1

Testing of Man made staple fibre, Yarn and Filament

N.Balasubramanian
Retired Joint Director(BTRA) and Consultant1i

Among the various factors affecting profitability, sale value, competitivess

and brand image of a mill, quality has paramount importance. The mills
which produce consistently good quality get a premium in the sales price
and are less affected by demand recession or rise in cost of inputs. Mills
should therefore have a sound quality assurance program, backed by a well
maintained and fully equipped testing laboratory, to survive competition.
Though it is said that man-made fibres are made with precision and do not
have variability associated with natural fibre, this seldom applies in
practise. Not only some amount of variability in properties is found but also
defects and abnormalities in fibre/filament are encountered which cause
processing problems, defects in final product and waste and rejections. So
testing of raw material and final product for various properties is equally
important in man-made fibres, yarns, and filaments.

Staple Fibre
Length
Staple length determines the strength of yarn and optimum twist
factor. Extra long staple fibres (50-64mm) require a lower twist
factor and enable higher spindle speeds. At the same time, they are
more prone to nep generation and result in inferior yarn appearance.
Staple fibre yarns from 38mm enjoy a premium over those made from
52mm fibre. In the case of cut staple fibres, fibre length is measured
by laying the fibre on a glass plate smeared with paraffin oil to enable
straightening of fibre (BISFA, ASTM D5103-07). With highly crimped
fibres straightening may be difficult and in this case fibre has to be
fixed between two clamps and a slight tension has to be applied to
one of the clamps. The amount of tension should be just sufficient to
remove crimp and is determined by preliminary tests. Length of fibre
is measured on a scale or by a sliding microscope. Roughly about 1015 fibres are tested and average is determined.
In the case of variable staple fibre and synthetic tops used in worsted
spinning system, automatic fibre diagram machine by SDL or WIRA is
used. Cut square method is used to draw a tuft of fibres from the
sliver and tuft is passed between the plates of capacitor. A measure is
thus obtained of number of fibres in the tuft from the base to tip,
from which cumulative fibre distribution is obtained. The
measurement is fully automated and the fibre diagram together with
results of mean length, upper half mean and CV are automatically
displayed. While preparing a cut square sample, precaution should be
taken to avoid breakage of fibres.
Fibre Fineness
Fineness in the case of staple fibres determines the count to which
the fibre can be spun. It also determines the strength, evenness and
imperfections of yarn and also the end breaks in spinning. Fibre
fineness is determined gravimetrically or air-flow method or by
vibration method.

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o

Gravimetric method

About 25 fibres are cut to a specified length under tension by

means of a template and weighed in a sensitive electronic/torsion
balance from which weight per unit length is determined. The
method is time consuming (ASTM D1577). Errors can also arise
from defects in cutting and sensitivity of balance.
o

Airflow method

Resistance offered by a Known mass of porous plug of fibres

packed in a cylinder of known dimensions to air flow under
constant pressure is dependent on specific surface area which in
turn is determined fibre fineness. This principle is used for
determining fibre fineness of cotton by many instruments,
important ones being Micronaire and Aerilometer (ASTM D1448).
These instruments can also be used for determining fineness of
man-made fibres with suitable calibration. In Micronaire, air flow
rate through the plug of fibres under constant compression is
measured. In Aerilometer extent to which the plug has to be
compressed to achieve a fixed air flow rate under a given pressure
difference is determined. The instrument should be calibrated with
standard fibre samples to avoid errors.

Vibration Method

The fibre, hung vertically, is taken over a knife edge and tensioned
by a pre determined weight and is subjected to transverse
vibrations at variable frequency (ASTM D1577). The frequency at
which maximum amplitude is obtained, which is resonance
frequency, is determined, from which fineness is determined by
the following formulae.

Fig 1 : Fibre fineness by vibration

107
Where T = tension in Newton
F= Frequency in Hertz
L = Length in metres
Vibromat by Textechno Herbertstein and Vibroscop by Lenzing are
based on this principle. The equipment is fully automatic and upon
testing a number of fibres randomly selected (around 8-10), mean
fibre fineness and CV are displayed. The method is very fast with a
total testing time of 5 - 6 sec. However determination of
resonance frequency is not precise with some fibres.

