The missing law of gravitation: Keplers fourth law

A. I. Arbab

(a)

Department of Physics, College of Science, Qassim University, P.O. Box 6644, Buraidah
51452, KSA

PACS

Abstract A law relating (exo)planets primary parameters is derived. The law predicts the missing parameters
of exoplanets that are mostly synchronous with their parent stars. It complements the three existing gravitation
laws of Kepler and Newton. The law represents a statement of the spin and angular momenta balance for a
star-planet system. A criteria for an exoplanet having a mass mX and lying at a semi-major axis aX from its star
2
MX to be an Earth-like, is such that MX
mX /a2X 103 where MX is in M and mX in MJ , and aX in AU .

Introduction.

From the orbital motion of the solar system, Kepler had derived his

three laws of gravitation. The first law deals with the geometrical form of the orbit.
The second law deals with state of motion of the orbiting planet. It is an statement of
conservation of angular momentum of the orbiting planet. The third law is a quantitative
law which is extensively used to determine the characteristics of the planetary motion of
planets about the Sun. These parameters include the planets distance from the Sun, its
orbital period about the Sun, and the mass of the Sun. These laws are obtained from the
observations of the planets motion about our Sun only. Newton generalized the third law
to include all stars and not only our Sun.
We employ in this work the analogy existing between electromagnetism and gravitation
[1]. We extend this analogy to include all phenomena occurring at atomic level, and
assume that they also occur at the gravitation level, and are governed by analogous rules
(equations).
The spin-orbit interaction that exists in hydrogen atom, due to the magnetic field
created by the nucleus motion and the electron spin, also exists at the gravitational level,
if we introduce the concept of gravitomagnetic field that is analogous to the ordinary
(a) arbab.ibrahim@gmail.com

p-1

A. I. Arbab1

magnetic field. We have seen that the spin-orbit interaction is the same interaction that
Einstein attributed to the curvature of the space [2]. And since all planets do have spin,
the spin-orbit interaction is intrinsically prevailing in all star-planet systems. Bear in
mind that some atoms can have zero total spin angular momentum. Note that the spin of
planets remained a kinematical quantity in Newton and Kepler formulation of planetary
motion. But we will show here that the spin is a dynamical quantity without which
the planets would not remain stable in their orbits. Moreover, without spin there is nor
orbital motion. How much a planet should spin will depend on how much it is needed to
conform with the orbital one.
Equating the gravitational energy of the a star-planet system to the spin-orbit interaction yields a formula that relates the primary star-planet system parameters to each
other. Moreover, we found that such a system exits only if the spin and orbital angular momenta are proportional to the planet mass to the star mass ratio. This condition
represents a dynamical balance between the two angular momenta. We call the resulting
equation the Keplers fourth law which represents the missing equation (law) to determine
a star-planet system completely.
Kepler third law.

The Keplers third law relating the orbital period (T ) of a planet

about the Sun, the semi-major axis (a) and the Suns mass (M ), is casted in the form
T2 =

4 2 3
a .
GM

(1)

However, the Newtons version of this law reads

T2 =

4 2
a3 ,
G(M + m)

(2)

where m is the mass of the orbiting planet and M is the mass of the star. It the law which
is now in use. The mass of star can be obtained from stars luminosity when compared
with the Sun. This is determined using the Hertzsprung-Russel diagram. The period of
motion can be determined from the observation of the planet motion, and consequently
the semi-major axis can be determined using Eq.(2). A parallax method can also be used
to calculate the planet distance from its parent star.
Extrasolar planetary (exoplanets) motion .

Astronomers have now spotted many

new planets orbiting stars other than our Sun. These new planets are called exoplanets.
They are generally very close to their parent stars, and therefore experience some tidal
p-2

The missing law of gravitation: Keplers fourth law

locking. The first Jupiter-like exoplanet orbiting a Sun-like star was discovered by Didier
Queloz and Michel Mayor [3]. Planets had previously been discovered around pulsars [4].
Stars are generally very far from our Earth. The nearest stars system to the Earth is the
Alpha-Centauri which is at a distance of 4.3 light years. Other stars lie at far distances
that are thousands of light years away from us. This poses a problem of observing planets
belonging to such stars. Moreover, our galaxy (the Milky Way) contains hundred billions
of stars. Furthermore, our next neighbour galaxy (the Andromeda) lies at a distance of
2.5 million year and hence the planetary observations become more severe. In as much
as planets are extremely faint objects compared to their parent stars, they appear to
be extremely faint, or even un seen. Therefore, direct observation of exoplanet is very
dicult and some instrumental method should be devised to make these observations
tractable.
To determine the exoplanets characteristics, we need to know their temperature, mass
and radius and the prevailing atmosphere. Their atmosphere can be deduced from the
change in the optical properties of the light coming from the parent star to the Earth
traversing the planet atmosphere. The atmosphere of the exoplanet is related to its mass
and radius through the scape velocity of the gas residing in the exoplanet surface.
Dierent observational techniques are employed to precisely determine the exoplanet
radius. These include transiting of the exoplanet in front of its parent star, radial velocity
detection method, etc. The radius of the exoplanet is determined by observing the drop
in the star brightness occurring when the planet intervenes the light coming to the Earth.
This brightness drop is directly related to the ratio of the planet radius (Rp ) to the radius
of its parent star (RS ). This can be expressed as
Rp2
F
= 2 ,
F
RS

(3)

where F is the star flux. From the star and planet momentum conservation, one can write
M vs = mvp .

