NOTES

ON

THERMODYNAMICS.

W.

H.

SPANGLER,

Whitney Professor of Mechanical

Engineering

in the Universityof Pennsylvania.

Part

EDITION-.

SECOND

THOUSAND.

FIRST

YORK

NW

JOHN
London:

I.

"

WILEY
"

CHAPMAN
1901.

SONS.

HALL,

Limited.

5\\

Copyright,

1901,

by

H.

ROBERT

W.

DRUMMOND,

SPANGLER.

PRINTER,

NEW

YORK

PREFACE.

the

FOR

of

purpose

thermodynamics
aid

the
these

four

results

In

prepared.

been
the

has

text

have

is

this,

his

have
and

of

with

prepared

classes.

and

the

as

revised

errors

condensed,

bfcen

intended

not

as

worked

have

who

those

teachers,

done

author

in

use

be

side

work

edition

been

has

corrected,

additional

problems

added.

been

It

the

fairly satisfactory,
other

by

for

ago

theoretical
could

text-books,

years

were

used

now

than

rapidly

more

existing

notes

The
is

of

the

covering

reference-book,

have

and

through

it

for

except
solved

the

problems.
There
writers
and
of

is

little

have

been
has

whatever

arriving
The

of

the

many

at

the

has

vapors

are

used

is

in

the

of

June 6,

use

later

work,
method

of.
a

required

to

good

table

work

out

prepared

by

text.

H.
University

the
the

itself, and

tables

The

All

satisfactory

made

in

it.

preparing

most

been

complete
of

in

the

problems.

Peabody

in

new

consulted

result

properties
of

is

seemed

is not

work

that

W.

SP

ANGLER.

Pennsylvania,
1901.

iii

96050

fessor
Pro-

NOTATION.

the

of
units
H

-=.

K
A.

Constant

Total

of

heat

Weight.'

Weight.

Exponent

Pressure

Heat

q
r

R
s

equation

pv*

required

to

in

of

at

Total

latent

heat.

Inner

latent

heat.

for

Volume

of

pound

of

vapor.

Volume

of

pound

of

liquid.

Temperature

absolute.

Difference

V=

Volume

Any
=

Work,

of

foot,

vapor

absolute.

in equation

substance

any

Fahrenheit.

square

pound

K.

Constant

Temperature

F.

vapor

778.

liquid.

=.

K.

make

per

-"

heat

pv*

equation

foot-pounds.

or

degrees

32

pounds

in

heat-units.

or

of

law

the

whether

used

is

heat-units

in

liquid

and

equivalent

Mechanical

indicating

subscript

foot-pounds

required

Heat

jfa.

expansion,

are

from
m

the

Specific heat,

work

of

equivalent

Heat

and
in

of

pound

cubic

feet

of

liquid
I

pound.

volume.

Foot-pounds

or

of

volume

the

between

heat-units.

pv=RT.

s"

pound
0*.

of

NOTES

In

ON

Physics
and

gases

these

purposes,
of

of

perfect

gases

and

Boyle

laws

stated

from

of

between
will

we

such

are

and,
as

the

air, hydrogen,
carbonic

perfect
deal

also

for

with

engineering

practically obey

Under

head

of

the

perfect

oxygen,

heated
super-

acid, etc.,

all

condensing-point

to

being
obey

above.
a

these

formula

laws

be

can

best

as

pv

This

work

their

to

shape

made

substances,

ammonia,

referred

the

In

this

classed

sufficiently far

is

Charles.

be

steam,

the

In

classes

would

gases

distinction

vapors.

two

laws

THERMODYNAMICS.

is

equation
the

and
In
and

degrees

the

following

(i)

constantly being
of

meaning

exact

this

all

RT.

work

English

Fahrenheit

will

definitions

may

be

used

the

in

namics,
thermodyis

terms

tant.
impor-

units, pounds,
used.

be

given

In
to

these
the

terms

feet,
units

of

equation (i):
p

is the

absolute

is the

volume

dealt

with.

pressure
in

cubic

in
feet

pounds
of

per

pound

square
of

the

foot.

stance
sub-

NOTES

the

T\s
is

absolute

and
To

the

for

air

given

condition

inch,

have

we

or

of

pound

14.7

air, orz/=

pv
R

for

or,

the

~T

Problem

1.

volume

of

These

are

Putting

these

feet.

for air
X

144

of

12.39
=53'37'

the

is

units

cubic

for

true

conditions,

of

pounds

taken,

have

we

S337T.

given,

are

have

we

always

any

10

"

have

per

492.7

under

equation

cubic

the

by experiment.

14.7

air, with

or

492.7,

Thus,

temperature

equation

time

7=

12.39

pv
This

or

and

of

pounds

14.7

144,

and

volume

substances.

of

we

pressure

of the

value

pressure

equation (1),we

in

stance
sub-

substance,

of

for many

quantities determined
values

the

on

for any

corresponding

degrees Fahrenheit,

32
1

of R

have, for

we

square

one

This

pound.

depends

value

the

the

temperature

value

degrees.

taken.

units

for

have

must

whose

determine

Fahrenheit

temperature,

constant

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

the

feet; what

at

must

of the

two

third

air

air, and

be

can

if, at

any

variables

in

found.

degrees F. occupy

200

be

the

660.7

120

pressure
120

Here

460.7 +

200

12;

"

10

53.37x660.7
p
Prob.

2.

"

How

at

pounds
1

degrees
*

The

slide

of all

rule

or

problems,

2950

many

feet

"i2-=

pounds

of air does
pressure

pounds
it take

per

to

per square

square

foot.*

fill 5600 cubic

inch

and

at

60

F. ?

three-place
and

the

logarithms

result

is

are

probably

used
correct

in the
within

tion
solu-

2%.

NOTES

Here/

520
x/

THERMODYNAMICS,

ON

"

144 ;

7
-

460.7

.60

==

520.7

C *3t ^7

X
"

"

and
12.9,
y'

--

is the

this

as

volume

15x144
of

pound, 5600

contain

feet

cubic

434

pounds of air.
Prob.

3.

At what

"

pressure
Prob.

4.

What

"

will

temperature
per

square

be

the

if it contains

30

must

pounds of

10

inch

fill 60
in

pressure

pounds of

air at

twice

substance

first member,
half
be

as

or

as

heavy

the

volume

as

are

air, the
of

half

as

pounds
^
-

of 4 cubic

of

value

in the

will
of R

with

dealing

value

feet

F. ?

degrees

pound,

great and, consequently, the

only

50

at

feet?

cubic
vessel

Evidently, if, in equation (1),we

a

air

be

only
would

great.
Relative

Substance*

Value.

Density.

Air.

53-37

53-4

53.37

48.I

53-37

53-37

54-9

5337

35.0

53.37

90.6

53-37

53

14.4
14.4
16
16

H.

N.

14

144

770

14.4
14

14.4

C09..C":./',ViJ.-.

"

22

22

144

NH.....r.\v..:.\

8-5

8.5
14.4

CO.

14"

14

54.9

14.4

(steam)

HaO

Some

pressures

using

these

of

these

and

substances

temperatures,

constants.

---

do
so

not

that

act

as

care

85.6

37

perfect
must

be

gases

at

exercised

usual
in

NOTES

enables

This

as

table

in the

the

Prob.

5.

"

on

How

can

substances,

values

cally
practi-

are

calculations.

of

will

oxygen

inch, and

holder

feet, pressure

temperature

75

contain

250

pounds

degrees F.?

+ 75
I44^5i37;r=46o.7
53S.7;

=r

250

I44

360OO;

53.37
-*

14.4

t6
v

one

for oxygen

have

other

air, to many

these

is 3 cubic

volume

per square

J?

3, and

pounds

many

equation (i)

for these

of R

engineering

whose

We

for

of

of relative densities

value

page

for

correct

table

readily determine

formula

determined

as

From

substances.

the

apply

to

us

its constant,

and

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

5357
and

36000

3x36000x16
wt.

"

,,
4.2 lbs.

"

14.4x53.37x535.7
6."

Prob.

weight of hydrogen will fill a holder

and
feet
cubic
200
at
pounds
pressure

of

What

F.?

degrees

3.5
80

-9
.

7."

Prob.

is the

What
will

weigh

It is convenient

weight
and

to

the

.2

to

simple

volume

at

temperature

pound

at

per

the
If

pound,

from

which

of

cubic

foot of CO*

pressure?
for

expression
\s

the

the

total volume

then

pV

V
"

pounds

100

reduce

formula.

which

=z

course,

weight, orM=-p7r"

if V

v,

the

weight

is

pound.

ON

NOTES

8.

Prob.

How

"

cubic

of

pounds

many
feet

volume

at

is

80

15

-^

.,

Mi

pressure

degrees

F. and

the

144
55

-2

Prob.

