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C. I. Engine.
1. Not required.
2. Draws only air into the cylinder.
3. Compresses air only.
4. Fuel is mixed with air at the end of compression.
5. Only air can be compresses without pre-ignition
and detonation, so compression ratio can be high
(about 16).
6. Higher efficiencies can be obtained due to
possible higher compression ratio.
7. Uses less volatile liquid fuels
8. Cheaper fuel can be used
9. Less fuel consumption.
10. Heavier and stronger engines due to higher
pressures involved.
11. Initial cost high.
12. Certain roughness in operation encountered,
especially in high-speed engines at light loads.
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One end of the cylinder and one face of the piston are used to develop power. The working face is at the
end, which is away from crankshaft. Generally, single acting vertical engines develop power on the
down stroke.
(b) Double Acting Engine
Both ends of the cylinder and both faces of the piston are used to develop power on the upward as well
as on the downward stroke.
c) Opposed Piston Engines.
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Two pistons travel in opposite directions. The combustion space is in the middle of the cylinder between
the pistons. There are two crankshafts. The upper pistons drive one, the lower pistons the other. Each
piston is single acting.
5. According to Piston Connection.
(a) Trunk Piston Type.
The piston is connected directly to the upper end of the connecting rod. A horizontal pin (Gudgeon Pin)
within piston is encircled by the upper end of the connecting rod. This construction is quite common,
especially in small and medium size engines.
(b) Cross Head Type.
The piston fastens to a vertical piston rod whose lower end is attached to a cross head, which slides up
and down in guides. The crosshead carries a crosshead pin, which is encircled by the upper end of the
connecting rod. This more complicated construction is common in double acting engines and large slow
speed single acting engines.
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Easier lubrication.
Reduced liner wear.
Uniformly distributed clearance around piston.
Simpler piston construction because the Gudgeon pin and its bearing are eliminated.
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(b) V - Arrangement:
If an engine has more than eight cylinders, it becomes difficult to make a sufficiently rigid frame and
crankshaft with an inline arrangement. Also engine becomes quite long and takes up considerable space.
So V-arrangement is used for engines with more cylinders, (generally 8, 12, 16) giving about half-length
of engine, more rigid and stiff crankshaft, less manufacturing and installing cost. Angle between two
Banks is kept from 30* to 120* (most commonly 40*, 75*), as shown in the figure.
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Slow Speed.
No Gearing.
Four or Two Stroke
acceptable.
Slow Speed.
Poor quality fuel
acceptable.
Crankcase can be
separated from
combustion zone.
Less noise and vibration.
Less fatigue failure.
Fewer stresses due to
heavier scantling.
Heavy and Large Size.
More head-room
required.
Heavy Lifting Gear
required for heavy parts.
Engine r.p.m. is
limited by propeller
efficiency.
Can have long strokes.
Large bore cylinders.
Heavy & large pistons.
Round section
connecting rod.
Failures less and easier to
manage.
Medium Speed.
Gearing Necessary. Four
Stroke better.
High Speed.
Gearing Necessary. Four
Stroke only.
Medium Speed.
Better Fuel required.
Diesel oil/Gas oil.
Trunk Piston type.
High Speed.
Distillate Fuel only.
More noise.
More.
More.
Compact.
Extremely Compact.
Less.
Light parts easy to handle.
Engine r.p.m. limited by
piston speed.
Least.
Lighter parts can be handled
manually.
Engine r.p.m. limited by piston
speed.
Small strokes.
Small bore.
Light and small piston.
I section connecting rod.
Smallest stroke.
Smallest.
Lightest & smallest piston.
I section connecting rod.
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D: COMPRESSION STROKE.
(D): Piston rising. All valves closed. Air being compressed.
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The timing diagram shows the closing and opening of the valves. The working cycle is illustrated as a
P - V diagram (pressure-volume). The line l l represents atmospheric line. The piston is considered
to have just moved over the top dead centre and is on its way down. The air inlet is already open and
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In a 4-stroke engine, towards the end of exhaust stroke and beginning of section stroke, both exhaust and
inlet values are open. This is called overlap period. This would further help in achieving an efficient
scavenging. Exhaust valve closes after the piston has moved over the top dead centre. The inlet valve
remains and the down ward movement of the piston lowers the pressure in the cylinder and thereby
atmospheric air is drawn in. The air in the inlet passages to the inlet valve will gain a high velocity and
in turn kinetic energy. Use is made of this effect to keep the air inlet value open until the piston is past
bottom dead centre. The air then continues to flow into the cylinder until its kinetic energy is lost and
airflow ceases. The inlet value is closed now.
In two stroke engines, the events described above as taking place will have to be carried out in about
120* of the crank movement. It will require the assistance of low-pressure air. The speed of opening of
valve or part has to be rapid so that the pressure of gas falls quickly. It would be easier now for scavenge
air to rush in and get the gases out.
We have to briefly discuss the combustion process to understand fuel timing.
Combustion takes place in three distinct stages:
1. Ignition Delay Period, during which some fuel has been admitted but has not yet been ignited.
This is the stage during which fuel is atomised, vapourised, mixed with air and raised in
temperature.
2. Rapid or Uncontrolled Combustion, following ignition. The pressure rise is rapid during this
stage.
3. Controlled Combustion. The first stage or the delay period exerts great influence on both engine
design and performance. The pressure reached during rapid or uncontrolled combustion will
depend upon delay period.
The longer the delay, more rapid and higher is the pressure rise. It is because more fuel will be present in
the cylinder before rate of burning comes under control (in the 3rd stage).
This will cause rough running and diesel knock. But at the same time, there must be certain amount of
delay period for proper mixing.
One of the main factors that affect delay period is fuel timing. If it is too early, the delay period is more
because the pressure and temperature are low in the cylinder. If the injection is too late, the fuel will
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Engine Indicator.
An engine indicator consists of a small bore cylinder containing a short stroke piston which is subjected
to the same varying pressure that takes place inside the engine cylinder during one cycle of operations.
This is done by connecting the indicator cylinder to the top of the engine cylinder in the case of singleacting engines, or through change over cocks and pipes leading to the top and bottom ends of the engine
cylinder in the case of double-acting engines. The gas pressure pushes the indicator piston up against the
resistance of a spring, a choice of specially scaled springs of different stiffness being available to suit the
operating pressures within the cylinder and a reasonable height of diagram.
A spindle connects the indicator piston to a system of small levers designed to produce a vertical
straight-line motion at the pencil on the end of the pencil lever, parallel (but magnified about six times)
to the motion of the indicator piston. The pencil is often a brass point, or stylus, this is brought to press
lightly on specially prepared indicator paper which is scrapped around a cylindrical drum and clipped to
it. The drum, which has a built-in recoil spring, is actuated in a semi-rotary manner by a cord wrapped
around a groove in the bottom of it; a hook at its lower end to a reduction lever system from the engine
crosshead attaches the cord, passing over a guide pulley. Instead of the lever system from the crosshead,
many engines are fitted with a special cam and tappet gear to reproduce the stroke of the engine piston
to a small scale. The drum therefore turns part of a revolution when the engine piston moves down, and
turns back again when the engine piston moves up, thus the pencil or stylus on the end of the indicator
lever draws a diagram which is a record of the pressure in the engine cylinder during one complete
cycle.
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This is taken with the indicator drum in phase with piston movement. The area within this diagram
represents the work done during the cycle to scale. This may be used to calculate the power produced
after obtaining the indicated mean effective pressure of the unit.
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This is taken in a similar manner to the power card but with the fuel shut off from the cylinder. The
height of this diagram shows maximum compression pressure. If compression and expansion line
coincide, it shows that the indicator is correctly synchronized with the engine.
3. DRAW CARD or OUT-OF-PHASE DIAGRAM:
Taken in a similar manner to the power card with fuel pump engaged but with the indicator drum 90*
out of phase with piston stroke. This illustrates more clearly the pressure changes during fuel
combustion.