(4)

The velocity of the star (vs ) can be obtained from the Doppler measurements of the star
radial velocity, and the planet velocity vp from the planet orbital period and the Keplers
third law. This can be expressed as
m=

M vs T
,
2 a
p-3

(5)

A. I. Arbab2

where T is determined by Eq.(2).

The mass of the exoplanet can be obtained from the gravitation force that is measure
by the Doppler shift using the radial velocity method. When the mass and the radius
are determined, the density of the planet material can be calculated. The material from
which the exoplanet is made can then be deduced.
Questions related to the possibility that a given exoplanet can harbour life can then
be addressed. This is usually linked to the Habitable Zone around which the exoplanet
exists.
Keplers fourth law.

In an attempt to generalize the Newtons law of gravitation to

look analogous to the Lorentz law of electromagnetism, we express it in the generalized

form [5]
g ,
FN = mg + mv B

(6)

g is called the gravitomagnetic force that is presumed to exit due to the motion
where B
of planets, and g is the planet acceleration. As in hydrogen atom, which is analogous to
the solar system, there is an interaction between the internal magnetic field arising from
the electron orbital momentum, and its spin angular momentum. This is normally known
as the spin-orbit interaction. The gravitomagnetic field is analogous to the magnetic field
arised from the motion of the electron around the nucleus. This is determined by the
Biot-Savart-law as

= kQ r ,
= v E ,
E
(7)
B
c2
r3
is analogous to g is the electric field provided by the
where Q is the nucleus charge, E
nucleus, and k is the Coulomb constant. Hence, in terms of the orbital angular momentum,
Eq.(7) reads
= kQ L
,
B
2mc2 r3

= r mv ,
L

(8)

when relativistic correction (Thomas factor) is taken into consideration [6, 7].
The gravitational analogue is given by [1]
.
g = GM L
B
mc2 r3

(9)

The spin-orbit interaction energy in the atomic case is given by [7]

U=

k Qe
LS,
2m2 c2 r3

,
U = s B
p-4

(10)

The missing law of gravitation: Keplers fourth law

while in gravitation it will read [1, 5]

Ug = gg

GM 2
LS,
2m2 c2 r3

L=

GM m2 a(1 e2 ) ,

g = gg

M
,
2m

(11)

where gg is gravitational gyromagnetic ratio and g is the gravitomagnetic moment due

to planet spin. This energy can be equated with the gravitational interaction energy that
can be expressed as [1, 5]
GM L2
,
(12)
3mc2 r3
which in the Einstein theory is attributed to curvature of space [2]. However, the Einstein
Ug =

term is UE =

GM L2
mc2 r3

. The equality yields the following equation [8]

(m)
2
S=A
L,
A=
,
M
3gg cos

(13)

where is the angle between L and S. Owing to Eq.(13), one can express the spin of a
planet as S = AGm2 /v. This clearly shows that massive planets spin faster.
This is a balance (equilibrium) equation which states that the spin and orbital angular
momenta of a planet (about its self and its parent star) is distributed by the planet mass
to the star masses ratio. Equation (13) is very interesting since it relates the spin of the
planet to its orbital angular momentum. This has not been found and scientists usually
ask why do planets spin. The answer is now provided! It is also worthy to mentioned
that when the law in Eq.(6) is applied to the motion of stars in spiral galaxies it yields a
flat rotation curve that is consistent with observations, without the need for dark matter
that is required by the ordinary Newtons law [9].
Expressing L and S in terms of planet and star parameters, Eq.(13) yields [8]
( )2
( )
M
D
1 Rp
= 2
,
T
C
a
m

(14)

where D is the planet spin period (day), and C is some constant to be determined. Thus,
only star-planet system satisfying Eq.(14) can exist as a stable system. This law provides
the missing data about any exoplanetary system under investigation. I call this law
(formula) the Keplers fourth law as it complements the three Kepler laws of gravitation.
The Moon is in synchronous orbit around the Earth, and so do most of the exoplanets.
In this case the day and period are equal, and hence the exoplanet mass can be determined
from Eq.(14) as
1
m= 2
C

Rp
a

p-5

)2
M.

(15)

A. I. Arbab3

For the Moon-Earth-like system, we find C = 0.041. For exoplanets, one finds C = 0.707 ,
and therefore, Eq.(15) becomes
(
m=2

Rp
a

)2
M.