9.

be

must

In

which

When

use.

is allowed

of

required

to

required
the

to

heat

convenient

/, v, and

of

the

on

are

work,

the

different

/,

now

remain

be

of

at

the

changes,

the

it to

to

is, if

added

to

change
do

the

perfect gas

the

it is that

to

added

temperature,

to

that

work.
RT

all

because
and

are

marked

on

of

for convenience

is

be

variables,

variations

diagram

volume
will

the

and

diagram,

same

three

contains

indicate

co-ordinates

co-ordinates

be

must

to

pressure

will

its temperature,

change

representation, and

peculiarity

required

That

the

equation pv

it is not

that

at

one

to

added

being

degrees F.?

volume

be

and

external

do

is allowed

more.

change

was

which

its

feet

60

at

of

pounds

20

cubic

feet

there

is

which

which

feet, 180

and

must

no

expand

to

quantity

As

and

work

external

is

762.

at

cubic

90

volume

and

pressure

cubic

while

that

heat

of

amount

14.9,

"

perfect gas

temperature

same

its

is

degrees

mentioned

not

was

600

at

1061

perfect gas,

rest

the

200

pressure

and

degrees

defining

the

remainder

the

air will fill 270

500

if one-half

weight is 22.65 pounds.

total

What

"

400

200

of the

weight

of

vessel

541

53.37
The

80

at

15

njr
Mt

144
m

53.37
and

fill

pounds

15

at

air will

degrees F.?
weight of the portion

The

THERMODYNAMICS.

whose

diagram

understood
the

ordinates
co-

of

unless

figure.

NOTES

in

Thus,

Fig.

and

volume,

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

if

have

we

call the

we

represented by
from

fixed

volumes.

the

|C

now

from
jn

the

the

have

must

we

change

in

the
had

have

done

distance

work

if neither

initial

the

condition

condition, and

heat

which

from

do

at

of

instead

creasing
in-

constant

ox,

pressure

the

ay

would

we

but

through

to
a

been

of work

mains
re-

condition

for

of

added

enough
from
also

d, and

at

volume

the

the

amount

been

the

for

temperature

that

to

have

nor

Fig.

the
have

must

amount

To
must

The
is

this

cause

equal

to
y

the

to

y' x'
Fig.

2.

ayxd.

area

we

to

in

and

must

change

an

to

temperature,

pressure

have

we

final

that

proportion,

yx.

constant,

to

the

overcoming

to

oy

is increased

maintained

from

#:"

done

noAwork

heat

been

raise

to

change

no

same

If, however,
it had

only

the

enough

increased

not

Again,
the

its pressure

added

pressure,

volume

have

As
in

is increased

being

will be

If

RT.

gas

there

air.

temperature.

the
and

by, there

to

ay

and

being

temperature

of the

pressure

conditions
is oy

equation pv

is increased

temperature

and

the

volume,

by

the

is ay,

its pressure

in the

its volume

a,

and

pressure

axes

of gas

pound

two

the

the

express
have
unit
amount

units

in which
of

relation

between

in which
the
heat

to

of heat

must

quantities

them.

measure

quantity
which

these

be

is measured
added

to

NOTES

of water

pound

The

work

of

unit

it has

equivalent
The
1

of

is the

been

determined

the

Fig.

1, if

must

be

added

per

from

for

volume,

constant

value

Prob.

10.

"

If 5

air

inch

square
added

it

to

required
degree

to

of

weight

to

in temperature

raise

to

is the

air
60

and

at

heat

required

temperatures

and

raise

F. has

degrees

the

is

air

is

pounds.
foot-

pressure

per

heat-units

20

if the

of

temperature

volume

responding
cor-

132

and

volume,

is

respectively.

pounds

30

constant

at

the

specificheat

.169 heat-unit, or

of

of

amount

degree

the

are

constant

at

added

degree
the

is

cv

resultingtemperature

is the
The

Ta

is

feet

cubic

be

total

conditions

for

cv

it

cv

the

and

Tb and
the

to

by then

to

Ta) when

The

is

specificheat.

to

temperature

"

Thermal

B.T.U.

one

must

raise

to

now

Referring

cv(Tb

British

that

which

substance

any

which

the

ture
tempera-

foot-pound, and, experimentally,

of heat-units

is called

heat

is called

its

778 foot-pounds.

to

number

pound

raise

to

B.T.U.

simply

or

F.

degrees

and

63 degrees,

to

Unit,

62

at

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

heat

pound

.169 heat-unit,

what

"

.774

The

pound.

53-37 ""521
heat
=

required to
heat-unit.

.131

therefore

Prob.

11.

"

If 15

cubic

square

raise

feet
incli

F.

required?

at

of

this

The

degree

rise

153

degrees.

air

at

is raised
constant

in

from

60

volume,
^

x.

pressure

degrees
how

774

temperature

pounds

100

is

much

to

169
is

per

100

heat

grees
deis

NOTES

degree

which

Fig.

a,

the

heat

external

quantity required

cv(Tc

work, dy{px

''

'
'

"
"

For

Prob.

the

pressure,

for, we

ing
rais-

the

the

do

to

all the

as

to

only,

temperature

va),and,

"

this

for

write

quantity required

pa(vc

or

accounted

be

must

oy)

"

c,

being required

therefore

can

the

for

Ta),and

"

to

cp(Tc" Ta). In
been
used
partly in

change

to

at

gas

from

constant

remainder

We

work.

of

per

is

has

the

temperature,

heat

pound

expand
for

required

the

however,

case,

do

heat

total

the

and

the

to

gas

of

amount

to

specific heat

the

cp is

then

the

cause

total

added

be

must

I, to

the

is

if cp

Similarly,

THERMODYNAMICS.

OX

heat

write

can

"*

eAT"

-JL)

"

If

degrees

F.

at

the

raise

equivalent
for each
The

heat

constant

be

30

if

added
that

required
of work

to

pounds

100

be

of

132

be

to

the

added

in

is

the

foot-pounds.

1320

done

is

pounds

100x144

difference

the

through

only

temperature

20)

"

of work

pressure

to

per

overcome

foot

square

volume.

initial

The

53-37X48i

"

volume

of
must

alone

the

change

to

amount

the

(2)

"

degree ?

equivalent of (30
The

heat

foot-pounds

132

degrees

20

pressure

much

temperature
of

from

changed

inch, how

per square
to

-7"."y

185 foot-pounds.

or

of air is

pound

T")+M*"

heat-unit,

air cp is .238
12.

"T"

^-^

is

1.79
,y

and

"

the

,-

"

final

vol-

then

100

100x144
X

^~
ume

49'
=

1.83. The

work

is

100x144
x

144(1.83
"

heat
+

576

1.79)

required
=

576.0 foot-pounds.

is therefore

1896 foot-pounds.

the

The

total

equivalent of 1320

NOTES

If cv

13."

Prob.

Taking
of

amount

from

law

cp=

to

heat

in the

the

changing

the

is the

cn

the

j?

is used

will

total

supplied

specificheat

for the

partly

up

for

account

balance

in

We

ayxd.

area

be

must

which
the

5"

call cn the

we

This

figure.

temperature,

represented by

by using equation (2),

which

cv(Td" Ta), and

amount

work

2, then

d" Fig.

if

case,

degree

per

represented

in

third

the

now

foot-pounds,prove,
185 foot-pounds.

132

that

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

doing

the

fore
there-

can

write

cM(Td"
The

Ta)

cv(Td"

above

equations

two

Ta) +

ayxd.

in the

be written

can

(3)

eral
gen-

form,
Total

Heat

Heat

required

in the

or,

==

raise

to

differential

the

This

equation

area

cvdt -\-pdvy

being

elementary

done,

form,

dH

the latter term

-j-work

temperature

the

calculus

method

(4)

....

of

indicating

a'y'x'd'
.

is the fundamental

one

of the

dynamics
thermo-

of gases.

Equation
that pcvc

(2) can
RTC9

and

be

written

pava

as

below

from

the

fact

RTa:

ctf}-TJ=cJLTc-Tt)+R(Te-TJ9

or

tt

cv

(5)

lO

NOTES

This

ON

THERMODYNAMICS.

the

equation represents

quantities which

it is

important

it has

Experimentally,

between

relation

remember.

to

shown

been

the

that, for perfect

gases,

^=1.41,
Cv

and

we

write

can

cp\cv\R

1 :

1.41:

::

.41,

or

Heat

added

at

constant

raise the

temperature

Prob.

If 5

14.

"

added

find the

To

work

constant

done

: :

have

we

5
h.

'-^-

170)

1.41

16

Prob.

Prob.

15.

final temperature

16.

"

"

given weight
does

1000

have

been

used

to

3620
=

"

"

Now/z"

of air

added

13.6

expanding

much

the

heat

and

the

to

expands
of

183.6.

at

constant

pressure

What
How

heat

much

must

heat

..,*"?

was
2

30

to

40

pounds

cubic
per

required ?

was

if all

pdv +

air ?

.6.

53.37

temperature?

pressure

RT,

0.

13

foot-pounds of work.

raise

constant

How

is 170

feet of air

15 cubic

170)

778 ft.-lbs.

5/e
The

temperature

work

u.

Work
in

much

"

"

"

rise

.41.

3620 ft.-lbs.

riM.
-The

to

16 heat-units

At*

final temperature

=16

"

required

how

pressure,

is the

done

R{t%

Heat

degrees F. has

170

\
x

work

at

What

'

.'