4. LIGHT SPRING DIAGRAM:
Taken similar to power card and in phase with the engine stroke, but this diagram is taken with light
compression spring fitted to the indicator. This shows clearly pressure changes during exhaust and
scavenge in enlarged scale. This can be used to find any defects during those operations.
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TWO-STROKE CYCLE.
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Typical Power Card with Out Of Phase Card taken on the same Diagram.
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Trace of a power card taken over a full cycle with the card opened out so that the compression
curve appears to the left of the vertical (tdc) line and the combustion and expansion occurring to
the right of the same line. This is common way for electronic monitors to record events in the
cylinder, again relevant pressures and angles may be well recorded on the print out.
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3. Combustion.
This is an exothermic reaction (one in which heat is liberated by the action) between a fuel and oxygen.
Liquid fuels consist of carbon, & hydrogen, in the form of hydrocarbons, with small quantities of
sulphur & traces of other metallic Impurities such as vanadium.
A typical fuel analysis, by mass would be:
C = 5%, H2 = 12%, S = 3%, with a C.V. of 44000 KJ/Kg.
(19000 BTU/lb.)
The oxygen is obtained from the air, which can be considered to contain 77% nitrogen & 23% oxygen
by mass.
The nitrogen plays no active part in the combustion process but it is necessary as it acts as a moderator.
With pure oxygen, the combustion would be violent & difficult to control & it would produce very high
temperatures, creating cooling, metallurgical & lubrication problems.
The reactions, which occur, are:
2H2 + O2 ----------- 2H2O liberating 142 MJ/kg. H2.
C + O2 -------------- CO2 liberating 33 MJ/kg. C.
S + O2 --------------- SO2 liberating 9.25 MJ/kg. S.
2C + O2 --------------2CO liberating 10 MJ/kg. C.
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- - - - - - -: High Speed.
-----------: Slow Speed.
Other factors influenced by engine speed may include.
1. Fuel spray characteristics (since fuel pumps are engine driven and pressure and temperature in
cylinder affect secondary atomisation).
2. Volumetric Efficiency (since the piston speed & valve opening characteristics influence the gas
exchange process).
3. Combustion chamber wall temperature (since rate of heat input & rate of heat conduction
determines the wall temp).
Fuel / Air Ratio.
As fuel is being injected there will be local fuel-air ratios varying from infinity near the injector to zero
where fuel vapour has not yet reached. Provided the vapourisation is not complete before injection
commences the amount of fuel injected would have no direct effect on the delay period. However, with
reduced Fuel /Air ratio, combustion temperatures are lowered, which reduces the cylinder wall
temperature. With some engines, this may have the effect of increasing the delay period.
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Bed Plate:
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The double plate arrangement provides the greatest strength & stiffness but holes must be cut in the plate
to allow access for welding and inspection. These holes must be large enough to allow easy entry by a
welder and can, seriously weaken a double plate arrangement for a small engine. To restore strength &
stiffness a tube may be welded through the girder holes.
Depending upon the material used, the attachment of the transverse girders to the longitudinal girders
may differ most are welded but some may be bolted if the girder is cast as this reduces repair difficulties,
allows stress relieving of the girder only and lessens risk of distortions.
Types of Bedplates.
The two most common types are:
1. Box type.
2. Trestle type.
1. Sulzer, B & W, MAN and Doxford, all use the box or flat bottom type as it can be mounted
directly to the tank top plating (via chocks) and is suitable for fabricated construction.
2. G.M.T. & Mitsubishi are examples of engines still using the trestle type. This type provides a
deep and therefore stiff transverse section. To accommodate this deep suction however the
bedplate must be seated on special built up stools in the double bottom structure or a special well
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Tie-bolt.
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Cracks.
Oil leaks.
Loose chocks.
Loose A frames.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Repair :
For mild steel & cast steel crack chipped out and welded, but care should be taken to ensure a minimum
distortion by determining the optimum welding sequence.
For Cast Iron the crack should be arrested by drilling a small hole, sketch or photograph the crack for
future assessment. The crack could be Metallocked or supported by a mild steel doubling plate, bolted
on, if serious.
2. Oil leaks:
i)
Sump pan.
ii)
Doors and casings.
iii)
Crank case relief valves.
iv)
Bedplate cracks.
3. Chocks may fret if the holding down bolts get lack and due to the movement of bed plate chocks
bed into the tank top. As a temporary measure the chock should be shimmed up and the bolt
hardened down and as soon as possible the chock should be removed, the tank top faced up by
grinding and a new, thicker chock prepared and re-bedded.
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ENGINE CHOCKS.
These are needed between the bedplate and tank top to ensure that any variations in the surface of the
tank top does not cause misalignment. Up to 200 chocks per engine may be fitted. They also permit any
chaffing or fretting to be repaired by adjustment of individual chocks and any subsequent distortions
after fitting (due to settlement) to be corrected.
End chocks are fitted at each end of the long girder to position the engine, absorb collision loads and in
the case of the integral thrust block, absorb propeller thrust & propeller excited vibrations.
Side chocks are needed to absorb side loads due to components of unbalanced reciprocating forces and
thermal expansion. They also prevent chaffing of the supporting chocks and tank top and also help the
holding down bolts resist the lateral forces when the vessel is rolling.
Chocks are usually made of cast iron or steel. Cast Iron chocks are popular because:
1. Easy to form.
2. High compressive strength & low malleability.
The chock retains its shape under load reducing the chance of bolt slackening & therefore bolt fracture.
Unfortunately this also means that the chock is hard and liable to bed into the tank top or bedplate. It is
also brittle and therefore liable to fracture under excessive impact loads, hence minimum chock
thickness should not be less than 30 mm. Steel is used to reduce those problems and allow easier fitting.
Steel chocks should be used for clearances less than 30 mm.
Epoxy resin is increasing in popularity and now widely used for small, medium & large engines. The
compound has the following advantages:
i)
Elimination of fitting & machining.
ii)
Increased support as large areas of the bedplate can be used.
iii)
Elimination of breakage, fretting and slackness.
iv)
Improved resilience, which absorbs vibrations, reduces noise and gives greater
ductility.
The compound is suitable for any bedplate, which can be fitted with a sealing dam to contain the
compound while it is setting (may take up to 24 hrs with some heating, around 16*C necessary). It can
be used on new engines or as a replacement on old engines. Where the chock is deep, steel rollers are
added to the resin chock to increase strength & Durability.
Fitting of engine chocks:
Process is more or less similar for cast iron, steel or resin chocks.
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Modern slow speed main engine bed plate arrangement over ships structure.
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Bedplate holding down arrangement for the above engine with long bolt.
Earlier engines bedplate and holding down arrangement showing main chock, side chock, end chock
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Chocking arrangement with tall bolts and washer system of holding down bolts.
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M.A.N. Engine Bedplate, Lower frame, Upper frame and Cylinder jacket.
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Transverse section of Sulzer Engine, showing all internal bolts and fittings.
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Tie Bolts.
These are fitted to relieve the frames of tensile stress.
The bolts are mounted between the transverse girder of the bedplate and the upper face of the cylinder
jacket. As this in variably makes the bolt very long it is sometimes fitted in two lengths joined at the
base of the cylinder jacket. Hydraulic tightening tensions the bolt and this pre-tensioning should be
sufficient to keep the frames in compression throughout the engine cycle. This produces a substantial
tensile stress in the bolts requiring them to be checked frequently.
Transmission of Firing Load.
In most single acting engines, apart from Opposed Piston Engines, the long tie bolts transmit the main
gas loads from the cylinders. Two bolts are fitted to each transverse girder and they pass through the
casting through tubes constructed in the engine frames and through the entablature or cylinder jackets
where locking nuts are fitted. Tie-bolts are prestressed during assembly and carry the firing forces from
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Sulzer Engine Main Bearing Jack bolt arrangement (See page 40 drawing for full details).
CONSEQUENCES OF RUNNING AN ENGINE WITH SLACK TIE BOLTS:
Cylinder beam would flex and lift at the location of the slack bolt landing faces of the tie bolt upper and
lower nuts, landing faces of the cylinder beam on the frame would fret and machined faces would
eventually get destroyed. The fitted bracing bolts between the cylinder jackets will also slacken and the
fit of the bolts would be lost.