Tensile properties

Fibre Strength

Fibre strength determines the strength of yarn and spinning value

and fibre elongation determines yarn elongation. Both strength

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and elongation and their variability critically affect performance in
weaving and knitting. Single fibre testing is normally done (ASTM
3822 - 07) at constant rate of elongation with a gauge length of 1
cm. Fibre is clamped preferably pneumatically between two jaws
at a predetermined tension. Lower jaw is traversed at a constant
rate while upper jaw is attached to a sensitive load cell of 50100cN capacity. The load extension curve, breaking load,
elongation, work of rupture and modulus are determined and
displayed. Load at 7% and 10% elongation are also determined
for synthetic fibres blended with cotton/viscose. Strength at 7%
and 10% elongation,T7 and T10, have to be close to cotton/viscose
breaking strength to minimise strength losses in blending. Facility
is also offered in some instruments to carry out tests under liquid
and for carrying out cyclic loading test. Fafegraph and Favimat by
Textechno Herbert stein and Vibroskop and Vibrodyn by Lenzing
are some commonly used instruments. At least 10 fibres should be
tested for getting a reliable mean. Considerable automation has
taken place in transferring the fibre to the jaws through use of
transfer clamp actuated by robot. Manual involvement in testing
is restricted to clamping the fibre between two paper clips and
mounting it on a magazine. After that all operations are carried
out automatically. Single testing instrument that carries out
fineness, strength and crimp all, at one place, have also been
developed. Not only testing time is reduced but also the different
tests are carried out on the same fibre. Bundle strength in
stelometer is not recommended because of fibre slippage under
the jaws.
Loop/knot test
To get an estimate of brittleness of fibre, fibre is tested in loop or
knot configurations and resulting strength compared with normal
strength (ASTM D 3217). Fig 2 shows strength testing of loop and
knot. Two filaments are used to form the loop and the ends of loop
are clamped on the clamps of the strength tester. Knot is formed
on fibre and the fibre/filament with knot is placed between the
clamps and tested.

Fig 2 : Loop and knot strength test

Crimp
Crimp is an important property that determines processing behaviour
in carding, drafting and fault incidences in yarn. Crimp frequency,
amplitude, crimp stability, crimp elongation, decrimping point are
some of the important properties that determine crimp. Crimp
stability is an important property as it indicates the extent to which
fibre retains the original crimp during opening, carding and drawing.
ASTM D3937 describes a simple method for determining crimp
frequency. Crimp frequency and amplitude may be determined by
projecting a magnified image of fibre on screen. Opto electronic
sensor is used in some equipments to provide digital representation
of fibre held between two clamps at very low tension and for
determination of crimp geometry. Tensile tests using an extremely
sensitive force measuring system with measuring accuracy of 1mN,
enables the measurement of the curve of crimp force vs elongation,
crimp extension, decrimping point and crimp stability. The fibre is
subjected to gradual loading and crimp is measured in two ways 1.
Extension at 1cN/tex and 2. Extension at the inflexion point given by
tangent1 (Fig 3)

Fig 3 : Crimp measurement

After reaching the load where crimp is removed, load is gradually
reduced to the initial pre tension level to allow relaxation of the fibre.
From the initial, extended and relaxed lengths crimp stability of fibre
is determined. 10 fibres are tested for crimp.

Fibre Bending abrasion and cyclic stress Test

During use fibres are seldom stressed to breaking point and are
subjected small cyclic loads under abrasion. Ability of fibre to
withstand fatigue caused by such tests is therefore of relevance.
Further synthetic fibres tend to form pills when subjected to such
cyclic loads and testing of fibre for pilling tendency is often needed.
Fibre stress tester by Textechno, shown in Fig 4, helps to provide
information on this.
Fibre is tested for oscillating bending and abrasion stress or
longitudinal stress. Fibre clamped on a horizontal oscillating device is
taken over a metal pin/guide and attached to a weight. The clamp
moves forward and backwards at a rapid rate and fibre is subjected to
bending and abrasion. The number of oscillations taken to break the
fibre, which is determined by a sensor, is displayed. In the cyclic
stress test, the clamp holding the tensioned fibre moves vertically up
and down and number of cycles taken to break the fibre is
determined.

Fig 4 Fibre Stress tester

.

Spin Finish
Nature and quantum of spin finish has critical influence on
performance of fibre. Lap licking, cylinder loading and roller lapping
are often traced to improper spin finish. Spin finish is traditionally
estimated by extraction with a solvent like carbon tetrachloride or
benzene on Soxhlet's apparatus. The amount of extracted material is
determined gravimetrically or by infrared spectroscopy. This is time
consuming though accurate. ALFA 300 by Lenzing and Rapid
extraction apparatus by SDL are rapid methods for determining spin
finish. Known quantity of fibre is packed in a vessel and spin finish is
removed by means of a solvent through constant stirring and the
resultant emulsion is subjected to an analyser where organic carbon
content is determined. %of oil and finish are separately determined.
The equipment is suitable for fibre as well as filament. Low resolution
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance is a faster and solvent free method for
determining spin finish and is offered, among others by Lenzing and
Oxford instruments.
Oil content in filament is an important property. Filament sample is
extracted in water and the extraction is conveyed to a furnace. Oil in
water is burned and oxidised and the generated gas is analysed for
carbon-dioxide content in Infra red analyser.
Static Generation
One of the problems encountered with synthetic fibres is generation
of static electricity. Static generation is a cause for lap licking,
cylinder loading, web falling incidences and coiler choke up in carding
and roller lapping in draw frame to ring frame. High hairiness in yarn,