Work

it at

to

is done

the

of air

pounds

pressure

are

vdp

variables,
Rdt,

feet

can

**

'

inch.

square
c

we

under

write

'

NOTES

this
substituting

and

dH
from

or,

value

pdv

Rdt

in

have

(4),we

vdp,

"

(5),
dH

vdp

ctdt

"

(6)

equations(4)and (6)are often spoken of as

fundamental
equationsof the thermodynamics

The
the

of

cvdt-f

II

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

two

two

of

perfectgases.
The quantity of heat requiredto cause
then
be
air to expand doing work
can
follows

written

as

H=cv(T2in which
and

Prob.

of

pound

17.

"

Pdv,

(7)

...

ume,
v2 the final voltions.
corresponding initial condi-

final temperature,

T2 is the
Tx and
If the

7-0+

vx the

initial condition

that 5

is such

pounds of

air

50 cubic feet at 30 degrees F., and the final

occupy
condition such that it occupies 120 cubic feet at 40

degrees F., and the expansion takes place along a

straightline, how
much

heat

and

From

find the pressure.

to

for the initialstate, p

have

is done

work

how

added

It is first necessary
we

much

pv=RT

"
=

"

"

2630

~5~
pounds

per

53" 37

"

The

work

2630 +
"

"Lj"L

square
501
"__

done

1120,

foot.

For

the final condition,

.

"

pounds

1120

per

is therefore, from

(120"

50)

square

diagram,
"

131000^^3^

foot.
^

12

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

NOTES

The

heat

required

the

raise

to

is

temperature

5wr._r,)"s'*Jg^"8h.u,
the

and

heat

total

To

value

the

determine

of

176.

abed

area

the

or

pdv,
/

know

must

we

%vTa the

path
Ky

the
and

pressure

the

Tu

we

Fig.

the

volume

have,

knowing

call

we

v2 and

Ky

of

this

pv

pv*

vx and

T2,
P2v*

K,

3.

log A

log A"
n

or

of

value

(8)

log
The

connecting

If

ftlvf=

VI.

law

ab.

and/2,

is

required
168

is

v2

log zV

"

either

from

obtained

of

the

above

equations.
Prob.

18i"

is

What

the

of

value

the

passing through
as

Area

of

abed

in

problem

/ pdv

same

"

expansion

initial

and

pi/1*

K}

be

(17) should

the

that

final

curve

points
"7

"

ON

NOTES

in

Putting
have

the

19."

Having

(9)

is

^Q

total

quantity

H^cX^-TJ

Kt

how

is /

of heat

the

work

much

is therefore

J^Tt-T,).
.

"

is done

ft.-lbs.

107000

required

^v

of the

law

400 ?

^o)

__

+ R,rr,

UCV

"

pvm*

final condition

(17),that

problem

*3'3'

Work

Cv

in

given,

if the

C*

nCv,rr*

"

(10)

~v

cn(T2-T^,

cn

is the

specificheat

Equation (10) is
is here

Prob.

we

"

expansion

when

equation above,

(T2-T,

The

for the

of K

value

work

the

Prob.

13

THERMODYNAMICS.

20.

worth

according

committing

to

the

to

memory

law

as

it

given.
"

How

From

much

heat

problem

(17) the
is 8

temperature
done

required in problem (19)?

heat
required to change the
be

would

"^-q
"

heat-units.
137

From

heat-units.

770

required is 137

145 heat-units.

(19) the
The

total

work

heat

14

NOTES

The

special cases

In

required,

treated

already

of

becomes

others

some

(10).
the work

constant,

(9),is, evidently, R(T2

Tx),and

"

(10),is {cv+ R)(T2

from

and

equations (9) and

from

derived

pvH

o,

frpm

done,

as

be

readily

may

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

the

7;)= cP(T2

"

heat
"

7;)

before.
If

"

o,

have

we

the work

and

constant,

done,

from

(9),is evidently

o,

as

R
n

(T%-TZ

o.

1
n

The

heat
If the

and

heat

is constant,

solution

one

where

no

done,

is called

pvc*=.

K,

(10), is cv(T2

from

required,

heat

or,

of

this

is added

as

for

is

air

expansion,

pvLil
The

work

done

1.41,

--

This

n.

"

-(T2" 7i)=o,

"

taken

nor

adiabatic

-*""

have

we

7^).

"

but

away
and

its

K.

/#f,

is

equation

is

(11)

'

'

work

have

we

is

expansion,

R
,"

^x

NOTES

Evidently,

as

and

.41^,

"

do

this

If the

pv

work

the

Kj

then,

and
from

ch

the

heat

is

kept

have

we

is

up

sion,
expan-

cv(T2

Tx)

"

the

constant

have

we

The

TX=T2"
heat

of

amount

quired
re-

(9),

ct

"

-IT

T)

"

We

of work

quantity
to

given

1.

is indeterminate.

back

1.41^,

is, for adiabatic

equation

which

done

the

temperature

is

and

cvi

work.

RT

TY), and

cv(T2
to

cp

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

determine

however,

can,

of

and

done

heat

added

by going

original equation,

If=cv(T2

Here

T2

H=

\pdv=

Evidently,

,#7^

for

put for

and

Tx

pv

the

the

from

or

value

"

should

equation
of

amount
Prob.

21."

equation /z/

RT,

from

can

we

A*,

p2v2,

and,

l. In

solving problems,

/z"

(12)

we

that

put
can

form

P%

v\
of

Consequently

"=K\ogtJ=plvx\og.A

either/^
"

K.

If

given
1

25

be

which

the

covers

greatest

data.

pound

of

heat-units

work,

used

what

air

has

the

are

is

40

the

heat-units

equivalent

value

of

added

of
in

the
the

to

it and

external

equation

NOTES

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

'

A*

"

As

the

work

external

remainder,

15 h.

25J h.

cv(i

If

added

are

what

pressure,

Heat

.41

raise

to

10

1.41

Work

As

we

"

"

"

"

"

ft.-lbs.

2270
'

"

41

with

dealing

are

1.

: : 10

ture
tempera-

778

.41

...

is the

iox.41

10
: :

stant
con-

have

added
:

at

what

and

is done

work

of air

pound

We

Heat

: :

to

work

rise in temperature
cp\cv

.41

.754.

heat-units

10

"

22."

"

25

Prob.

n)

"

7\),or

"

the

"Ti),

(T%

=cv(T9

u.,

i_5

u.

rise in

pound, the

ature
temper-

Work
=

Prob.

23.

"

If 40
a

heat-units

volume

of

(2) the

work

pressure,

(B)

The
been

value

of

as

pounds

per

square

done

if (A)

at

constant

heat

no

no

is

of air

and

inch

(1) final

having
v$

at

constant

volume,

(C)

at

constant

law

for

to

the

is added
the

heat

have

could

fundamental
is

K7

added

tions
equawe

write
dH

cjlt+ pdv

o,

or

cjit

"

pdvt

and
dH

Cfdt

"

vdp

o,

or

cpdt

vdpy

pt t\

it is added

(D) according

When

follows:

to

feet, what

directly from

determined

degrees.

cubic

when

42.4

pounds

25

30

temperature,

added

are

of

pressure

"j"-

can

NOTES

and

ON

dividing one

THERMODYNAMICS.

the

by

other

pdv

vdp%

the

dropping

or,

v"

["1V"

or

pxvf*

fall

during expansion,

the

air

or

taken

the

on

the

of

point A,

whether
will

be

be

must

heat
of

rise

done
be

must

or

by

added

Through

service.

4.

Fig.

different

for

curves

work

K.

will

temperature

whether

pvh4t

or

air, and

Fig.

away,

initial

have

we

p2v2Cv

=z

Fig.

the

logarithms,

whether

determine

or

cp

dv

ft
,

To

dp

limits

Cv

_2_

cv
"

integratingbetween

or

have

we

or

'

cp'

17

4,

have

we

values

of

drawn
n.

a
=

series

is

at

constant

is at

pressure,

constant

"

temperature,

is

at

and

volume,

constant

1.41

is

an

adia-

batic.

Evidently

all

expansion

curves

having

;/

positivewill

NOTES

fall

and

d, all having

and

//.

All

between

between

positive will

is done

work

is done

by
be

the

by

the air

of the

path

is

air is to

by

mastered

the

The

heat

right,

the

left,

following

student.

have, if

positive,we

the

if to

air, or is negative.

From

added,

A,
work

or

falls between

curve

limits,
'

to

b \.o
c

having n
negative values

positive;

Temp.

if.

fall

curves

hy and

then, calling rise in temperature,

done

will

e.

air, or

the

on

should

table

and

the

and

if the

Starting at A,

negative

compression

fall between

will fall between

work

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

to

dto

/"

"

..1.

i.

"

"n

41

"

gtoh

"

1.41

"

"

1.41

"

-[--[.+

""o

now

are

of

amount

when

ready

under

gas

at

the

at

the

or

Suppose
jJc'aiT^.

now

the

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

+
of

question
of

goes

the

work

through

condition

same

In

Fig.
of

pound

condition

according

AT until
it

cycle of changes, being

have

expanding

amount

beginning.

startingat
pvm

the

in the

end

we

FlG

the

consideration

series

-f-

up

and

expended

heat
the

take

to

"

"

Work.

o"""i

flog

done

41

""o

etof

We

i"""

hto

"

Heat.

as

5, suppose
the

gas

p^VyT^ and
to

it

reaches

expands

along

the
a

the

law

point
line

pvn

Kx

to

the

condition

along
such

line

line

A/*

psv3T3.

