microsustainability
Outlineofsustainability
Regenerativedesign

Regenerativedesign
Socialsustainability
Sustainablecoffee
Sustainablefishery
Sustainableforestmanagement
Sustainablelandmanagement
Sustainableliving
Sustainableyield
Sustainopreneurship
Weakandstrongsustainability
Zerocarboncity

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Furtherreading

Ahmed,Faiz(2008).AnExaminationoftheDevelopmentPathTakenbySmallIslandDevelopingStates(PDF).(pp.17
26)
Atkinson,G.,S.Dietz,andE.Neumayer(2009).HandbookofSustainableDevelopment.EdwardElgarPublishing,ISBN
1848444729.
Bakari,MohamedElKamel."GlobalizationandSustainableDevelopment:FalseTwins?."NewGlobalStudies7.3:23
56.ISSN(Online)19400004,ISSN(Print)21946566,DOI:10.1515/ngs2013021,November2013.
BertelsmannStiftung,ed.(2013).WinningStrategiesforaSustainableFuture.ReinhardMohnPrize2013.Verlag
BertelsmannStiftung,Gtersloh.ISBN9783867934916.
Beyerlin,Ulrich.SustainableDevelopment(http://www.mpepil.com/sample_article?id=/epil/entries/law9780199231690e
1609&recno=13&),MaxPlanckEncyclopediaofPublicInternationalLaw
Borowy,Iris.DefiningSustainableDevelopmentforOurCommonFuture.AhistoryoftheWorldCommissionon
EnvironmentandDevelopment(BrundtlandCommission),MiltonPark:Routledge,2014.
Cook,Sarah&EsunaDugarova(2014)."RethinkingSocialDevelopmentforaPost2015World".Development.57(1):
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Externallinks
Arghand(https://www.arghand.org/),acollectivethatmakesbeautyproductsfromsustainablyharvested
cropsinAfghanistan.
CarpentersWithoutBorders(http://www.carpenterswithoutborders.org/),anonprofitthatteaches
reforestationandfurniturebuildingskillsindevelopingcountries.
GlobalSustainableDevelopment(http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/cross_fac/gsd/),anundergraduatedegree
programofferedbytheUniversityofWarwick.

CirclesofSustainability(http://www.circlesofsustainability.org/)
GreenwoodGlobal(http://www.greenwoodglobal.org/),anonprofitthatteachesfurniturebuildingskillsand
sustainableforestrypracticesindevelopingcountries.
PrinciplesofSustainability(http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/sustainability/),anopencourseofferedbythe
UniversityofIdahoandWashingtonStateUniversity.
SustainableRealEstateResearchCenter,HongKongShueYanUniversity(http://www.hksyu.edu/srerc/en/)
ORGANIZATIONFORTHEREHABILITATIONOFTHEENVIRONMENT(http://www.oreworld.org/),
encouragescultivationofbambooandtreestorehabilitatedeforestation.
SustainableDevelopmentKnowledgePlatform(http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/),UnitedNations
platformonsustainabledevelopment.
SustainableDevelopmentLaw&Policy(http://www.wcl.american.edu/org/sustainabledevelopment)
UKSustainableDevelopmentCommission(http://www.sdcommission.org.uk/)
UnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentSolutionsNetwork(http://unsdsn.org)
VrindaProjectChannel(http://www.youtube.com/eugadproject)withvideosonMDGsconnectedtothe
Wikibook DevelopmentCooperationHandbook
WorldBank(http://go.worldbank.org/7IS3KBWK20)websiteonsustainabledevelopment.
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