If fretting has occurred in an uneven pattern where the cylinder beam lands, and the tie bolts are
tightened, the alignment of cylinder to the piston stroke will be destroyed. The fitted bracing bolts
between the cylinder jackets will also slacken and fit of the bolts will be lost.
Fretting may make the nut landing face out of square and if tie bolts are tightened on the damaged face,
a bending moment will be induced in the tie bolt, this may cause an uneven stress pattern in the tie bolt
which could lead to early fatigue failure. Damage may take place in the bedplate in way of cross girder.
Rigidity of the whole structure will be destroyed. Guide force will have to be absorbed by the frame
bolts and dowels, which may stretch and slacken allowing the structure to work. This may destroy the
piston alignment. Guide faces and bars may get slackened (these are bolted to the supporting structure).
TENSIONING OF TIE RODS AND CHECKING THE PRETENSION (SULZER RLA. ENGINE).
Bedplate, columns, cylinder jackets are greatly relieved of the gas forces set up and freed from tensile
stresses when tie rods are properly tensioned. In order to avoid vibration all tie rods are held in position
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1. Cylinder jacket. 2. Tie rod lower washer. 3. Tie rod main nut. 4,5,6. Hydraulic tool lower half
with cylinder. 7. Hydraulic tool stretching piston screwed to tie rod. 94933. Hydraulic oil
connections. 11. Oil vent screw. 12.Tommy to tighten the nut after stretching. K. Washer cylinder
to keep the tie rod nut clear.
Tie rod tensioning hydraulic tool as fitted to the tie rod top.
Procedure for checking the pretension of the tie rods.
1. Remove the thread protecting hoods from all tie rods and clean the contact face of the
intermediate ring.
2. Screw pretensioning jacks on the tie rods (two on opposite sides) until the lower part of the
cylinder rests on the intermediate ring. Slightly slacken vent screws.
3. Connect both pretensioning jacks with hoses to the high-pressure oil pump and operate pump
until air has escaped. Retighten vent screws.
4. Operate pump until 600 bar pressure is reached and maintain this pressure.
5. Check with a feeler gauge through measuring point S for any clearance.
6. If any clearance does exist tighten the tie rod not by a tommy bar, until it rests firmly on the
intermediate ring. (Check with feeler gauge). If no clearance, pressure is to be released
immediately. All the tie rods are to be checked in this manner.
7. After checking has been completed the threads to be protected with anticorrosive grease.
Procedure for Loosening or tightening of tie rods.
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Cylinder Cover:
This, in combination with the cylinder walls and piston crown provides the perimeter of the combustion
chamber. It is therefore exposed to high mechanical and thermal loads. Sufficient penetrations must be
made in the cover to house:
1. Inlet & exhaust valves.
2. Fuel valve or valves.
3. Air Starting Valve.
4. Relief valve.
5. Indicator cock.
This makes the cover complicated and it is therefore usually cast.
Stresses in a Cylinder cover.
Valve housing - holding down studs of valve cause tensile stress in cover, which increases as the valve
expands if the valve sealing face Is at the bottom of the pocket. Thermal load can also cause tensile
stresses & distortion of inner face of cover.
4-Stroke Engine.
These are usually made of cast iron because of the number of valve penetrations and the need for large
inlet air and exhaust gas passages. To accommodate the passages and give adequate strength due to the
use of cast iron a very deep casting is needed. In order to avoid high thermal loads good cooling is
needed and this in turn demands thin metal sections. To achieve optimum strength and reduce
temperature stresses is very difficult and therefore cylinder covers are prone to failure. The biggest
problem area is between the valve and fuel injector pockets, and this is the most likely area for cracks to
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AS 25/30 Sulzer engine Cylinder head temperatures between original design and new bore cooled
design for the same engine of same power. 1000 r.p.m. b.m.e.p. 16.29 bar.
2 Stroke Engine:
In a 2-s cycle more heat is liberated in the cylinder in a given time than with the 4-s engine,
consequently cooling is more important. However fewer penetrations occur in the cover because no air
inlet valves are fitted and in loop-scavenged engines no exhaust valves either.
Because the heat stresses are greater but in a simpler cover cast alloy steel can be used. To further
improve the arrangement a 2-part cover can be used.
Sulzer Engine Cylinder cover:
Water-cooled cast steel outer cover forming the majority of the combustion space wall with a watercooled S. G. cast iron central insert carrying all valves. This cover holds only one fuel valve, one air start
valve, one relief valve and an indicator cook. Latest RND-M engine uses a single, forged steel cover
employing bore cooling.
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Sulzer RND Type Engine Combustion Chamber: Cylinder Cover normal Cast Type.
Sulzer RN 90 M type Engine Combustion Space: Cylinder cover Bore Cool Type.
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Sulzer Engine: Bore Cooled Piston, Liner and Cylinder Cover showing the temperature gradient.
Defects in cylinder covers:
1. Cracking: Due to the same process as cracking in piston crowns. Generally occur around the
fuel valve pocket or between the fuel and exhaust valve pocket. They are caused by overheating,
casting strains or notch effects (particularly in 2 stroke cast covers). Cracks can be repaired by
chain studding for temporary repair, Metalock for a semi-permanent repair or by welding if the
material is suitable.
2. Burning: Due to flame impingement. Repair is by welding if the material is suitable.
3. Distortion: Due to uneven tightening down of the cylinder cover over the liner face, overheating
of cylinder cover (particularly if scale is present) or unrelieved casting strains. It causes liner
joint leakage and or liner flange cracking.
4. Deposits: Scale & silt due to poor quality water or contaminated water. Not usually found when
distilled water is used.
5. Corrosion: Due to inadequate or nonexistent water treatment.
************************************Kv*********************************************
End of Cylinder Covers/BIT/AMET/BE/Kv/May 2003.
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The cams shrunk onto the camshaft 4 operates the exhaust valves through rocker arm 12 mounted on
pivot pin 13, push rod 10 guided by guide bush 11 and roller 2 which runs in needle bearing 3.
The roller guide 1 is prevented from turning in the bores in the housing by the key and keyway 6. The
housing is closed at the top by a cover 7, which is provided with a scraper ring 8 to prevent oil leakage.
The housing around the cam discs serves as a lubricating oil bath.
Automatic Valve Lash Adjusters:
Automatic valve - lash adjusters are used on some engines to avoid the necessity of a clearance
otherwise needed in the valve gear to allow for expansion due to temperature changes. They also
eliminate the need for manual adjustment in order to take care of wear at various points of the valve
gear. Automatic adjusters may be either mechanical or hydraulic. The mechanical type uses a cam
(generally located at the end of the rocker arm over the valve stem) and a spring, which turns the cam so
as to take up the clearance when the valve is on its seat.
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Combustion Space and Air Spring Operated Exhaust Valve: Sulzer: RTA 58 84 Engine.
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Valve Construction.
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Sulzer: RTA: Engine Exhaust Valve Seat Arrangement with Cooling system.
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Hydraulic valve actuating system is well suited to long-stroke engines with mid height camshafts valve
rotation is essential for reliable heavy fuel operation. The valve impeller on the stem is a simple and very
effective means of rotating the valve. It helps to ensure a uniform seat temperature distribution and to
keep the seat clean as well as dent and impression free as much as possible.
Valve Material:
Inlet Valves:
Any good quality steel that can be heat-treated e.g. 3% Ni-steel.
Exhaust Valves:
Material Requirements.
1. The material should retain its greatest strength at high temperatures.
2. No tendencies to air harden.
3. Critical temperature above 800*C.
4. No tendency of high temperature scaling.
5. Hot and cold corrosion resistant.
6. Able to be forged and machined easily.
7. Capable of consistent and reliable heat treatment.
Most diesel engines use an Austenitic heat-resisting alloy steel. The seating surface can be stellited.