A"*

to

It

pressed
com-

which

p^T^

again

then

is

is

is

compression
it will

K3

K2

if the

point that,
the

along

the

19

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

NOTES

reach

continued
its initial

condition.
There

certain

are

quantities

in this

They

and

the

first be

should

_Z*

^2__^3.
'

~~~

duced.
de-

?V

p2V2"

data

T"

"~

^i

given

p1v1m=p2v"T;

between

are:

""

the

which

diagram

A__A.
From

relations

algebraic

7i

7;'

have

we

psv3M;p3v3m=pivim;

A*V=A*VS

multiplying tljipse
equations together
v"v2v3mv*

we

have

v%mv3vfv*,

(13)
*"4

ZV

Again,
/v2\m. A
A
W

'

'

or

/^A*

AA

7^7

_
=

1, from

(13);

A__A#
A~A
Multiplying (13) by (14) we
V2P2

These

often

lead

relations
to

an

have

^2

P%vz

*iA

(14)

__

__

~"

7\

A^4
should

easy

T\

~~

solution

be

kept
of

7V
in

(15)

'

mind,

problems.

as

they

Equations

20

NOTES

ON

(13) and (14) are

is

only

if the

true

sets
(algebraic)

similar

two

THERMODYNAMICS.

for

true

of curves,

substances

bounded

figure is

and

having pv

by

equation (15)
for their

RT

any

equations.
The

work

in

done

figure is evidently
heat
to

added

from

the

4 to

cycle

of the

area

2,

similar

less

that

to

diagram,

that

taken

or

away

the

in

it is the
from

4.

From

to

1,

Wo^^^J,r^](7'1-7'");
Heat=(".+
From

Heat

I to

2,

=^(7:,7*0
Tx).
(r,+T^)(r2Work

From

Heat

J,)-

to

3,

(
"
(',+""$
T*~

From

to

Work=r4-w(7'
7^.

'

4,

Work=T^(7;7-,)
71).
Heat=(^+-F^)(r4;

The

net

diagram,

work

the

area

of

the

or

-^-(7HTz-

total

+-"-(-

Tt- Tt)

=r("
The

is therefore

done

quantity

tx-

r8+

r8+

Tt)

")(Tt+Tz-Ti-Td.
of heat

which

must

be

added

is

NOTES

that

Tu

required

to

the

raise

total heat

heats

added

the

heat

heat

the

T2 through

to

If either
1

As

.41^,

specific
have

Tx).
work

done

Un-TJ

is

adigbatic we

have,

say

for

efficiency

"

the
we

ratio of the

."

1,

4,

"

is the

curves

.4 1, for the

and

TA) + "r"(r2

"

TJ +

of

set

I,

cn

*"

is then

expended,

CW-

laws

cn(Tx

and

calling cm

or,

efficiency,which

The

7^

r#^)"*("*+

n"+

according to
Total

to

from

body

or

("+-")"*=

21

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

have

we

T"-Tx
or
1

T,
T

Putting Tz

Ti

-4r^
,

we

efficiency

for the

have

T\-T\_T\^T\
^

2i2

....

(,6)

22

That
in

NOTES

ON

THERMODYNAMICS.

is, in any

such

cycle,the
either

along

temperature

highest temperature

on

of work

done
the

Prob.

24."

in such
heat

is

cycle

fiv*

curves

foot,

vi

the

done,

cubic

degrees F.,
have

determine

7\

what

added

are

pounds

3000

is the

will be

work

in

the

to

square

per

much

two

cycle being

highest temperature

cycle ?

we

Fig.

heat-units

10

temperature

and

tiplying
mul-

and

adiabatics

two

feet, how

lowest

in the

In

air, p\

10

of
If

K.

by

efficiency.

up

of

pound

made

the

amount

be determined

this

drop

by

The

adiabatic.

cycle can

by

the

divided

adiabatic

that

added

efficiencyis

the

data

given

we

have

T\

shown.

as

To

561.

'

5337
The

work

done

561
10

461

"

determine

To

is

T*t

778

that

know

we

"

ft.-lbs.

1390

heat-units

10

from

added

the

to

=zKt

6' 7

Prob.

25.

"

r2

cycle is made

of

up

15

10

The

and

26.

"

cycle
two

100

pounds

is done

work
Prob.

feet, and

cubic

is made

isothermal

and

per

how
up

of

lines.

and

extreme

square
much

t,

cording
ac-

pv%*

stant-volume
con-

40

are

are

pressures

inch.
heat

593.8.

two

volumes

extreme

the

law

T*

r^-'*

32.8,

isothermals

two

lines.
and

7\

to

or

-^FUi
FlG*

Ti

are

is

How

much

required ?

two

constant-pressure

The

extreme

pressures

and
are

NOTES

ON

and

15

THERMODYNAMICS.

pounds

10

volumes
much

inch, and

square
and

10

are

is

work

per

23

done

and

pounds

of

70

the

cubic

feet.

much

heat

how

treme
ex-

How
is

quired
re-

?
ProbB

27s

Having

"

cubic

2/1=15
how

shown

be

can

be

may

The

as

Tx

taken

the

pounds,

3000

and

420,

other

the
in

work

pv'J=ff,

being

curves

heat

from

away

considering

of

added

Qv

T3

T4

to

Fig.

TJ=Qr

cn(Ts-

these

divided
For

by Tv

The

we

is

Tx

by

have

7.

first of

equal

the

it

done

number

the

just been

T2=,cn(T2-Tl)

to

heat

is done,

have

we

that

Fig.

T%

f\

expressed
In

ways.
from

such

cycle

air at

feet, Ti =460,
work

much

adiabatics

In

given

the

to

divided

second

relation

T
~~

'

and, therefore,
T

^3

"

__

T*
'AT,-

T1)_c"(Ti-T4)
T4
~

T,
In

the

same

by T2
line

therefore

be

line

divided

line

taken

is

equal

by Tz.

divided

the

way

stated

by
and

the

to

heat
the

The
as

along
heat

work

the

multiplied by

the

such

added
at

temperature

the

along

in

heat

"

either
range

top

line

the

bottom

cycle

along
end

of

vided
di-

can

either
of

the

tempera-

the

which

"

temperature

(Tx

T4)

7a

shown

is

curves

equal

the

along

temperature

for
heat

along

that, if the heat

or

done

be

I, 4

the

at

the

heat, instead
is added

temperature
that

assumed

7*8is

As
curve
a

the

similar

according

of 5 is

and

Then
and

to

evidently

below

to

passing through
T4.

and

at

Now,

will
the

sup-

or

an

2,

as

thermal,
isoThe

1,5.

as

have

we

temperature.

it is evident

The

and

and

along

law

temperature,

than

added

lowest

higher temperature

"

Tx is the highest obtainable

1, 5

2,

be

"

any

I,

3 and

-^-=

being

of

amount

let

Fig.

adiabatics.

of

the

in

efficiencywill

In

then

be

can

ture,
tempera-

the

"*

pose

it

imum
max-

range

isothermals,

efficiencyis

the

by

same,

in

range

constant

The

lowest.

bounding

adiabatic,

highest temperature,

cycle

any

the

divided

the

greatest.
be

the

maximum

work

of

at

the

3,

in

times

that

cycle being
the

be

added

is added

the

done

two

adiabatic

one

temperature
shown

work

the

curves

to

entirely understood.

be

that

adiabatic

having

(17)

relationship should

Having

=%(TX-T")

T3)

at

is

work

the

or

point

^(7i-7-,)

This

taken,

was

%(

the

passing through

adiabatic

the

along

ture

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

NOTES

24

will

cut

that

1, 4 at

is
efficiency

then

1\

25

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

NOTES

TV-

T%

which
wuiVfti

evidently less

is
to

v"viu\.iikiv

tiiaii

than

greater

The
the

graphical

idea of the

This

work,

of

be

By

measured

by

Suppose

heat

implies

have

but

of heat

by

definite

is meant

in

pressure

the

the

indefinitelyto
or

substance

they

at

this

on

that

be

can

We

the

1,

the

iQlIq

letters

in the

adiabatic
the

have

11

9.

the

referring to

right.

1,

can

gas
12,

The

area

Gy is the equivalent of

F+

the

occur.

total energy

by drawing

no

path representing

volume.

and

A-\-B-\~C"

in which
1

us

quantity

area

one

the

be

9, to

Fig.

At

shown

enters

the

as

10

spaces

heat

planimeter.

Fig.

done

that

have

which

work

is added

given

well

as

area

Therefore

heretofore

heat,

shown

1, 2,

changes

drawn

of

work

temperature.

quantity

definite

also

done,

quantity

can

diagram.

the

work

of

amount

have

we

when

constant

at

away

diagrams

cycle.

which

temperature,
taken

be

must

is less.

of heat

obtained

efficiencyis

constant

efficiencyis less, the

the

quantity

same

greatest

at

As

7^.

the

by

the

Tt is

as

,."

"M

done

r"

than

1V.JO

because

it is

the

be

and

continuing
this

under

the

represented

amount

curve,

in

energy
of

it

the

work

26

would

which
the

be

At

zero.

through

drawn

the

to
1

then

have

We

to

that

under

area

is

the

amount

the

minus

it reached

remaining

This

remaining

energy

and

total

equal

at

at

energy

the

in the

at

lute
absocan

gas

2, 3

D-\-E-\~F-\-H-\-G.
heat

plus

the

the adiabatic

to

of

expand

to

added
work

is

equal

done