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fabric defects like stitches and floats are also attributed static
electricity. Sparking may take place due to static in synthetic carpets.
Accurate instruments are available for estimating the amount static
charge and half decay time. Half decay time denotes the time taken
for static charge to come down to half its level and a low value is
desirable. Sample held in a holder is rubbed for a known duration of
time and static charge sensing unit measures the charge and decay of
charge with time. This method is not normally preferred as it is
dependent on rubbing material and conditions. Honestometer which
works on the principle of charging the material by irradiating it with
air ions generated in a corona discharge field is commonly used.
Developed charge, decay curve and half decay time are measured
afterwards (Fig 5).

Fig 5 : Decay curve of static charge

Drafting Force
Drafting behaviour of fibre can be estimated by determining drafting
force and its variability. Cohesion testers have been developed for
this purpose. The sliver or roving is passed between two pairs of
drafting rollers with front pair mounted on a lever fitted to strain
gauge. As the material is drafted, front pair of rollers oscillates to and
fro as per drafting force and the strain gauge measures the force
continuously, amplifies and records it on a chart. Mean and coefficient

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of variation of drafting force are measured. The equipment is also
useful in assessing the quality of spin finish and oil applied on fibre.

Abnormalities in fibre
Presence of extraneous agglomerations on the surface of fibre, fused
and undrawn fibres, over length fibres are some of the abnormalities
in fibre. High precision microscope like Projectina is useful to detect
such abnormalities in fibre. Modified Baer sorter of a longer length
with double the number of combs is sometimes used for estimating
over length fibres. ASTM D3513-02 prescribes a method for
determining over length fibres. Over length fibres are the main source
of crackers in yarn and should be below .01%. Undrawn and fused
fibres cause slubs and long thick places in yarn.
UV Stability
Resistance to degradation by UV requires to be tested in geotextiles,
automobile materials and others continuously exposed to sunlight.
Weather-o-meter is used for finding UV stability. The instrument uses
UV lamp which simulates the ultra violet rays found in sunlight. After
exposing the specimen for a specified duration, strength is tested to
assess degradation if any. Polypropylene and nylon have lower UV
stability compared to polyester.

Dyeability of fibre
Laboratory model dyeing equipments are offered by various
manufacturers for dyeing small samples of fibre up to 5 gm, to check
uniformity of dye pick up.

Molecular Orientation

Molecular orientation determines the tenacity, elongation and dyeability of

fibre. Molecular orientation testers are available by determining
birefringence through the use of polarised microscope. Difference in
refractive index in the longitudinal direction and cross (diameter) direction
gives birefringence. Image of fibre is displayed on monitor by CCD camera
fitted on Microscope. Birefringence is automatically measured and displayed

Whiteness and Colour

Variations in whiteness in grey material and colour in dyed fibre from lot to
lot is a source of streakiness and weft bars in fabric. To maintain
consistency in whiteness and colour of fabric, raw material should be
checked for whiteness, degree of yellowness and colour. Instruments are
available for estimating whiteness and degree of yellowness. Bench type
spectrophotometer is used for testing and matching of colour.

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Filaments and Yarns

Tensile properties
Breaking load, elongation and work of rupture are some of the
important characteristics of filaments and staple fibre yarns. Lea and
single thread strength are the commonly used measures of yarn
strength and their relative merits have been discussed elsewhere 2.
o Single thread strength
Tensile testers may be classified as
Constant rate of loading type
Constant rate of elongation type
Constant rate of traverse type

Constant rate of loading

Rate of loading of yarn is constant in these instruments throughout the test
period. Inclined plane testers belong to this category. Uster Dynamometer
works on this principle. Though this system of loading has many merits, this
type of tester is not used now a days.
Constant rate of Elongation
This is most popular system these days. Tensile testers using a range of
sensitive load cells are used for determining breaking load and load
elongation curve of yarn (ASTM 2256). The yarn is held between two jaws
with upper jaw connected to load cell and lower jaw is traversed
downwards at a constant rate of traverse. Insertion of a new specimen into
the clamps and clamping of the specimen at a pre determined tension are
done automatically. Automatic package changers (up to 20 packages) are
also provided with the tester so that after a prescribed number of tests are
carried from a package, the package is automatically changed to a new
package and insertion of new yarn to the clamps is automatically done. A
series of high resolution load cells enable testing of yarn with strength
between 100cN to 1000cN. Software is provided for determining mean,
maximum, minimum, modulus, S.D., CV, Confidence limits, load-elongation
curve and a host of other useful information. A high resolution opto
electronic sensor measures the elongation of yarn. Normally about 50
specimens are tested. Recommended time to break is 20 sec and rate of
traverse is accordingly set. Gauge length is infinitely adjustable from 50 to
500 mm and traverse speed of draw off clamp is adjustable from 1 to
5000mm/min. To reduce testing time reverse speed of clamp is kept much
higher than normal testing speed. Strength and elongation are also digitally
displayed. Some units like Tensomat have a unit which draws off prescribed
length of yarn at the start and between two tests and discard it. Facility is
also available for placing a knot or splice in the testing zone through a opto
electronic sensor and testing their strength. While testing multi filament
yarns for strength, the material should be slightly twisted before testing to
get better definition of breaking point.
Constant rate of traverse
Pendulum type testers belong to this category. These have become obsolete
because of long operating time and higher errors.