Typical heat treatment: Heat up to 950*C and cool in air to give a Brinnel Hardness of 269.
Surface Treatment:
Surface treatment is frequently used to improve or modify valve steel characteristics. Chrome-cobalttungsten alloy available in various grades of hardness is widely used. The hardness when deposited is in
the order of 375 to 425 Brinnel. The valve head is treated to more than 430*C to reduce contraction
stresses. The value face is now sweated by an oxyacetylene flame and the alloy deposited continually by
welding (1.02 mm to 1.52 mm).
Valve Seat Inserts:
Alloy Irons, with high percentage of molybdenum and Chromium with a Brinnel number of Approx. 500
are best. Alloy steel with stellited seating surface are also in common use. The methods employed for
fitting the inserts include screwing and shrinking.
Valve Guides:
Valve guides are mostly made of Cast Iron. To avoid scaling etc at high temperatures alloy Irons are
preferred. Phosphor Bronze and Gun metal have also been successfully used. Alloy Iron guides with
Bronze linings also are in common use.
Valve Housing:
Mostly made of pearlitic cast iron and provided with a chamber for cooling water.
Valve problems and methods of increasing valve life, reducing overhaul frequency :
Most of the problems are the consequence of operating at increased output imposing greater mechanical
and thermal stresses. The larger diesel engines often use heavy residual fuels, which contain relatively
high ash and sulphur content together with traces of metal salts capable of causing exhaust valve
corrosion or forming a brittle glass like deposit on the hot valve seat of four stroke engines. Two-stroke
engine runs much cooler, at the same time much longer service life requiring between overhauls.
Modifications done on valves to over come all these problems:
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For instance, results with a coated piston crown showed the metal temperature to be reduced by 194*F
and crown underside temperature reduced by 135*F. On a six-cylinder engine, the effect on two
cylinders with the pistons, cylinder heads and valves coated, was that fuel pump rack position could be
reduced by 10.5%. In another example, an engine with coated piston and valves increased its output at
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Cams:
A cam is a device for transforming uniform rotary motion to intermittent reciprocating motion. An
eccentric differs in providing a continuous reciprocating motion similar to that of a crank. The cam drive
has been universally adopted because cams can be made in shapes that will give the desired rapid
opening and closing of the valves not possible with the eccentric. Another advantage of cam drive is that
it simplifies the reversing mechanism, by allowing endwise movement of camshaft.
Cams are precisely positioned on this shaft, being shrunk on, integral or keyed for positive positioning.
Some cams have provision for a limited range of adjustment, but in all cases the cam must be tightly
secured before the engine can be operated.
At present, even some of large engines have cams forged or cast integral with the camshaft and then
machined, usually ground to the required exact shape. The advantage of such an integral camshaft is that
if one valve of one cylinder is timed correctly, all the valves in all cylinders will be timed correctly. On
the other hand, any change in timing will affect all valves and cylinders.
In operation, cams are subjected to impact and are hardened in order to reduce wear. The shape of cam
determines the points of opening and closing of the valve, the velocity of opening and closing, and the
amount of the valve lifts from its seat.
The desired cam shape or profile is obtained by accurate grinding. The grinding stone repeats the shape
of a master cam and thus ensures accuracy of all cams.
Following figures show some profile of cams:
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Fuel-injection cams.
In case of Sulzer two cycle engines, same cam is used and the fuel timing for both ahead and astern
running is unaltered.
The figures show the cams for SULZER and M.A.N. engines, the arrangements for cam adjustments can
be noticed easily.
Some Air-starting valve cams are shown below:
Camshafts:
In most of the modern engines the cams and shaft are forged or cast in one piece. In some engines the
camshaft is a straight round shaft and the cams are separate pieces, machined and keyed to the shaft. In
some larger engines, the camshafts are made up of two or more sections bolted together by flanges with
fitted reamed holes to assure accurate timing. Most camshafts are made of forged steel, usually of
nickel-chromium alloy steel, and the larger camshafts are often bored hollow. They are heat-treated and
cams are usually surface hardened. The camshafts are carried in plain bearings.
Page 88
Camshaft bearings.
To insure good support, the camshaft is usually carried by a series of camshaft bearings. One bearing
being located between each pair of cylinders. Bearings may be either plain bushings or split sleeves.
If plain bushings are used, their bores are larger than the cams, so that the camshaft may be withdrawn
endwise. If split bushings are used, the camshaft may be removed sidewise from the engine.
Sulzer Engine Camshaft.
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MHI: UEC85LSII: Engine. Bore: 850mm; Stroke: 3,150; Power output: 5250PS/Cyl; RPM: 76.
Camshaft gear train, Turning gear, Crank shaft, Fuel pump with cam and all components could be seen.
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The valves are opened by the rocker arm pushing on the valve stem tip, but they are closed by two or
sometimes three coil springs. Multiple springs are used, not only because of the additional force they
provide but because of a characteristic of the spring known as resonance. Valve opening is done with a
series of impulses, and at a certain engine RPM, these impulses will occur at the resonant frequency of
the spring. When this happens, the spring loses its effectiveness and allows the valve to float. To prevent
this floating condition, two or more springs having different pitch, diameter, and wire size are used; and
because of their different configuration, they have different resonant frequencies, so the engine can
operate throughout its full range of RPM without valve float problems.
Valve bouncing is a phenomenon, which happens due to sudden release of compression energy of the
spring at the moment of valve closure due to tappet clearance allowance. The valve would jump up and
down on seat before closing shut finally. Spring surge (resonant vibration) at this moment also tends to
help generate valve bouncing.
Valve bouncing can be reduced by:
(i)
Increasing number of springs.
(ii)
Improving spring material.
(iii)
Using inner and outer springs, right and left handed.
(iv)
Using hydraulic valve actuating gear.
(v)
Using air spring.
Tappet Clearance.
The tappet clearance, which is the clearance between push rod roller and cam base circle at valve closure
in cold engine, is usually measured between rocker arm and valve spindle top. Tappet clearances are
necessary to allow for thermal expansion of valve spindles. Clearances should normally be set while the
engine is cold and the cam follower is off the cam peak. Wear of valve gear tends to increase clearances.
Excessive tappet clearance will cause the valve to open late and close early and will reduce valve lift. It
will also cause noise and damage working surfaces. Insufficient clearance will cause the valve to open
early and close late with increased valve lift. It may prevent the valve from closing completely causing
burning of valve, low compression etc.
Vibration in chain drive.
Following reasons can cause vibrations:
(i)
Excessive stretch.
(ii)
Misalignment of wheels.
(iii)
Error of pitch of chain or chain wheels.
(iv)
Unmatched chains.
(v)
Stiff links.
(vi)
Twined or bent chain.
(vii) Improper balancing of engine power.
The various reasons must be dealt with at earliest to avoid failure of chain drives.
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6. Cylinder Liners.
The liner is regarded as a thick cylinder under the action of a fluid pressure. The material is to be strong
to with stand the tensile loop stress. The interior surface forms the wall of the combustion chamber.
There is a considerable temperature stress on the material of the body. The two surfaces tend to expand
at differential rates for being at different temperatures. But the body prevents their free expansion this
causes a stress to be set up. The liner is secured at the top flange by cover studs. A compressive stress is
set up on this part of the liner. Besides, the surface of the liner needs to be resistant to wear and
corrosion. The choice of material must also consider such factor as its amenability to various
metalworking and forming processes such as casting, machining, surface treatment etc.
Cylinder Liner.
Wet Type.
Slow and Medium Speed Engines.
Cooled by Cooling Water.
Dry Type.
Small Engines.
Air Cooled (Fined liners used).
Liner should withstand high mechanical load (Gas pressure) and thermal load caused by heat flow.
To achieve above olden days they used one, two or three piece liner construction. Liners are cylindrical
construction fixed at one point on the top and expand at the other point downwards.
Mechanical Stress.
Maximum pressure: Firing pressure: 45 - 50bar for non-supercharged engine and around 85 - 100bar in
supercharged engines.
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This pressure produces circumferential stress (Hoop stress) and longitudinal stress.