from

or

added

Heat

or

2.

until

energy

the

allowed

was

heat

own

the

representedby

be

if it

done

of its

expense

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

NOTES

(P+E+F+H+G)+(A+B+C)-(C+F+G)

A+B+D+E+II,
the

between

area

the

through

drawn

the

path

and

of

the

1,

extremities

adiabatics

two

and

path

nitely
indefi-

extended.
have

We

pound

of

already
air

that

seen

the

work

done

adiabatically can

expanding

by

be

sented
repre-

by
*

7;),

(7^-

where
The

T2

in

energy

Tt is the initial temperature.

final and

is the

pound

of gas

at

be

can

determined
RT

'

T2

by making
is the

of

the

energy.

gas

P\V\

the

in

above

Similarlyat
If

is
.

o, and

equation
2

2, 4 is

the

an

energy

or

in

isothermal

"J"

pound

through

.41
2,

the

energy

in the

gas

at

is the

same

as

at

4,

or

NOTES

2J

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

RT2
if i, 3, 5

and
,

is-

isothermal

an

I, the

through

.41
in the

energy

at

gas

1, 3,

5 is

or

RT1

p1v1
=

'

.41

.41

takes

Evidently, if,after expansion

2,

allow

we

has

much

as

heat

it to

have

we

total work
this is

added

done

equal

The

at

is

-O

area

it had

as

C +

(A -f- B +
-|-^

-f-^

is

equal

from

added

heat

D
I

to

F),

and

2.

the

to

The

work.

do

to

air

whatever

1, and

at

all gone

has

the

to

to

3, the

adiabaticallyto

continue

energy

place from

area

-f-L,

RT

for at

the

in the

energy

2,and

is

gas

at

4 it is the

.41
RT

At

same.

3 the

is

energy

and

-,

at

5 it is the

same.

.41

Passing from
"

(T2

to

7^),and

"

3 the

energy

from

4 to

5 it is the

work

into

converted

the

But

same.

is

.41

work
AT +

done

and

Z;

one

28.

"

How
has

cubic

Prob.

29.

"

What
1 go

equivalent

is there

in

were^

of

pound

the

it

feet, if its

pounds,

2000

same

of air after

cubic

20

other

other.

each

to

adiabatically to

conditions

in the

F, and

equal

are

energy

expanded

the

are

they

much

initial

case

they

as

of energy,

amount

Probt

is in

16

feet ?

is the

pounds

degrees

F. ?

energy
pressure

in

10

cubic

per

feet

square

of oxygen
inch

and

at
100

28

NOTES

heat

the

draw

to

under

added
a

beckuseQ
called

axis

enlrojj}^

Evidently
heat

such

line

diagram

under

area

any

for

curve

"J y
/^
quantity

adiabatic

an

the

parallel to

along
Figs. 10 and

in

co-ordinates, the abscissa

is .added

shown

attempt

we

IS

"

on

If

temperature

I Td( I *0\.The

by

of

absolute

for the

Q, the heat,

the other

to

illustratinggraphically

conditions.

any

having

diagram

ordinatesand

of

method

is another

There

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

axis, because

adiabatic.

an

The

represent

is represented

as/,

no

diagrams
v

diagram

CdQ
.

and

..

T,

~y diagram.

VOLUME

IN CUBIC

Fig.

The

Pa
n

and

data
3000,

o;

AC,

for DE,

FEET.

Fig.

io.

assumed

TA
n

561,

in

1.

drawing
vA

AD,

10,

these
vB

1.41

ii.

diagrams
for

20;

C",

n=

are

AB,
1.41;

NOTES

In
at

ON

locating points
point

any

distance

C,

to

the

on

line, dQ

in

Fig.

56

have,

we

pdv,

THERMODYNAMICS.

the

n,

1" line.

this is

as

To

the

ture
constant-tempera-

fdv

point By

~T=

diagrams

vc

represents

first

diagram, Fig.
at

have

we

drawn

are

constant

10, the

it is

n,

first the

the

and

temperature,
added

and

in the

second

the

second
If

is the

it is zero,
draw

we

the

line DEy

the

second

the

exactly equal

is

AD

under

area

in

work
as

the

point

and

areas

great.

done

the

In

at

In

stant
con-

the

it is

heat.-

first the

adiabatically,and

completes

ACED

in

be.

isothermal

figure evidently
the

work

41

work

-^
in

as

the

shown

by

cycle, and

^^,

J-AC

above,

In the

it should
an

the

diagram,

as

it^

to

that

is the

is

second

done

through

scale

AB

is the

AC

under

area

under

and

thejiejatadded

I28'

diagram.

1.

Fig.

7^

in either

and

cpdt and

such

to

area

pressure,

dQ

c* Iog*

foot-pounds

area

done

the

locate

These

is taken

determine

To

point

and

Cpdv

fdQ

20,

as

for

proved

DE

figures are

two

equal.
ProbB

30s

"

Draw
scale

diagrams,

similar

to

Figs.

representing the expansion of

10
1

and

pound

11,

to

of air

30

NOTES

60

at

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

pounds

and

pressure

F.

degrees

100

adiabatically,(B) along the isothermal, (C)

until

pressure,

each

if

case,

the

of work

amount

taking

of substances
have

already

not.

Thus,

portions

and

Fig.

of

under

is the

work

the

ABDC.

area.

of head

done

added

FigDi2

two

adiabatics

and

right. Here, however,

whose

curves

so

The
to

the

the

equivalent of

exact

such

as

called

have

We

certain
13, if AB

between

statements

is

an

the

at

is pvlM

the

area

UBAL

the

and

substance

again

repre-

AB

to

and

lines

these
for
heat
is

and

extremities

AT,

A
the

to

not

are

sarily
neces-

this relation

as

They

are

curves,

E, for instance, the

work

heat-energy

isothermal

hyperbola,

is

amount

between

external

certain
about

the

adiabatics

from

is the

which

BEFD,

area

that

total

cause

before,

as

indefinitelyextended

equation

drawn

substance

is here,

only applies to perfect gases.

however,

of the

do

(any substance), the

discussion

external

we

others

certain

path

ing
treat-

which

matters

J. to pass from A to
resented by the area
"

expended.

thermodynamics

while

apply,

12, if AB

^V-

definitearea

energy

generally,certain

deduced

done

in

and

is doubled,

by

stant
con-

EQUATIONS.

the

up

volume

possible,represent

GENERAL

In

the

at

(A)

done,

which

is the

has

peared
disap-

E.

isothermals, and
lines.

That

perfectgas,
added

is, in Fig.
it is

from

exactly equal

made

A
to

to

the

angular
rect-

B
area

is

NOTES

ABCD
if

it is

only

line

is not

often

need

be

not

and

rectangular hyperbola.

added

heat

but

UBAL

to

perature;
tem-

constant

The

equal

Hereafter

work.

isothermal, is

an

of

it

external

the

representing

ABy

3*

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

is
'

is

not

Fig,

necessarily equal
The
not

work
be

done

equal

The

equal

will be made
isothermal

and

to

ABCD

and

or

may

may

L'BAL.

to

attempt

adiabatic

ABCD.

to

is

13.

hereafter
in

the

to

the

use

general

terms

spoken

sense

of above.

Fig.
added

14

shows

the

isothermally

work
to

any

done,

and

Fig.
In

substance.

Fig.

A'

B'

may

ENTROPY

Fig.

14.

be

which

mixture

of

represents the

15.

if

rectangular hyperbola

dealing with air, a constant-pressure

with

the

L'

isothermal

14

VOLUME

Fig.

heat

15 the

liquidand
relation

vapor,

between

if

line
or

we

we

are

it is the

/ and

at

are

ing
dealline
con-

32

stant

they

14

lines

A'Bf

in both

degrees

below

isothermal

the

ABB'A'

area

equal

is

ABB'A'

area

equal

in

area

other,

dp

A'Bf,

lines, but
the

both

not

equation

Draw

-=dt.

dp dv,

in either

to

other

any

from

Fig.

Fig.

15,

14, the

quantities

two

the

distance

AB

We

following

(18)

and
these

between

time.

same

of the

between

distance

horizontal
at

from

From

these

straight

its temperature

that

so

Fig.

or

vertical

is the

dv

or

the

is

be

must

Evidently,

where

they

ABL'L.

and

; in

adiabatics

are

//added

to

line perpendicular

heat

/ dp dv,

dt

'

diagrams
AB.

be

must

15

The

equal

is

each

to

Fig.

is the

diagrams

is dt

A L and

7"axis.

the

15 it

Fig.

and

curves,

parallelto

in both

are

T axis.

the

are

THERMODYNAMICS,

In

temperature.
to

ON

NOTES

can

write

that

the

value

that

dv

is the

member

the

forms:

H
dt

{dp)dv

the
of

quantity

(dp) is

other
reverse

As

in the

fixed

by

independent
is the

/ (dv)dp9

parenthesis meaning
the

isothermals

variable,

or

and

in the

last

case.

it is the