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Special instruments for testing strength

Uster Tenso jet

As the amount of yarn involved in the normal strength testing is small, the
test may not be able to estimate the weak patches of yarn which are the
source of break in weaving. Uster tensojet has been developed to overcome
this. A high testing speed of 400m/min is used and as much as 30000 tests
can be carried out per hour. As a result, larger sample size closer to the
production area is involved in testing and the results have a better
correlation with weaving performance of yarn.
Dynamic elongation Tester (Lawson Hemphill)
Elongation% of yarn is determined as yarn is run under constant tension at
360m/min. The equipment measures elongation of yarn when it is moving
at constant load. Continuous measurement of yarn tension for 21km/hr is
possible. The test simulates conditions in weaving and knitting and
therefore can be useful in predicting the performance of yarn in these
processes. Dynamic strength and weak places can also be provided
optionally.
Weak spots tester
Conventional testing equipments do not give a correct indication of weak
spots in yarn that result in breakages in subsequent processes as the length
of tested material is small. In the weak spots tester, yarn is run at speeds
up to 1000m/min under constant tension. The level of tension can be
adjusted to be close to that experienced by the yarn in actual
manufacturing. The number of breaks during a specified running time is
recorded. Upon a break the unit stops for subsequent manual rethreading.
Weak spot testers have been developed by among others Textechno,
Lawson-Hemphill.

Factors affecting strength

Gauge Length
Gauge length has considerable influence on strength.
With increase in gauge length, strength will decrease
because of increased chances of occurrence of more
weak places and the weak place being weaker. So gauge
length has to be standardised. Normally 50 cm gauge
length is used except in POY yarns where 20cm gauge

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length is used because of the high elongation of these

yarns.
Rate of loading or elongation
Rate of loading or elongation influences test results.
With increase in rate of loading or elongation, time for
break decreases and a higher strength will be obtained.
Rate of loading or elongation is usually adjusted so that
time for break is around 20sec.
Regular calibration of equipment is essential to avoid
erroneous results. Calibration is done by hanging
standard calibration weights from upper clamp.
o Lea strength
Lea strength test is common in staple fibre yarns. The yarn is
wound on a wrap reel of 54 inch circumference for 80 wraps to
prepare a lea of 120 yards length. The lea is tested for strength
in a pendulum type of tester in olden days. Now a days, a load
cell is used in place of pendulum to measure strength and
breaking load is digitally displayed. Load cell is attached to the
top jaw. Lea strength has the merit of larger sampling length.
It also takes into account variability in the yarn and so can give
a better indication of the performance of yarn at later stages2.
Lea test is not normally done for filaments.
Cyclic Loading
The yarn is seldom extended up to breaking point during use. It is
more often subjected to repeated loads of small value. So
performance of material under cyclic loading may give better
information about durability. The specimen is loaded up to a certain
load or elongation, which is adjustable, and brought back to its
original level. This action is repeated cyclically a number of times till
the specimen breaks. Number of cycles of loading withstood by
specimen, is taken as a measure of its strength. Alternately, the
specimen is tested for strength after a known number of cycles of
loading. Cyclic loading facility is available in all modern instruments.

Elastomeric yarns
Elastomeric yarns like spandex have a very elongation and special
testers have to be used to ensure that the material is transferred to
force measuring area at very low pre tension, and pre tension level is
set at as low a value of .01 cN/tex (ASTM D2653-07). Force
measuring system should have a high resolution of the order of 10N.
Breaking load, tenacity and elongation are determined at first
filament break (FFB). Special clamps have to be used to avoid
slippage. Eccentric roller grips and rubber grip grips are some of the
grips used to prevent slippage. If pneumatic clamps are used
pressure is set at 415 kPa(60 psi)

Creep testing

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Creep is a very important property in composites used in construction
and geotextiles. Creep and relaxation testing of yarn can be done by
subjecting loops of yarn to loading for a long time. Load is removed
and length is tested. Creep tester has facility for simultaneous testing
of 10 20 yarns.