Hoop Stress = 2 x Longitudinal stress. So Hoop stress is only considered.
Hoop Stress = P x D Where P: Cylinder pressure. D: Cylinder diameter. T: Cylinder thickness.
2T
Hoop stress will increase if bore size and firing pressure increases.
Thermal Stress.
Resistance to heat flow through the metal of the liner produces a temperature gradient across the metal.
Due above expansion will be different at the inner and outer wall of the liner.
Stress t T.
T = Temperature gradient.
Temperature gradient will increase as metal thickness increases.
Increase in metal thickness is good for withstanding mechanical stress but bad for thermal stress.
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So liner design was a complex issue for long time, but with the advent of bore cooling, availability of
new-alloyed material and new machining technology the above problem to great extent has been solved.
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Simple loop-flow
scavenging.
Loop-flow
opposed-port scavenging.
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Sulzer: RD Liner.
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Sulzer: RND Engine Liner (See bore cooling arrangement above the liner sketch).
Sulzer: RN-M Engine Liner Port Openings.
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For the loop-scavenging each scavenge port and exhaust port has specific design to enhance
scavenging process. 1: Exhaust ports. 2: Scavenge ports. 3: Lubricating oil quill fitting space.
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Doxford Opposed Piston Engine: 3- Piece Liner top two sketch: Below is bore cooled liner.
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Sulzer: RND 90: Bore cooled Liner: Below RN 90 & RN90M Liner Stress shown.
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Specimen Engine Cylinder Liner Gauging Chart (Chart given is for Opposed Piston Engine).
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Sight Glass Fluids: a) Water: b) Calcium Nitrate solution: c) 75% Glycerin and water .
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Matching of Cylinder oil Alkalinity to Fuel Sulphur Content for Two Stroke Diesel Engine.
B&W Engine Manufacturers Recommendation.
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The above chart helps operating engineers to select the correct TBN cylinder oil along with the correct
quantity of oil to be fed to the liner depending on the sulphur content of the fuel oil burnt for that
voyage. The quantity of oil has to be controlled for change in engine load and while manuvering.
Running in of new liners or running in of new piston rings should be done with great care. The engine
manufacturers use various methods, which are given in the next page.
Maximum Liner wear rate
mm/1000 hours.
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Effect of Cylinder oil feed on liner wear rate in Turbo-charged Uniflow Engine.
Feed rate increase above
Normal Maximum
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Running Hours.
Cylinder Liner Running in Method No: 1: Cylinder oil feed rate adjustment during running in.
Cylinder Liner running method No: 2: Progressive Increase of Engine Speed and Cylinder
Lubricating Oil Alkalinity during running in Period.
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End of Cylinder Liners/BIT/AMET/BE/KV/June 2003.
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Early Piston of a large slow speed diesel engine (Cocktail shaker Type).
Modified type to allow cooling water to reach the crown lower part to remove the heat of the
crown material and keep it with in the designed thermal stresses.
Flow Pattern Of Coolant:
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Part sections through recent B&W Engine Pistons reflecting the gradual increase in firing pressures.
The crown of the MC design bears directly on the piston rod flange.
MAN/B&W design latest Piston, Piston rod, and Stuffing box (Bore cooling system used).
Some Piston design and Piston Sketches with Cooling System:
The new piston design (Opposed piston engine Doxford- J Type) has the effect of improving cylinder
compression. Improved fuel consumption and starting have been achieved by fitting the firing ring
closer to the crown, thus reducing the crown volume and, piston temperature during the power cycle.
During the expansion stroke the firing ring will reach the opening edge of the exhaust port and the air
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Sulzer RD Engine Piston with piston rod and telescopic pipe arrangement:
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KSZ/BL Type piston, cylinder cover and liner material surface temperatures well below 350*C
due to bore cooling. Thus for the same power the thermal loading is very low.
Piston material specification:
1. Cast iron: Common in olden days. Now aluminum alloys are used. Cast iron is cheap, has good
thermal conductivity and good wearing property due graphite flake structure. Can be used in low
speed engines.
a) Tensile strength: 28 kg/mm2, Bending strength: 48 kg/mm2, Compressive strength: 90
kg/mm2, Hardness: 190 230 HB.
b) C (total): 2.9 to 3.2%, C (bound): 0.7 to 0.9%, Si: 0.9 to 1.5%, MN: 0.8 to 1.0%,
P: 0.1 to 0.3%, Ni: 0.6 to 1.2%, Cr: 0.3 to 0.5%, V: 0.1 to 0.2% or Mo: 0.4%.
2. Forged steel: (Crowns - Heat resistant).
a) Tensile: 65 kg/mm2 @ 20*C and 20kg/mm2 @ 800*C. Yield point: 30 kg/mm2,
Elongation: 30%, Hardness: 163 to 241 HB.
b) Carbon: 0.3 0.4%, Mn: 2.0%, Si: 2.0 3.0%, Cr: 16 20%, Mo or V: 23 27%.
3. Cast steel: (Heat resistant).
a) Tensile: 55 kg/mm2, Yield point: 28 kg/mm2, Elongation: 19%, Hardness: 190 HB.
b) Carbon: 0.25%, Mn: 0.5%, Si: 0.15%, S: not over 0.040%, P: not over 0.040%.
c) Piston head special molybdenum cast steel: C: 0.13-0.18, Si: 0.3-0.5, Mn: 0.5-0.8,
Mo: 0.3-0.5.
4. Aluminum Alloy:
For Casting: (Aluminum Copper alloy: Large diameter pistons for high speed engines).
a) Tensile: 30 kg/mm2, Yield: 26 kg/mm2, Elongation: 0.3%, Hardness: 130 HB.
b) Cu: 4.0%, Mg: 1.5%, Ni: 2%. Impurities: Si: less than 0.7%, Zn: less than 0.3%, Fe: less
than 0.8%. Specific weight: 2.75.
For Drop Forging: (Small high speed engines. Made stronger by drop forging).
a) Tensile: 44 kg/mm2, Yield: 29 kg/mm2, Elongation: 10%, Hardness: 110 HB.
b) Si: 0.85%, Cu: 2.2%, Mg: 1.6%. Specific weight: 2.8.
Medium Speed Four Stroke Diesel Engine Pistons:
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Four stroke trunk piston (In section, one half perpendicular to the other to show Gudgeon pin fixture).
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Four Stroke Trunk Piston of Medium Speed Engine using blended fuel and developing higher power.
To withstand higher pressure load and thermal heat the piston crown is made of cast steel with special
cooling arrangement.
Pielstick engine piston:
The trunk piston is cast in one piece out of light alloy material (aluminium-silicon). The steel coil
embedded in the casting is taken behind the piston rings. Lubricating oil is supplied to the coils through
the gudgeon pin. The inside of the pin is divided for this purpose into separate passages for oil inlet to
the coils and return to the pin after circulation. Separate vertical passages drilled inside the connecting
rod convey oil for cooling the piston and bring the return to the crankcase.
Four compression rings seal the combustion space. Two oil control rings are also provided on top and
bottom of the gudgeon pin. The top compression ring is chrome plated and fitted in an insert. Other
compression rings are made of cast iron with a copper-lead inlay.
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2. Thermal stresses, due to temperature difference between inner and outer surface of the piston. The
crown and upper ring groove suffers distortion as a result of free expansion on the hot side being
restricted by the cooler surface of the piston. See figure below.
Inertia Effects:
The crown of a piston is subjected to very high gas pressure, which will subject the top surface of the
crown to compressive loading, and the lower surface of crown will be under tensile loading. The piston
crown will be like a uniformly loaded beam.
As the piston is moving upward, towards the end of its stroke its velocity will be reducing or in other
works retardation will occur. The inertia effect will tend to cause the piston to bow upwards, so that top
surface of the crown along with sides will be under tensile loading and lower surface of the crown will
be under compressive loading. The pressure on the top of the piston nullifies the inertia effects when the
piston approaches top center position in the upward direction.