quantity

ab

in

Fig.

14

that

we

must

NOTES

insert

in

value

from

the

ON

equation
the

for

(dp),we
of

equation

the

determine

can

substance

its

deter-

by

(dp\*

Ij^-Uwhich

mining

T, and

with

in the

gives

the

us

cd

dt,
\~-jj\

or

original equations,

of

rate

multiplying this by dt,

Similarly(dv)

or

33

THERMODYNAMICS.

ab

or

of p

charge

("

writing these

dt.

values

have

we

differentiating,

'B-Trj"*-Tj"\,+

""*"

"

We

then, that,

see,

along

an

if heat

is added

isothermal, the quantity

represented by

either

of

the

to

of

substance

any

this

heat

quantities

two

can

in

be

tion
equa-

(19).

form

*This
a

(or

number

is chosen
an

on

the

clearly

indicate

expression) giving

of p and

changes

to

value

7' at

constant

of dt.

the

volume,

that

ratio
and

of

we

the

this

wish

to

obtain

simultaneous
in

no

way

pends
de-

34
Prob.

NOTES

31."

from

Prove
at

ON

THERMODYNAMICS.

constant

air jru

For

the

temperature,

It T

"

\"\

and

if heat

that

equation (19)

\Jt)v

is added

heat

f"

is

required

from

air

to

\dt)v
,

thisequaH

tion, gives

vdp

Rdt%

(dt\_*
From

equation (19),

the

As

is to

temperature

be

constant,

we

have

VR

H=RT\og"~.

Prob.

32.

"

How

heat

much
to

whose

substance

added

be

must

"i
IO6-'

at

constant

perature
tem-

equation is

273"

from
Prob.

33."

2/1 to

Vt

-T

volume

its

change

to

"=

at

constant

temperature

pressure,

volume,

Having given
B

._AT_

P~

Tv"

as

the

of

temperature
be

between

relation

added

volume

A,Btpi,

at

from
and

substance,

constant
V\

the

how

temperature

to

7/2,

T?
.

much
to

heat

and
must

change

having given the values

its
of

NOTES

the

If, however,

will

method
of

quantity
1

6)

be

the

the

and

the

by

the

draw

A$2C,

area

from
the

equal

is

to

heat

difference

Calling the

(-"\dt,
the

given

the

heat

The

heat

page

33,

because
isothermals

is

of

curve

from
is

T(

AD

or

dt

from

-r-

dp,

the

as

expansion

AB.

to

dv

and

is the

21

area

The

"

nearly
ture
temperasmaller.
AD

is fixed

by

DC,

fixed

heat

T(--\dp
=

and
is

cpdt.

or,

from

this

form

by

from

the

$AD\

area

taken

is

above

definition

by

quantity

degrees apart.

AC2S=ADiz-DC2i-cPdt

is

that

dt, then

The

have

we

to

that

say

the

degrees

or

is the

j dp,

D,

to

becomes

point

more

as

temperature

dt

to

and

isothermal

C,

to

from

true

and

more

stant
con-

D, minus

to

nearly

more

line of

added

Through

the

heat

from

in

dH.

it cuts

becomes

from

added

Fig/iS!

The

A.

between

CE

area

until

added

of the

intersection

this

it is

difference

and

degrees

added

Or,

v.

between

CD

quantity

the

dt

and

that

to

and

represented

through

C.

to

latter

equal

is

isothermal

pressure

(Fig.

'*

added
C

ing
line, the follow-

expansion,,

points

and

points

along

the

being p

heat

added

being

other

any

AB

the

of

be

The

apart.

Let

co-ordinates

Let

along

determine

heat.
line

the

of

heat, instead

isothermal, is added

an

35

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

the

to

dH,

two

Cis

(20)

36
which

is

l^HERMODYNAMICS.

ON

NOTES

the

of

form

one

general thermodynamic

equation.
Another
is obtained

Then

-2

the

which

smaller.

untU

differs
the

by

disappears

from

AFC,

area

dt

as

C.

is

made

Then

AF=$)Jt,

Ag=dv,

and

AF

through

1AC2

4FC2

1AF4. +

Draw

isothermal
area

equation

volume

constant

at

the

cuts

this

follows:

as

(Fig. 17)
it

of

form

have

we

the

AF41

areas

4FC2

c"

(jj)dv,

and
dH

cJt+T[^)dv,.

which

is

of

form

second

the

fundamental

equation.
Av

Ap
In these

two

only

on

have

been

equations

the

terms

of

the

equation

the

"

j-

and

at
on

one

have

we

we

have

of the

the law

depend

chosen

to

eotrht

suhstancet. an4
while

"7-,

the

other

terms

at

That

expansion.

dt and

made

j- depend

"

dv

dp
written

and

-r-

(21)

dp depend
for

assume

the

on

is,in the first

the

law

expansion,

which

but

the

Av

value

--7--

depends

only

on

the

substance

which

is to

In

expand.

using

the

that
That

terms.

represents
be

cv must

units

also

value

of

dpdv

if

or

all the

foot-pounds, it
the

cp and
be

must

bered
remem-

for

same

is in

dpdv

area

foot-pounds

heat-units, the

the

be

must

be

it must

part of the diagram, and

certain

in

formulae

these

is, if the

37

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

NOTES

cp

or

in

are

cv

heat-units

in

also.
Prob.

34.

"

that

Suppose
state

there

is

using it, is

propose

we

relation

between

volume,

its

by

equation pv

the

expressed by

various

under

First calling p constant,

the

gas,

and

that

the

experiment,
=

methods
we

in

which,

and

temperature,

pressure,

determined

as

will it do

substance

AT

What

=.

of

be

can

expanding

it ?

have
"

pdv

Adt

~,

or

Cdv\
dtirp
and

calling v

are

the

two

?v;

constant,

\dtjv"
and

+
v

TV

forms

of

fundamental

the

equation

therefore

Jff=ctttt-(4"+-^)#(A)
dH^c^+i^+^jdv.
If

now

the
we

substance

is to

have, from

(B), //

expand
=

Cvdt.

at

(B)

constant

If at

ume,
vol-

constant

38

THERMODYNAMICS.

NOTES

ON

pressure,

from

(A), H

from

(A),

If

cpdt.

at

constant

perature,
tem-

"--(""""*)*

"

If it is

both

(aT

j)f^'

from

or'

"B"-

'

expand

to

have

we
adiabatically,

equations

and

^-

"

dv

cv

dH

which

for

is in

the

v
,

form

same

equation for the

the

as

adiabatic

pansion
ex-

of air.

In

to

that

the

in

the

heat

in

is the

takes
we

fundamental

formula

we

this is taken
at

place, we

must

to

at

define

more

water

heat

ber
remem-

added

from

speak

we

for

of

the

datum.

some

degrees FM and, as this

change of state in water

the

measure

32

which

with

dealing

when

measuring

are

must

we

heat

the

us

that

figures,and

temperature

are

formula

gives

substance

Ordinarily

if

the

using

so
particularly,

its vapor

or

that

from

that

it is

in water

tomary
cus-

at

32

degrees.
Heat

Water

in

general formula
as

follows

When

and

Steam.

the heat

to

heat

"

in

is added

The
a

application of

liquid and
to

its vapor

reaches

such

point

that

is

liquid (water,for

rises and
instance)at 32 degrees, its temperature
volume
until
changes slightly. This continues

temperature

the

vapor

its
the

begins

to

NOTES

form.

This

always

is

_For

pressure.

180

pounds

tion

of any

is

ready

in

37.8 pounds
further

and

the

volume,

work

required

vapor.

This

condition

into

has

been

its temperature
The

while

liquid and

While
dH

it

of the

In

reality there
is not

dv

the

specificheat

cv

liquid

again
the

raises

volume.

constant

at

sure
pres-

first,

stages:
while
it is

third, after

is

part

entirely a

practically constant

is
"

T")

is

certain

and

is called

of

liquids

necessary

to

necessarilyconstant

equal

to

cv(Tx"

amount

of

the

ordinary

but

strictlyzero,

of heat
is not

cient
suffi-

and

q,

the

or

liquid.

and

amount

cv(Tx

into

until

increase

of

generally

liquid v

cvdty H

heat

is

up

sort

some

of heat

successive

and

used

all the

liquid; second,

but

liquid water

convert

addition

three

in

part vapor;
have

the

degrees,
addi-^
The

being

of affairs continues

to

degrees

the temperature,

part in

to

grees
de-

213

liqufdwhich

the

to

heat, therefore,

entirely

We

vapor.

10

continues

of

place

is

it

and

change

to

added

and

addition

takes

pressure

and

further

Any

vapor.

327

increase

not

internal

heat

and

form, part of the heat

to

increasing

pressure

of heat

given

and

degrees, etc.

90

quantity

boil does

begins

vapor

pounds

for

point
pressure

pounds

15

pressure

to

definite

water,

correspond,100
for ammonia,

39

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

T").

includes
do

the