Count
Count of the yarn is determined along with the lea test by weighing
the broken leas. Auto sorter is used to determine mean, minimum,
maximum, S.D., CV, Confidence limits and other statistics from count
tests of leas from within and from different packages. The instrument
consists of an electronic balance to measure the weight of leas. This
is equipped with a software for determining the various statistics.
Some manufacturers have developed instruments for automatically
determining count. This consists of drive rollers which withdraw a
known length of yarn from a package and deposit it on an electronic
balance for weighing and estimating count and related statistics.
Irregularity
Irregularity is an important quality characteristic of staple fibre
yarns. It determines the appearance of yarn and fabric, feel of fabric,
performance of yarn in further processes and the strength realisation
of fibre in yarn. Irregularity is commonly measured by capacitance
type irregularity tester (ASTM D 1425/1425M-09. Uster Evenness
tester is the widely used instrument for measuring irregularity. The
yarn is passed between two capacitance plates at a constant speed.
The capacitance of the condenser varies according to weight per unit
length of yarn. The variations in capacitance are converted into
voltage and amplified. A continuous record of variations is obtained in
a recorder chart. Instantaneous values of Mean Deviation%(U%) or
Coefficient of variation(CV%) of the variations is computed by an
integrator and displayed. A number Condenser slots of different sizes
are used for testing slivers, rovings and yarns as per their count.
Apart from short term variation, the instrument has also facility for
determining medium term term variations and variance length curve
of the yarn. Module for diameter variation is also available in most
electronic evenness testers.
Imperfection Tester
This is an attachment for determining the extreme places. Thick
places, Thin places, Neps, each of 4 categories based on their size,
are measured by the instrument.
Faults
While imperfections are frequently occurring defects, faults occur at
longer interval of time. Faults have a very critical influence on fabric
appearance, rejections and performance of yarn in winding and
subsequent stages. Measurement of faults is done by classimat on a
laboratory winding unit (ASTM D6197-99).In the winding unit yarn
passes through a capacitance sensing unit which counts faults as per
their size and length. 23 classes of faults to cover short and long thick
places, spinners doubles and long thin places are measured in Uster
Classimat. A more detailed article on measurement of faults, their

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source of occurrence and measures to control them are discussed in
an earlier article3,5. 10 bobbins are tested for evenness and
imperfections and faults. Faults are also tested before and after
winding to check the efficiency of clearing unit.
Spectrograph
Spectrogrpah carries out a fourier analysis of mass variations in the
material and displays a curve showing the amplitude of different
wavelengths present in the material. With constant staple fibres,
spectrograph will have two peaks one at2.7l and another at

which

is a lower harmonic (Fig 6). The peaks will be seen even if the yarn is
random with no extra irregularities. In mills peak at half the fibre
length have been often found in polyester/viscose blend and the
technicians and management used to be unnecessarily perturbed by
their presence.

Fig 6 : Spectrogram of staple fibre yarn(with constant fibre length

Spectrograph is useful to detect the presence of periodic irregularities
and their wavelength in the material and for corrective action for
minimising periodicities caused by mechanical faults in machinery.
Periodic irregularities are a source of weft bars and warp way defects
and rejections in woven and knitted fabrics.
Precautions in testing
o

Conditioning
Conditioning of material to test room is important, when test
room humidity varies considerably from manufacturing room.
One hour in the case of yarns and 2-3 hours in the case of
rovings, of conditioning would be adequate. The bobbins should

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o
o

be laid in such a way that moisture enters from all sides to

ensure uniform conditioning. In the case of sliver, uniform
conditioning may take several days. So it is recommended that
testing be carried out immediately after the material is brought
to testing room, after removing a few top layers of sliver
Material Speed
Material speed has to be standardised. With increase in
material speed, irregularity will increase.
Condenser slot size
Condenser slot size should be properly chosen. It is advisable
to use a slot that gives a lower material to air space.
Calibration
Regular calibration has to be carried out to ensure accuracy
A more detailed article on concepts and measurement of yarn
irregularity is found eleswhere3,4,5.
For filaments, Uster Evenness tester C model, where there is
an arrangement for twisting the material before testing, should
be used. Without twisting, the material will flatten as a ribbon
during passage, which will result in inaccurate results.

Yarn Roundness

Two dimensional testing of diameter of yarn enables estimation

of roundness. This gives information about the lustre of yarn
and appearance of fabric made from it. Uster OM sensor has
facility for such measurement.