It must be understood clearly here that the inertial forces on a 4 stroke engine at the end of exhaust
stroke will not be nullified in the same manner as in the case of compression stroke, because the gas
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Sulzer: RN type: Two Stroke, Slow Speed high powered Loop Scavenging type engine.
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The rotating piston transforms the swinging motion of the connecting rod against the piston axis into a
slow revolving motion of the piston itself round its longitudinal axis by means of a ratchet mechanism.
Thus, a fresh-lubricated section of the piston skirt is brought to the loaded area for every-piston stroke.
Should against all probability, local scuffing start to develop, the rotation separates the two affected
areas and does not allow scuffing to aggravate to a seizure. Apart from the above, the Grey Cast iron
piston skirt and cylinder liner provide for excellent running conditions between the two surfaces.
Rotating pistons for reliable and economical service:
a) At each stroke, a new oil-wetted portion of the piston is always in contact with the
pressure side of the liner, this minimizes the danger of piston seizures.
b) The piston rings rotate as well, and so local overheating of the liner resulting from blowby at the ring gap can be avoided.
c) Due to the symmetrical design the thermal and mechanical deformation is also
symmetrical.
d) Lubricating oil is distributed uniformly - a favorable factor in respect of the wear rate on
cylinder liners and piston rings.
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PISTON RINGS:
Working condition of this simple component should be properly understood. The piston rings must
provide an effective seal of the combustion space. Under ideal condition the piston ring surfaces are in
complete contact over its entire depth and periphery with the liner surface and ring width on landing
area. The initial seal is established between the ring and the liner by a radial pressure exerted by the ring
when pressed on liner. Following combustion the ring is forced down on the grove landing surface by
the gas pressure. The gas pressure is also throttled at the back of the ring through the small clearance
space thus increasing further the radial pressure against the liner.
The sealing of combustion space by a set of rings on reciprocating piston follows the labyrinth principle.
The gas pressure leaked in behind each piston ring is successively throttled down to the pressure
prevailing at the underside of the piston. In this way its natural tendency to leak out is progressively
diminished. The number of rings, the ring section area and the contact areas are determined by
consideration of strength, pressure difference, volume of space to be scaled, etc. From the foregoing it
will be clear each ring is different, being the highest at the top ring and diminishing successively at the
bottom ring.
Action of Ring:
Gas pressure in cylinder.
Page 150
Ring Clearancees:
The 3 major clearances to take note are:
1. Side or Axial clearance.
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Plain Gap.
Expansion Gap.
Lap Gap.
This clearance is necessary to allow circumferential thermal expansion and permit fitting of ring to a
solid piston. The three most common shapes of ring end used to reduce gas leakage are shown above.
The plain gap is popular on 2- stroke engines for the top and second rings as it is robust although the
45* Mitre gap is almost as popular. The mitre gap gives a reduced width gas passage for the same
circumferential clearance. The lap shape reduces the gas passage width even further and also increases
its length considerably thereby improving gas sealing but the ends are relatively fragile and the rings are
expensive to manufacture. Therefore, it is likely to be used for lower rings only.
The gap clearance is measured with the ring clear of the cylinder
(called the free gap) and with the ring in the unworn part of the
cylinder (called the closed gap).
Typical free gap: 31/2 x Ring radial thickness.
Typical closed gap: 0.005 - 0.006 mm/mm cylinder diameter.
If the closed gap is large, poor sealing and blow by results, while too small a clearance may permit ring
end contact due to thermal expansion leading to heavy ring pressure against the liner and causing heavy
wear. The butt clearance is a useful judge for ring wear and loss of spring tension as the closed gap may
be measured through the scavenge ports. Ring wear is more commonly measured by removing the ring
and measuring the reduction in radial thickness.
Page 152
The depth of the ring grove should always be greater than the ring radial thickness so that the piston side
loads are never transmitted to the liner wall via the rings. An excessive clearance can allow the build up
of large hot gas volumes leading to overheating and oil oxidation producing heavy deposits.
Ring Material:
Most popular material is cast iron alloyed principally with silicon, manganese, chromium, phosphorous,
copper and molybdenum. The presence of graphite in cast iron in lamellar form improves the material
property in sliding. The graphite acts as a lubricant in the dry state. The material must be resilient, strong
to withstand the pressure in the cylinder and sufficient resistant to wear. The range of hardness in such
piston ring material differs from 160 - 190 Brinell. The type of rings used in large engines is regarded as
soft. The use of these rings in engines with high maximum pressure advantageous as it takes bedding
quickly over the liner surface during the running in period.
Depending on the size of the ring a choice is made between strength and wear resistance. Strength
obtained by refined grain structure resulting in finer graphite flakes, wear resistance is due to large
graphite flakes. There is a limited use of S.G. iron for very large rings. This has improved strength but
poor wear resistance (up to 800 MN/m2).
The ring has hardness slightly higher than that of the liner material so that wear between the ring
and liner is at the optimum low rate with the easily replaceable ring suffering most wear.
Typical hardness: 200-220 HB. Typical UTS: 200 Mn/m2.
After manufacture of rings, some of them may be coated or heated. Chromium plating or Molybdenum
spraying is done for resisting scuffing attack on 4 stroke engines. Copper plating, Silver plating,
Phosphorus treatment, Cadmium flashing and Tin flashing can prevent ring scuffing during initial
running in.
Alloyed piston ring iron and material specification.
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Negative Ovality:
Positive Ovality:
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Rings will normally rotate on piston due to the variation in gas pressure.
Typical rate of movement is 1mm to 3mm per cycle.
Ring Shapes:
Ring edges are rolled inwards to avoid striking on the port openings.
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Granodising:
All cast iron piston rings are Granodised before leaving the works. This process is a phosphating
process, which prevents rusting and also etches the surface of the ring slightly so that the surfaces retain
oil.
Chrome Plating:
Chrome plating of the working surface has the following advantages for medium speed and fast engines.
1. High surface hardness and wear resistance.
2. Low coefficient of friction.
3. Resistances to corrosive wear.
In slow speed engines we advise chrome plating of the cylinder liner as a better alternative to chrome
piston rings.
Copper Plated Rings: Copper plating of the working faces of rings is useful where bedding in problems
are encountered. A coarse turned finish is recommended or the inclusion of small grooves in the wearing
surface.
Cadmium or Tin Flash Rings: A thin layer of tin or cadmium can prevent ring scuffing and can again
be used for initial running in.
Liner wear reduced when piston rings move freely. 6 to 10% of power in large engine is lost in
friction and 2/3rd of this in cylinders between rings and liners.
Checking piston ring wear:
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Sulzer RN68M type engine working piston and piston ring clearance checking list.
Page 163
All measurements should be taken after cleaning and recorded properly. Any defects found should be
made good. Damaged or worn our rings to be renewed.
Page 164
The axial clearance of the piston rings in the two top grooves is already in new condition somewhat
larger than that of the remaining rings. This clearance is measured most suitably with a feeler gauge. The
piston rings must be fitted in the grooves for the measurement.
The radial wear of the piston rings can be established by means of an outside micrometer or
corresponding gap gauges (dimension l). Corresponding to the wear of the piston rings at the running
surface, the ring gap S increases automatically. In order to measure the ring gap, the piston rings are
placed individually in a ring gauge with a bore corresponding to the bore of a new cylinder liner.
If such a ring is not available, the top part of a cylinder liner can be used for this purpose, this part being
not subjected to wear as a rule.
Piston rings, which can be used further on, are to be fitted whenever possible in the original position into
the same groove as before. Owing to the long service period between two overhauls engine makers
recommend, however, to fit at each piston overhaul new piston rings into the two top ring grooves.
Rings, which have sharp edges, due to wear but have still sufficient width for fitting them for further
service period must be chamfered carefully (lx45*).
The dimensions established by the measuring are to he recorded in a table (see page 35).
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Untrue groove.
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First Cause:
Result:
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First Cause:
Result:
KEY:
MZ: Micro seizure. CL: Clover-leafing. CO: Collapse of rings.
BR: Breakage of rings. BL: Blow-by.