and

If

we

work

the

value

very

external

done
of

small

work.

/ cvdt

is not

know

the

sarily
neces-

relation

40

NOTES

between

to
I

and

cv

say

exact

value

that

for

water

cv

cdt

in

reality

the

in

"

centigrade

English units,

this

in B.T.U.

the

of

liquid in
in

corresponding quantity
with

equation

value

the

heat

the

of

get the

enter

and

.0000009/2)*//

.00004/

-j-.OOOOOO3/8,

To

units.

value

is customary

value

true

temperature,

"

+ -00002/2

is the

is the

It

while

I,

1(1 +

%y

French

found.

grating
inte-

before

inserted

have

I
/

be

.0000009/2, t being

we

=4=

which

it should

the

scale, and

Ty

and

-f-.00004/

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

the

of

for the

the

centigrade

quantity

obtained

corresponding

heit
Fahren-

temperature.
Prob.

35.

"

The

given by

the
c

How

36.

"

What

q
37.

How

"

much

heat
Prob.

38.

"

What
at

Prob.

39.

"

of

60

60

be

added

temperature

to

40

degrees C. ?

liquid ether
q

required

160

to

at

30

(French units)

to

grees
de-

is

+.0003/*?

is

the

degrees
the data

of

kilogram

to

raise

to

degrees F., using

of

pound

the

specific

water

will

Using
be

heat

to

20

equation for

.5 29/

added

from

specificheat

from

water

be

must

its temperature
is the

is

ammonia

1.006 + .0037/.

C. if the

Prob.

liquid anhydrous

equation (French units)

heat

much

raise
Prob.

of

specific heat

temperature

if

of
1

10

heat-units

problem
pound

from

40

of
to

of
are

(34), how

added

to

much

liquid ether
50

of

pound

degrees F.?

it ?

heat
to

water

must

raise

its

NOTES

It

is

interesting

value

this

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

of q is

proportion
that

does

any

reason,

actually used
do

to

goes
work

have

we

outside
or

may

for

make

not

be

use

of

what

and

the

because

available

part

if, for

heat

the

of

proportion

heating

work,

may

to

what

just

note

to

in

the

water.

One

at

water

degrees occupies

50

.016

foot.

cubic

One

of water

pound

at

degrees occupies .01627

140

foot.

cubic
The

50

doing

work

F.

and

the
no

to

we

reaches

the

longer rises,and
as

originallyapplied

the

water

heat-

is 90.1

F.

is used

amount

all the

heat

for

added

boiling-pointthe

we

conditions

longer

no

of

in it.

liquid remains

water

general formula,

that

say

heat-units.

pound

under,

is .00027

.005

degrees

140

can

inch

or

raise

to

is

water

square

practically negligible

it is still a

When

per

required

degrees

or

while

pressure

heat

units,

if the

done

3.89 foot-pounds,

144=

total

from

work

pounds

100

The

of

amount
100

say,
X

of

pound

hold.

perature
tem-

again apply

must

under

which

it

our
was

have

We

dHzzcJt+T^i
dv.

Now

dt

the

total
we

latent
could

H=J%t(^)

and

dv

heat,
have

as

it is called.

r,

As

is

stant,
con-

written

(dp\
-Tf"*

"

"

"

"

"")

42
To

between

relation

it is necessary

and

[ir]

of

value

the

formula

this

apply

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

NOTES

the

/ for

and

it is also

values

limiting

and

between/
of

value

when

of
/

be

can

all vapor

experimentally, and

determine

as

value

the

of

In

r.

be

value

more

than

in

the

applying

to

determined

is of
of

The

is difficult

rcan

readily by experiment, this formula

in determining the limiting value

tion
rela-

obtained.

easily

liquid is

the

the

Experimentally,

v.

know

to

necessary

"

the

determine

to

vapor

the

know

to

mining
deter-

formula

dp
either

as

way,

each

for

and

v2 is the volume

volume

Prob.

of

40.

"

What
at
r

11

p99

13.9

been

pound

of

depend

definite

temperature

of vapor,

and

of

per

saturated

square

.695/,and

"

T99

=326.86+460.7,

/100

IOO

144,

T100

327.58+4607,

pl0l

101

144,

Ti0i

="

328.30+460.7,

Ap
AT

/101" pw

2XI44,

7\"i

1.44,

'

rio^=

dv,

on

written

pound

pressure

99x144,

not

vx the

liquid.

pounds

100
=

volume

is the

is

have

of

of

pound

does

-7-

there

pressure

equation might

the

where

that

know

we

"

T99

iii3-9--695x327.58

884.

steam

inch

if

NOTES

THERMO

ON

43

YNAM1CS.

A4"
From

the

formula

884

T~(v*"Vi)

r=

778=788.28

have

we

?2iIil(Vl_Vl),

1.44

884x778x1.44
"r

and

Probt

41t

Prob.

42.

"/a

What

.016

4.36+

"

is the

gives log p
the

between
above

volume

of

4.38.

equation

"

"

and

be

can

/"(v2-

the

the

tion
rela-

temperature,

and

written

+ i-J.
t,1)L_

Regnault's experiments give

between

for the

"

"

pressure

relation

4-36

kilogram of saturated vapor

of ether at 500 C, using the first five columns
of
Table
IV, Peabody?*
What
is the value
of r in English units for carbon
bisulphide at 500 F., using only columns
i, 2, 3, 9,
VII, Peabody?
10, 11 of Table

"

Rankine

the

.,

P"-yi=2x.44X788.28

latent

heat

the

following

and

the

for the

temperature

:
.

has

Peabody

and

formula

in the

relation

between

be

for

used
The

value

of which

one

Peabody's

othef^Mapors,

deduced

form

of

pressure

does

Tables

above
external

of

the

for

constants

log/

determining
of

-695';

1113.9-

and

the

work

-4-

temperature

value

given

ban

"

of v2

consists
and

Properties of

the

Regnault's
c/3"for the
which

can

vx.

"

of

two

other

Saturated

parts,
internal

Steam

and

44

NOTES

work.

and

work

the

from

state,

the

It is to

between

while

and

done,

have

may

exist

may

distant

It is often

form

to

steam*
The

has

is

is

only

been
at

constant

heat
Of

steam.

done,

added

this

and

heat-units,

been

Apu

heat

When

some

and

steam

the

entirelyevaporated
added

of

it

to

total heat.

the

steam."

total

amount

heat
heat

This

required
"in

the

the

the

degrees

is

.48/

specificheat
is

added,

only

amount
we

have

quantity

its

above

of

of work

point

of

external

has

it

superheated
is, if the

of saturation

7^.).

portion

expended

of

That

.48.

cp{T^

addition

superheats it, and

pressure

pressure

certain

while

in

work.

have

it is the

and

water,

in the

in the

"

pended,
ex-

formed.

expended

and

has

been

is not

we

heat

work

in water

stored

future

The

that

liquid

steam

this is called

as

constant

is raised

steam

/".

-[-p.

found

in

it has

being entirely formed,

at

ternal
ex-

different

external
do

is heated

total

steam.

while

pumping

pressure,

as

the

Apu

"

very

in the

in

any

F.

32

incorrect,

steam

steam

the

at

written

heat

more

"

the
'

for

constant

expression

to

the

heat-units, and

heat

is, r has

and

vapor,

of water
under

That

available

is not

the

potentialenergy

as

in the

pound

the

that

expended

reservoir.

remains
and

been

/ the

-"$p.

longer exists

no

are

quantities

remembered

be

Apu

vl

"

work,

is

internal

and

is about

Apu

this heat
It

the

and

v2

of

equivalent

corresponding

as

been

heat

Apu,

relations

The

the

A
is

in volume

the difference

Calling u

pressure,

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

work

-48(7^
been

in

remains

done

the
be

must
"

7^t.)

equal

to

NOTES

/(^sup.

ON

The

sw)-

45

THERMODYNAMICS,

heat

in

remaining

the

is

steam

therefore

.48(7;up.

TB"t)

To
have

the

determine
the

relation
of

temperature

by

remaining
we

ending

or

given

state

added

Heat

remaining

and

be

can

pressed
ex-

can

be

are

readily found

if the

given.

In

tabular

form

at

32

degrees

water

below

and

LIQUID.

q.
OF

{x
Heat

added

Heat

remaining

q
=

==:

VAPOR.

AND

LIQUID

parts vapor.)

xr\

xp\

xApu.
ALL

Heat

added

Heat

remaining

volume,

q;

MIXTURE

must

we

steam.

starting with

Heat

done

pressure,

experimentally

quantities

two

ALL

Work

quantity

93-$r-97*Pk"

either

the

at

vSSLt).

"

following equation (Peabody) :

have,

then

this

the

determined

the

which

of

superheated

pv
from