(16)

Equation (16) can be expressed as

m a2 = 2M Rp2 .

(17)

Equation (17) states that an exoplanet is stable when its moment of inertia about the
star is twice that of a star about a distance equals to the exoplanet radius.
Equation (17) can be casted in the form
(
m = 4.77828 10

Rp
a

)2
M,

(18)

where m is measured in mass of Jupiter, R in radius of Jupiter, a in AU and M in mass

of the Sun. If we apply Eq.(15) for the KELT-16b exoplanet discovered on August 2016,
we will find its mass to be 2.77 MJ , while the absolute observational value is 2.75 MJ ,
where MJ is the mass of Jupiter which is taken as a reference mass for exoplanets [10].
For Earth-Moon-like exoplanet, Eq.(15) reads
( )2
Rp
m = 0.14212
M,
a

(19)

where m is measured in mass of Jupiter, R in radius of Jupiter, a in AU and M in mass

of the Sun.
Earth-like exoplanets.

A big concern is now given to the discovery of an Earth-like

exoplanet. How similar an exoplanet to the Earth is not that easy to determine. The
Earth is endowed with many characteristics, and it is dicult which one is considered
crucial. Some indices are put for the similarities of an exoplanet to the Earth. These
mainly include the shape, mass and temperature of the Earth. An exoplanet that could
host life on its surface may be compared with our Earth where habitable life conditions
are easily maintained on its surface. The Earth exists in a place around the Sun that
made it not too hot nor too cold, and where liquid water exists predominantly.
However, such a location is not permanent but certainly evolves over time. So an
exoplanet that is away from this location (Habitable zone) can over long period of time
p-6

The missing law of gravitation: Keplers fourth law

enter this zone. Thereafter, life may develop on its surface. Because of the close proximity
of exoplanets to their parent stars, it is hard for them to harbor life on their surfaces.
Some educated guess would reveal that the energy the Earth embodies many of the
fundamental parameters that would govern these issues. I thus would presume that the
interaction energy between the exoplanet and its Sun, would play a crucial and vital role
in determining its Earth similarity. Therefore, an exoplanet that shares this energy, the
interaction energy between the Sun and the Earth, would be the most likely Earth-like
exoplanet. This interaction energy is defined in Eq.(12). Upon using Eq.(11), one finds
Ug =

G2 M 2 m
,
3 c2 a2

(20)

where we considered a circular orbit. It can be expressed in practical units, where the
semi-major axis (a) is measured in AU, the mass of the exoplanet (m) in Jupiter mass,
and the star mass (M ) in Sun mass, so that
Ug = 1.7385 1028

M 2m
a2

(21)

is in Joules. The Earth interaction energy, Ug = 5.47 1025 J. Therefore, an exoplanet

having an energy of this range would be an Earth-like exoplanet. We may now place a
rough criteria for an exoplanet (aX , mX ) to be an Earth-like exoplanet is to have the same
ratio MX2 mX /a2X 103 , as that for the Earth.
Concluding remarks.

A fourth Kepler law relating the primary parameter of exo-

planets to each other is derived. It is derived from the analogy existing between electromagnetism and gravitation. The spin and the orbital angular momenta of a planet in a
star-planet system are governed by their masses ratio. This law constitutes a dynamical
balance for the system to exist. Moreover, massive planets are found to spin faster than
light ones. Earth-like exoplanet is that one which has an interaction energy of the same
range as that of the Earth.
REFERENCES
[1] Arbab, A. I., The Generalized Newtons Law of Gravitation Versus the General Theory of Relativity, J. Mod.
Phys. 3, 1231 (2012).
[2] Weinberg, S. Gravitation and cosmology, John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
[3] Mayor, M. and Queloza, D., Jupiter-mass companion to a solar-type star, Nature 378, 355 (1995).
[4] Wolszczan, A. and Frail, D. A., A planetary system around the millisecond pulsar PSR1257 + 12, Nature 355,
145 (1992).

p-7

A. I. Arbab4

[5] Arbab, A. I., Gravitomagnetism: a novel explanation of the precession of planets and binary pulsars, Astrophys.
Space Sci. 330, 61 (2010).
[6] Thomas, L. H., The Motion of the Spinning Electron, Nature 117, 514 (1926).
[7] Griths, D. J., Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Prentice Hall, (2004).
[8] Arbab, A. I., et al., The planetary spin and rotation period: a modern approach, Astrophys. Space Sci. 348,
57 (2013).
[9] Arbab, A. I., Flat rotation curve without dark matter: the generalized Newtons law of gravitation, Astrophys
Space Sci. 355: 2152 (2015).
[10] Oberst, T. E., et al., KELT-16b: A highly irradiated, ultra-short period hot Jupiter nearing tidal disruption,
http://arxiv.org/abs/1608.00618v1

p-8