AW: Abrasive wear. CW: Corrosive wear.
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The wear condition and the shine portion and scored portion will indicate the micro-seizure condition.
New Micro seizure ring as seen in section and on face.
Every engine manufacturer will give these methods and ships engineers should make these inspections
and record properly. Any fault found should immediately be rectified as per the manufacturers
recommendation.
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End of Pistons and Piston rings: Reference: Coagency between piston rings, piston and cylinder liner: CHR. Grum;
Motor-ship supplements on Sulzer Engines and B&W Engines.
Instruction manuals of Sulzer and B&W engens.
Engineers Handbook of Piston rings by G.Industriale.
***************************Kv***************************
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Kv/ICE/BE/03.
Page 176
Flash Chromium Plate: This plate, which has a thickness limited to 0.025 mm or less depending on
contour of ring section, is much thinner than the chromium plate, as used on piston rings in applications
such as internal combustion engines and compressors. The thin, "flash" plate may be applied over the
entire ring surface, to the cylinder-contacting surface only or to the flat side surfaces only. It is used on
rings in various types of reciprocating, rotary or static seals, particularly where abrasive wear or
corrosion is a problem.
Chrome Plating:
Chrome plating of the working surface has the following advantages for medium speed and fast engines.
High surface hardness and wear resistance.
Low coefficient of friction.
Resistances to corrosive wear.
In slow speed engines we advise chrome plating of the cylinder liner as a better alternative to
chrome piston rings.
Copper Plated Rings: Copper plating of the working faces of rings is useful where bedding in problems
are encountered. A coarse turned finish is recommended or the inclusion of small grooves in the wearing
surface.
Cadmium or Tin Flash Rings: A thin layer of tin or cadmium can prevent ring scuffing and can again
be used for initial running in.
Granodising:
All cast iron piston rings are Granodised before leaving the works. This process is a phosphating
process, which prevents rusting and also etches the surface of the ring slightly so that the surfaces retain
oil.
Corrosion Protection: A corrosion-inhibiting medium is used on all ferrous rings for both intraoperational protections during manufacture and as a final coating for protection of the rings from
corrosion during shipment and storage.
Page 177
The Coil Spring Expander and the Serpentine Expander are both used to provide tension for
Conformable Rings as illustrated above. They are high quality springs made to closely controlled
specifications. The Coil Spring Expander is made of round wire coiled into the form of the usual coil
spring and fitted with a joint pin at one end as an aid to assembly. The Serpentine Expander is made of
rectangular wire formed with axial reverse crimps. Both are of the abutment type, installed with ends
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The force that occur in a vertical diesel engine crankshaft are as follows:
i)
Static weight of engine components (moving).
ii)
Alternating forces produced by varying gas pressure.
iii)
Inertia forces of the moving parts.
iv)
Centrifugal force at crank.
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The crank-web is subjected to tensile, compressive and shear stresses. Shear in way of
journal.
Important Factors Affecting Crankshaft Life:
a) If webs are flame cut, this should preferably be done hot. Crack detection before and after
shrinkage is necessary.
b) Edges of crank-webs should be well rounded off.
c) Great care has to be taken of discontinuities in the shaft such as fillets, oil grooves, oil
holes etc. Fillets should have proper radius. Oil holes should be machined smooth and
lips should be well rounded.
d) Material should be in optimum condition both as regards soundness and fatigue strength.
e) Surface hardening by the Nitriding process increases fatigue strength. Hardening will
reduce rate of wear, but the process has to be carefully carried out.
f) Proper care has to be taken of the bedplate as regards designing and maintenance.
Distorted/Cracked bedplate has been the cause of crankshaft failures in several cases due
to misalignment.
g) Crankshaft alignment has to be maintained in the specified limit at all times.
h) In the presence of water (form piston cooling or other system leakage) Crankshaft can
severely and seriously corrode with consequent adverse effect on fatigue life. The
necessary precautionary measures should he taken.
i) Web "Breadth/Thickness" ratio, Bridge piece thickness have to be maintained in the
specified range.
Crankshaft Problems:
The majority of failures of steel crankshafts are fatigue failures. Majority of failures originate from
following points:
1. Lip of an oil hole in a crankpin. In severe cases of torsional vibrations, cracks may be found at
several crankpins and journals.
2. At the fillets between crank webs and crankpins/journals.
3. At flange couplings of conventional design.
4. A common type of crankshaft failure is characterised by a crack originating from crankpin and
web fillet (at the underside of crankpin) and proceeding through the rectangular section of the
web.
5. Cracks can develop in a crank web, particularly in the higher stressed regions, midway between
pin and journal.
6. Cracks can develop at the fillet between the journal and web, particularly in the arc between the
position corresponding to 10'o clock and 2'o clock position, when the piston is at TDC.
7. Twisting or slipping.
Crankshaft Inspection:
i)
Should be checked for cracks giving special attention to the points mentioned above.
ii)
Working surface of journals and pins to be examined for signs of corrosion or pitting
caused by water or acid contamination of lubricating oil.
iii)
Shrink fit reference marks.
iv)
Tightness of coupling bolts.
v)
Tightness of oil pipes and bearing locking devices.
vi)
Oil holes cleanliness.
vii)
Balance securing arrangement.
viii) Blank plugs in oil holes and oil tightness.
ix)
Crankshaft deflections
Crankshaft Alignment:
College of Ship Technology
Page 183
Deflections
All steps under Crankshaft Alignment to be observed.
In addition to abovementioned points following points should be noted: Readings should be
taken at same position between webs and Engine should be turned in the same direction ("ahead"
direction)
Page 184
To interpret deflection readings one should refer to engine manufacturers engine manual at all times.
Crankshaft deflection effect will be dependent upon the rigidity of the foundation (Bed plate of the
engine) and the vessel. Measurements should be taken, as far as possible, under the same set of
condition which must be recorded with the measurements.
Changes under similar conditions appearing suddenly or gradually over an extended period give
evidence of foundation subsistence.
In case of unpermissible change the plant must be realigned and main bearing inspected.
Apart from readings taken from a planed program, additional readings may be taken:
1. After collision or grounding.
2. After bearing or crankshaft damage.
3. Prior to and after every dry-docking in floating condition.
Welded Crankshaft for Large Diesel Engines:
Shrink-fits have always limited design. It is now practical to produce heavy, solid crankshaft for twostroke diesels by welding, instead of the traditional shrink-fit. B &W Diesel engine manufacturers
around end 1983, realised that, sooner or later, they would have to abandon the shrink-fit method of
assembling heavy crankshafts. It had meant that the shape and weight of the crank had to be fairly
constant because the web needed a minimum width and radial thickness in order to ensure a sufficient
grip on the pin. Because of the sizes involved, mono- block crankshafts are impracticable. Welding,
therefore, appeared to be the ideal alternative since the weld would be positioned right in the middle of
the bearing journals where the stresses on the crankshaft are lowest.
To make welding practical, the level of residual stresses and distortion must be known and low; the weld
zone must be as strong as the unheated metal and easy to test.
Preliminary and experimental studies led to the conclusion that a narrow-gap with low heat input,
combined with submerged-arc welding, would be the most suitable method.
Two ways of assembly:
A crank-arm (a half crank-throw with a half main journal cast or forged integrally to its web) is shown
on the figure below. A full crank throw is shown on the right and the solid crankshaft below.
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Two assembly methods are possible: welding two crank-arms together through the pin to form a crankthrow and then making the crankshaft by welding these. Crank-throws through the main journals; or, by
welding together forged or cast complete crank-throws. The crank-arms are closed die hammer forgings
in unalloyed carbon-manganese steel. An example of the second method is the single, free form forged
crank-throw, welded to its neighboring throws in a lathe, during machining. The forged heat-treated and
rough machined crank-throws for this shaft have been made by Kobe Steel Works in Japan.
Research: Before welding procedures could be finalised, a great deal of research was necessary,
including a comprehensive finite-element computer analysis, which enabled us to predetermine the
stress concentration factors in the fillets between the crank-webs and the journal.