Simulation of fabric appearance

Equipments for simulation of fabric appearance from yarn diameter

measurements have been developed among others by Uster, Zweigle and
Loepfe. This helps to get an estimate of fabric appearance without weaving
or knitting the yarn. The system uses infra red light for measurement of
diameter of yarn and variations in diameter and simulates appearance of
yarn as seen on boards and woven and knitted fabrics. Attempts have also
been made to simulate fabric appearance from video recordings of a moving
yarn by a digital video camera by various research workers 6. However
correlation between appearance by simulated methods and that by trained
observers of actual fabric is still not established.
Yarn Appearance
Traditionally yarn appearance is determined by winding it on a
blackboard and comparing the appearance with ASTM standard
boards. Though the test is more commonly used in cotton yarns, it
can also be used in man-made fibre yarns for comparison of
appearance of yarns from different sources or fibres. Electronic yarn
inspection board instruments have also been developed. From
measurement of diameter and imperfections in a yarn through a CCD
camera, a simulated yarn appearance board is displayed. This can be

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used for comparison of yarn appearance from different mills or

different machines.

Hairiness
Though hairiness in staple fibre yarns adds to the textile character of
fabric and contributes to comfort and skin friendliness, excessive
hairiness adversely affects appearance of yarn and performance of
material in subsequent stages. Hairiness is generally higher in staple
fibre yarns and blends than in cotton yarns. Several instruments
based on photoelectric principle are available for measuring hairiness
(ASTM D5647-01). An LCD beam is projected on yarn and a photocell
placed behind the yarn, counts the number of interruptions made by
the protruding hairs. Measurement of hairiness as per the length of
protruding hair is carried out. Portable models are also available for
measuring hairiness during production. Uster Evenness tester has a
hairiness attachment, which gives an estimate of total length of
protruding hairs in a cm length, termed as Hairiness index. More
detailed information on the causes of hairiness, measurement and the
effect of on performance of yarn is given in another article 7.
Twist tester
Twist in staple fibre yarns is measured by clamping 2.5 cm length of
yarn between two clamps under tension. One of clamps can be
rotated to remove the twist and other clamp can be moved to fix the
test length.. A microscope or magnifying glass placed over the yarn
enables to determine the point at which twist is fully removed and
fibres become parallel. Counter fixed on the rotating clamp
determines the twist. This is a time consuming method and is
subjective. Untwist twist method represents a quicker method for
estimating twist. A length of yarn mounted under a given initial
tension is untwisted till the yarn extends to a preset level and then
retwisted in opposite direction till original length and tension are
reached. Half of the number of turns (during twisting and untwisting)
divided by gauge length gives twist/unit length. Fully automatic
electronic testers have been developed based on this principle
(ASTM.1423-08). This method is not quite accurate as some twist is
set in yarn and cannot be removed during untwisting.
Lint Generation
Lint generation during weaving and knitting is experienced especially
in yarns with high hairiness. Lawson Hemphill has developed a lint
generation tester as an attachment to Constant tension tester. The
lint generated during running of yarn at 360m/min for 1 km length is
estimated.

Draw Force

Draw force is an important property in POY, Textured and Flat filament

yarns. Thread tensile force at elevated temperatures and predetermined
thread length changes is known as Draw force. Disturbances and faults
during manufacture like varying raw material characteristic, spinning
temperature, quench conditions and winding speed result in variations of
draw force. Draw force determines the performance of yarns and
incidence of fabric defects like weft bars. From measurement of draw

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force, variations in molecular orientation, shrinkage and dyeing
characteristics of the material can be assessed. Testing of draw force
under dynamic conditions has the merit of high speed testing and
continuous recording of variations in draw force. Crimp force or crimp
rigidity of textured yarns and shrinkage force of flat and textured yarns
are also important quality characteristics that determine in fault
incidence in fabric. For measuring draw force, the yarn is passed
between two godets at high speed. The measuring roll of force
measuring system senses the yarn in between the two godets. Below the
measuring system, the yarn is heated by a heating system to high
temperature. There is usually facility to run the tester either with
constant extension or contraction for continuous measurement of yarn
tension, or with constant tension for continuous measurement of
extension or contraction.
o

POY yarns
The yarn is run at constant extension and draw force is
continuously measured and recorded.
Textured yarns
Overfeed is kept between two godets to determine shrinkage.
The test is carried out at low speed and high temperature to
determine shrinkage. Alternatively the yarn is tested at high
speed and low yarn temperature to determine crimp
contraction or crimp rigidity.
Flat yarns
Shrinkage is tested by running yarn at high yarn temperature
Lawson-Hemphill have developed hot draw knitter with draw
force tester to assess the uniformity of dyeing of POY yarns. It
employs a knitting machine with precision stitch control and
draw force measurement conforming to ASTM D 5344.

Shrinkage Elasiticity
Yarn is extended at a slow rate to 3-5% of original length. Tension is
then released and length is measured after 2-3 min. The difference
between original length and final length expressed as % of former
gives elasticity of yarn.