A finite-element subdivision is shown in figure below.
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Stresses were also measured by strain gauges on a scaled-down steel crank-throw to check the results of
the calculations. Metallurgical investigation showed that any of the tested materials, from normalised
low-carbon manganese steel to hardened and tempered low-alloy Cr/Mb steel, could be welded with the
submerged arc welding, narrow-gap process, given a sufficiently high pre-heating and interpass
temperature. Fatigue testing of full-sized specimens showed properties superior to the base material.
Dynamic fracture testing showed that, if a fatigue fracture was already present, the growth per number
of cycles was the same as in the base material.
Owing to the rotational symmetry of the narrow-gap, submerged arc-welding process, only very small
angular distortions of the crankshaft occur. The stresses built up during welding, and partly relieved by
heating, cause insignificant changes in length.
Welding and testing: The joint has a narrow-gap of 16 to 2Omm, formed by parallel-machined surfaces
of the crank-arms, crank-throws or shaft journals. A backing ring is placed in the bore and tack-welded
to the journals to ensure correct positioning and full penetration. By tilting the journals and crank-throws
with a manipulator during welding, the deposit is laid on each side of the groove alternately, with an
overlap after each revolution. This process may also be described as a multi-pass temperbead technique,
with each layer consisting of two passes side by side.
While the process is automatic, in view of the importance of the product, the presence of a certificated
operator will always be necessary. After welding, the journal is post-heated to ensure slow and even
cooling. When cold, the backing ring and the roots of the welds are removed, by drilling out the central
bore. After machining of the outer journal surfaces, the shaft is ready for non-destructive testing.
Subsequently, the welds of the whole shaft are stress-relieved.
Ultrasonic testing is performed with angular and normal probes on the outside of the journal and around
the weld. Echo amplitudes from possible planar and volumetric defects are compared with signals from
ideal reflectors. Magnetic-particle inspection of the weld and its surroundings is performed both outside
and inside the central bore at the pin and/or journal. Such shaft finished will have the approval of some
of the worlds leading classification societies including the Europeans', LR, IRS, ABS, NK and the
newly formed Society of Mainland China.
Advantages of welded crankshafts:
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Connecting Rod:
This is a highly stressed component resulting from:
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(A)
(B)
Connecting Rod large end bolts: (A) Old original design. (B) Improved new design.
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It would be beneficial to reduce the diameter of bolt shank less than the core diameter at the
bottom of the thread (about 10% less).
Bolt material should have adequate strength and high resilience.
It would be ideal to make the bolt of uniform cross-sectional area but it is necessary to have
certain parts of shank enlarged in diameter for the fitting portions.
Bolt Material:
Low alloy steel (alloy content < 5%).
U.T.S: 750 to 1100 N/mm2.
Tightening of Bolts:
Tightening of important bolts such as these should not be left to chance.
Following methods are in use:
1. Applying the desired preload by means of hydraulic cylinder and following up nut.
2. Measuring the extension of the bolt with a micrometer device whilst the bolt is tightened.
3. Hand tightening lightly, and then turning up the nut through a predetermined and calculated
angle with respect to the bolt.
4. Using torque spanner, e.g. a spanner which reads the torque or set to give way at a
predetermined torque.
Methods (1) & (2) as mentioned above are most accurate. Method (3) is good if bolt stiffness is known
and calculation is accurate.
Torque spanners (method 4) are useful for small medium sized bolts, care has to be taken as regards
Lubrication.
Failure in Bolts:
Failure is essentially due to fatigue.
Factors contributing to failures are as follows:
1. Stress concentrations at bolt heads, change of section, surface finish etc.
2. Over stretching of bolt.
3. Uneven tightening.
4. Inadequate pretension.
5. Improper seating of nut or bolt head causing bending stresses.
6. Corrosive attack in the form of bending.
Crosshead:
This provides an articulating, junction between the connecting rod and piston rod. It is constrained in the
transverse direction by Guides, which absorb and transfer the reaction from the connecting rod the
engine frames.
Modern high power engine may be transmitting up to a 600 ton load at
peak combustion pressure, through the crosshead which produces large
guide reaction as connecting rod angularity increases, two sets of
guides are provided, since the reaction is reversed when passing
through BDC & TDC, (with single acting engine).
For high powers, crossheads are kept short and the pins increased in diameter. This provides:
1. Very rigid structure which has little deflection under load.(improved fatigue resistance and better
alignment with bearings).
2. Large top bearing area to reduce specific loads.
3. Possibility to use harder bearing material with higher fatigue resistance (in conjunction with
chrome plated pins).
4. Higher peripheral velocity to entrain the oil (thicker oil films can be produced).
College of Ship Technology
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SULZER Engine: RD, RN Type: Crosshead bearing with guide shoe shown with out the pin.
Sketch for Crosshead bearing and guide shoe arrangement: Sulzer Engine:
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1. Crosshead pin. 2. Guide shoe. 3. Guide shoe holding cover. 4. Guide path.
5. Guide rail for guide shoe. 6. Adjusting shims. 7. Crosshead bearing lower part. 8. Column section.
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(a) Traditional.
(b) Conjugate
Defluxions in typical crossheads (exaggerated for clarity)
Under heavy loads, bearing support distorts as well as the pin and loads remains evenly distributed.
Fatigue cracking is prevented. This is termed conjugate deflexion whereby the bearing deflexion follows
that of the crosshead pin.
3. Bearings are fine-machined, no hand scraping to improve lubrication. The lower half is thin
walled. Thin wall bearings have high fatigue resistance and easy to renew. Bearing bolts are
hydraulically and evenly tensioned.
4. Crosshead made of forged steel and consists of an enlarged central section with 2 large diameter
crosshead journal pins for X-head bearings. Aluminium-tin shell bearings with an overlay of
softer material (white metal) are used. Special lubricating system with fine filter and lubricating
oil pressure of 16 bars is used. Maximum crosshead bearing pressure would be high since
combustion pressure is 100 to 102 bar for RLA engines. Hence increasing the lubricating oil
pressure to the X-head to a level where it caused separation of the surfaces during the low load
part of the cycle, a squeeze film is provided for during the high load part.
MAN: Type Engine:
1. Highly polished and stiff pin.
2. Crosshead made of forged steel and consist of a large, stiff cylindrical pin flat machined on the
top and at the centre of its length only, to enable piston rod and guide shoe to be secured. The
ends of the X-head pin and the full length lower half forms the bearing surface. Load is thus
spread over a large area, which ease the pressure and facilitate lubrication.
3. MAN engines have pressure pumps mounted on X-head and driven by movement of connecting
rod to supply oil to X-head bearings (See page 63 for the figure of this pump and arrangement).
The pump operates on its delivery stroke when the piston is at the bottom part of its stroke and
unloaded. Thus the crosshead pin is lifted by oil pressure only against the weight of the running
gear. Pump suction stroke occurs when piston is in the top of the cylinder. Two pumps are fitted,
each delivery to separate set of oil grooves. In the event of failure of one of the lubricating oil
pump sufficient oil pressure is supplied by remaining pump. Both top and bottom halves are thinwalled bearings.
Some sections of Engine Main Bearings and Bottom end Bearings:
College of Ship Technology
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MAN. Engine: Flywheel end main bearing and bottom end bearing:
Lubricating oil passage is also shown. 1. Crankshaft flywheel end flange. 2. Bearing oil deflector.
3. Oil supply line to aftermost main bearing. 4. Main bearing upper holding cover. 5. Crankshaft web
counter weight. 6. Crankshaft. 7. Connecting rod. 8. Connecting rod oil passage. 9. Bottom end bolts.
10. Oil passage in crankshaft.
Sketch above show Doxford J- type engine bottom end bearing and main bearing (Old type).
Note the spherical bearing for self-alignment.
Drawings below show Doxford J type engine new type Main bearing.
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SULZER Engine: RND: RTA Type: Main Bearing showing the holding down arrangement.
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******************Kv*********************
End of part II Marine Diesel Engines.
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