Shrinkage and Crimp

Shrinkage of filament can be estimated under static as well as
dynamic conditions. The yarn is fitted between 2 clamps in a closed
chamber which is heated to predetermined temperature and
shrinkage force is estimated by a load cell attached to one of the
clamps. Variation of shrinkage force with time is also measured and
displayed (Fig 7)

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Fig 7 : Shrinkage Force against time

In dynamic test the material is run at high speed through a heating
unit where temperature can be controlled and shrinkage % and
shrinkage force are continuously estimated and recorded.
For textured yarns, crimp contraction, crimp modulus, crimp stability
and shrinkage can also be determined by preparing hanks (ASTM
D4031 DIN 53840). Crimp contraction is estimated by subjecting
them to different loads (Fig 8) and measuring the change in length
and by using an appropriate formula. Shrinkage is estimated by
measuring the initial length and subjecting the hank to thermal
treatment and measuring the final length (ASTM D2259). Length
measurements are all carried out automatically. Crimp contraction,
modulus and stability are given by following formula.
Crimp Contraction% =

19

Crimp Modulus % =

Crimp stability % =

.
Fig 8 : Crimp tester for textured yarns
Residual shrinkage, crimp contraction and their variability can also be
estimated by an automated tester(ASTM D 6774).Online instruments
for measuring crimp in a running tow are also available which
ensures satisfactory processing at later stages.

Broken Filaments

Broken filaments arise from disturbances in process, unsatisfactory

manufacturing conditions and ineffective process control. Broken filaments
on running threads are determined by sensor consisting of optical and infra
red emitter and transmitter. When a broken filament passes through the
senser, a signal is generated which is amplified and digitally counted. Alarm

20
units are also fitted in the unit to warn the operator of a sensor not
functioning properly because of contamination.

Entanglement Tester

Entanglements are used to hold the filaments together. While tight

entanglements affect the performance, weak entanglements result in
streakiness in fabric made of intermingled and textured yarns.
Entanglements should therefore be of uniform strength in the entire
production. Traditionally, this done by piercing the yarn with a needle and
pulling it through the yarn till it encounters a compaction (ASTM D4724
11). The distance covered by needle is then measured. This is however a
time consuming test and has been replaced by automatic testers. Here the
piercing unit is automatically inserted into the yarn and the yarn advances
at a speed adjustable as required with its tension being measured. As soon
the piercing unit encounters a compaction or knot, the tension in yarn
increases and at preselected tension levels, the length between two
compaction points is determined and displayed. Entanglements per metre
its variability, and frequency distribution are displayed. In addition, soft
entanglement points and weak entanglements are determined. The number
and quality of interlacement knots is also measured. The knot is also tested
for strength. Entanglement tester, based on the use infra red probe, instead
of pin is also available. The sensor detects the variations in yarn size and
entanglement points. Two stage testing is done in Lawson-Hemphill
entanglement tester. As the filament passes through the first stage, tension
developed in the material as entanglements are removed is measured. In
the next zone yarn diameter is measured by CCD camera with resolution of
3.5 micron from which number of entanglements is determined.
Entanglement strength is calculated as % entanglement remaining in the
elongated yarn.

Friction

Friction is an important property particularly in filaments and sewing

threads. The yarn is taken around a guide at constant speed and the tension
in the yarn is measured before and after passing over the guide by a
sensitive electronic tension meter (Fig 9). Coefficient of friction is estimated
from the two tension values by Eytelwein formula. Guides made of ceramic,
glass, steel, aluminium are supplied by manufacturers. Yarn to yarn friction
can also be measured.

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Fig 9 : Fiction measuring unit

Friction is given by

T1 = Tension before guide

T2 = Tension after guide
= Angle of wrap over guid
Yarn to Yarn Friction
ASTM D3412 has proposed a method for determining yarn to yarn friction
shown in Fig 10 below

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Fig 10 : Yarn to yarn friction

The yarn from the package is tensioned by a pulley and over a guide to a
rotatable pulley and taken forward over another guide to the winding
package. Rotatable pulley twists the yarn around itself to form loops.
Tension in the yarn before and after the rotatable pulley is measured by
tension transducers from which friction is determined. The instrument with
some modification can also be used to measure yarn to yarn abrasion.
Instead running the yarn over pulley the yarn is moved forward and
backwards a number of times till it breaks. Number of cyclic movements is
recorded.

Yarn Abrasion

Yarn abrasion is an important property as it affects the life of yarn

guides, needles and other material that come into contact with yarn and
life of yarn and fabric. Abrasion measurement is useful in optimising
waxing, delustering agents(TiO2) added to fibre and polymer additives.
Yarn is passed over a metal trough over specified time and the abraded
material is collected by a pick up and weighed (Fig 11) (Lenzing). In the
yarn abrasion tester by Lawson-Hemphill, yarn is made to run over a
standard wire at constant speed and the amount of yarn run before wire
breaks is estimated. In another equipment, yarn is pressed over an
oscillating cylinder under pre-set pressure. The time taken to break is
taken as a measure of abrasion.

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Fig 11 : Yarn Abrasion tester

Yarn length and speed

Measurement of yarn length and speed will help to set yarn loop
lengths, control yarn supply and assist in reproduction of patterns in
knitting machine. Hand operated equipments are available to
measure yarn length and running yarn speed.

Monofilament
Roundness, diameter and variability in diameter are measured using
multiaxis optical measuring system. Online measuring systems are also
available, among others by BSC Electronics.
Dyeability of yarn/filament
Dye pick up, uniformity in dyeing are estimated by knitting the yarn on a
sample knitting machine and examining the appearance of the product. Lot
to lot variability in yarn in regard to dye pick up, which is a source of weft
bars and bands, can also be assessed by this method. Instruments are also
available for continuous dyeing of yarn and evaluating the streakiness by an
automatic inspection system. Amount of light transmitted and reflected by
the dyed yarn are compared to assess lack of uniformity.

Vicosity
The chips used for manufacturing synthetic fibre should be checked for
degree of polymerisation by viscosity tester. Automatic viscometers are

24
available by charging the chips in an extruder and measuring the viscosity
of molten material. The molten polymer obtained by heating the chips is
allowed to flow capillary tube and discharge pump. Pressure at capillary at
entrance and exit point are measured by a displacement pump pressure
sensing unit (Fig 12). The difference in pressure is used to measure
viscosity.

Where = Viscosity
r = Cpillary tube radius
l = Capillary tube length
q = Flow rate

Fig 12 : Measurement of Viscosity

Melt Flow Index

Melt flow rate and melt volume rate are determined as per DIN 53735 to
check the quality of polymer chip.

Laboratory Melt spinning and filter checking unit

Laboratory model melt spinning units have been developed by some

manufacturers to assess the quality of polymer chips and for R&D work for
developing new fibres. Fibre can be spun from as small quantity of 200gms
of polymer chips and properties checked. The efficiency of filter can be
compared by exchanging the filters in the unit.

Package Analyser

25

Winding conditions during package formation determines the

unwinding performance of yarn and tension variations during
unwinding. In the package analyser, yarn is unwound under
conditions similar to that in actual production. Yarn speed and
package position are modified to get unwinding tension tension
fluctuations during actual processing. A recorder charts provides
short term and medium term tesion fluctuations. The equipment is
useful in optimising winding and unwinding conditions.

Moisture Content

Maintenance of moisture to the standard level is important in fibres and

yarn packages before they are packed, weighed and sold. If moisture level
is lower than standard by even 0.5%, considerable losses will be incurred
by mills because of wrong invoicing. Conventional method consists in
weighing a preset amount of material after condioning and removing
moisture by placing it an oven for required time (ASTM D1348 ASTM 2564,
D2495). Oven dry weight is determined. Difference in original and oven dry
weight expressed as percentage of latter is moisture regain%. This is a time
consuming method. An improvement over this is automatic measuring ,
where the electronic balance is kept in the drying unit. 6 samples can be
tested at a time. Instant moisture measuring instruments are based on
measuring electrical resistance or capacitance of material. Portable
moisture testers with suitable probes are offered by manufacturers to
measure moisture in raw material, slivers and rovings and yarn packages.
Moisture is also measured in the whole bale or package by a non contacting
electrode sensor which passes a harmless electromagnetic field through the
package. Variation in moisture inside the bale is also measured.
References
1. I.Bauer-Kurx, W.Oxenham and D.A.Shiffler, Mechanism of crimp
removal in synthetic staple fibres Part I Crimp geometry and loadextension curve, Textile Research J, 2004, 74, p343
2. N.Balasubramanian, Merits of Lea CSP and Lea ratio, J Textile
Association 2006,April, p94
3. N.Balasubramanian, Yarn Irregularity Concept and Measurement,
Indian Textile J, 2011 April, p20
4. P.Grosberg and R.C.Palmer ,Comparison of variance length curves
given by Zellweger instrument and by cutting and weighing, , J.
Textile Institute, 1954, 45, T291
5. N. Balasubramanian, Curbing faults, Indian Textile J, 1997, May, p12
6. H.Osdimer and G.Baser, Computer simulations of woven fabric
appearances based on digital video camera recordings of moving
yarns, Textile Research J, 2008, 78, p148
7. N.Balasubramanian, Hairiness of Yarns, Indian Textile J, 2007, Feb,
p31

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