value

between

relation

This

p(vmVm

"

VAPOR.

^(^sup.

"

T**x)\

Work

one

7sat.) /(*W

q+P+A%(T"v".

Apu -{-f"(v8Up. vs"t).

"

*W);

46

NOTES

43.

Prob.

How

"

much

44.

Prob.

.6

much

at

If 80,000

"

pounds

The
heat

of

pound
what

At

has

been

is done

in

at

150

condition

of

added
be

the

condition
and

the

Suppose

pounds

at

and

has

At

is

pounds

100

in it

sure
pres-

F.

degrees

327.58

water

of

state

degrees F.,

213

better

perhaps

initial
at

the

and

"=181.8

it will

have

in

18.

it

q-\-

from

Suppose

p=n

to

steam

as

802.8

297.9

must

difference

The

we

do

in volume

100.7.

certain

between

of

amount

and

feet.

4.387 cubic

pressure,

ing
count-

steam

the

heat

heat-units.

be

must

of water

pressure
c

work

following example:

its final

work.

work

into

can

and

pass

much

water

the

pound

To

steam

degrees F.,

400

how

substance

the

by

Z
Fig.

superheated

of external

between

in

remaining

"

of

and

(Fig. 18) is

T7 7

ing
hav-

steam

mixture

pound

pressure

pressure,

distinction

understood

expended

foot-pounds

converting
the

is

converting

pressure?

pounds

degrees, and

32

into

degrees

is in

in

done

45.

is done

150

heat

from

Prob.

at

pounds

150

60

at

heat

much

How

"

work

external
of water

pound
How

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

that
and

the volume

that

afterwards

is first filled at

heat

is added

15 pounds
and

the

is raised

pressure

of work

amount

15 x

to

4.387
"-L

144

equal

is

to

the

to

:zjr~E

from

pounds

ioo

done

47

THERMODYNAMICS,

ON

NOTES

...
heat-units.

=12.2

778

heat

total

The

the

in this

done

case

100

the

is then

increased

is

to

"I"s

to

to

work

The

A.

1.

o
=81.2

"

heat-units.

is first raised

4.387

144

931.

pressure

equal

is therefore

expended

181. 8

"

that

volume

be

must

I2"2

again

Suppose
and

100.7

that

..

heat-units,
*

778

heat

the

and

required

It is therefore

be

to

be

81.2

100.7

is

181. 8

"

that

noted

must

which

it is

expended,

added

which

remains

the

depends

expended

which

that

but

in the

iooo.i.

the

substance

of

amount

upon

portion

the

given, always

above

100.7

"

181. 8

918.9 heat-units,

or

9m

^100

"

4iv

in

way

of the

is,in the

heat

heat

ple
exam-

48
Prob.

NOTES

46.

ON

Four

"

THERMODYNAMICS.

of

pounds

pounds

pressure

cubic

10

mixture

feet

another

If the

be

Heat

To

the

determine

6x

Heat

in vessel

x) .016

"

the

these

Prob.

47.

"

to

100

"

vessel

of

of

mixture

pressure

pumped

25
into

temperature,
Prob.

49.

"

If

10

cubic

pressure

per

.376.

3600,

is then

is

pound

equations

$J

cubic

satisfy:

to

2,

by trial.

be

added

at

of

constant

pressure

of

feet

the

of

of

feet

from

pounds

at

60
is

pounds

100

degrees
the

F.

are

resulting

radiation?

saturated

inch

mixture

in it 4
at

What

vessel.

dry

to

inch

square

water

water

no

volume

'

and

assuming

square

per

cubic

capacity has

steam

pounds

of

pound

one

occupying 3.8

cubic

feet of

have

.35.

solved

pounds
10

be

water

150

radiation

no

4T).Ol6

"

pressure

and

steam

48.

must

the

wh?t

581.2,

best

can

heat

What

raise

Prob.

xp

per

two

(I

g +

and

then

have

We

feet.

are

581.2,
*

occupied

volume

fill

10

and

of

vessels

We

mixture

3600

2212

2212.

802.8)

of the

pound

per

changing,

=10,

60

pounds

100

not

at

mixture

two

10,

vessel

the

A.

830.7)

6(297.9 + .376

heat

The

.35

at

assuming

x) .016

"

heat

6(1

4.403

4(1

4(261.9 +

volume

in vessel

heat

the

7.096

the

of

feet

of

water

fill a

pounds

cubic

final pressure,

the

First determine

4x

contents

intimately mixed,
will

inch

capacity, and
10

and

steam

square

per

vessel, B, of

pressure.

of

steam

is allowed

at
to

100

pass

pounds
from

NOTES

boiler

of

into

an

expands

stance

have

We

"

at

the heat

as

Hghtly

different
19, be

Fig.
in which

AB

TA

heat

lines,and

EFDC

area

the

gram,
dia-

C and

'

'
entropy

FlG#

BD

Then

the

divided

by

as

each

of

between

TEf

or

for instance,

or

is

being

d(HEGB)

how

nor

and, if

equal

heat

to

we

is added.

*B

dH

T*

the

BD.

horizontal
That

is added

it is added,

the

is the

distance

is, it makes
E

between

the

in

to

the

temperature

no

and

B,

CdH
/

quantity

please, is equal

/ "\Hegb)%
T
Jb

variable, and

^di-

/"B

quantities is

much

by

also write

can

dH=
T~Jb

lines A C and

how

is constant

I9

divided

ABDC

area

/M

these

the

difference

We

figure.

dH=
T~Jf

Jb

sub-

"

constant-

f*A

if

that

rectly from

resulting

diagram,

are

adiabatics.

two

pounds

repeat in

form, let the

EF

and

temperature
are

To

is the

tem-

by thej^nor

is constant..

perature

it 25

adiabatics^

two

divided

added

what

already proved

constant

*pefature between

F.,

degrees

in

having

temperature

Adiabatics.

vessel

open

60

at

water

49

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

"=

H
~^

-^

or

latter

at

case

which

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

NOTES

50

theadiabatic,

Along

dH

as

o,

have

we

".=0.

CdH
The

that

statement

adiabatics

for

another
to
20

Fig

As

to

constant

be

of

b and

and

from

constant-volume

be

to

for

line

to

and

b,

to

or

ac

c,

for

have

for

r"Cvdt

CdH

CT"ctdt

Tb

ac

Te
.

and

"*"

"*

on

Fig.
one

another.

suppose

sure
constant-pres-

ab

fdH_

on

us

tion
equa-

In

point

line.
We

the

air.

points

two

gives

obtaining

adiabatic

suppose

adiabatic,

20.

substance

any

method
the

between

constant

is

"jt-

ab

ON

NOTES

as/z"

or,

51

THERMODYNAMICS.

RT,

plMv;

M.

"

\A\", 1.41
PcAAlVb
or

pbV^^PcV?'
which

have

we

before

deduced

in

entirely different

an

way.

When

the

vapors

Fig.

and

pressure
and

water,
be

to
curve

have

that

of steam

We

be

an

at

we

and

suppose

pounds

of

know

On

of

adiabatic
have

xb

^pounds

"

that

Fig.

at

and

21.

we

pounds

of water.

first the

ture
tempera-

xc

"

that

what

has

just

the

path

from

is raised
are

steam

From

made.

been

proved.

to

b suppose

then

d" and

to

Ja

J
from

to

that

d, dH

xb

of

pounds

steam

in

cdt, because

general formula,

T^dv,

dH=cJt+

we

have

In

temperature

be

and

liquids and

the

pound

the

suppose

such

xe

of

to

complicated.

more

represent

volume

Let

of water,

to

Tv

pounds

is rather

problem

suppose

this method

apply

to

come

we

dv

o,

and

hence

"

"

the

52

NOTES

d to

From

ON

the

THERMODYNAMICS.

heat

dH

added

is

rdx, and

we

can

write

f*dH

CXhrhdx

?yr"

___

and

From

to

"

Ja
and

these

as

write

can

we

-Jra T+

equal,

are

f\dt
In

this

equation

we

xhrh_

is the

T/

write

can

f\dt

x"c

specificheat

of water,

value

we

is

or

dq
and

-r%

mine

if

know

we

other.

any

be calculated

with

one

Ordinarily the
sufficient

Ccdt
and

the

value

so

that

"

of

x,

value

accuracy

deter-

can

of

can

"

by callingc

i,

Td
is then

of this

it need

not

log,"

; but

quantity using
be

calculated.

Peabody's
the

exact

tables

give

value

of c,

NOTES

Prob,

If

50."

ON

of

pound

53

THERMODYNAMICS.

of steam

mixture

3.8 cubic feet

at

and
of

pressure

We

have

7\oo

fio"

the

steam-table

460.7; Vol.

7"

320

approximately, or
7*16 =

965.1;

To

We

JTn

.861

Prob.

52.

"

-964

of

is

pound

of

.782

it has

.016 is the

ft.;

cu"

volume

of

3.8 ;

pounds

What

M31**;

containing
is the

pressure

is

pressure

40

percentage

of
60

20

to

of

ture
mois-

so
expanded adiabatically,

have
?

cent

per

percentage
must

ft.

cu.

adiabatically from

what

same

673.73

.782) .016 =20.5

"

mixture

the

mixture

higher

pounds.

at 60

.3143

pressure,
the

15

compressed

at

that

as

~JTn

26.15 + (1

pound

pounds

26.15

CTx%cjU
^965.1
+

884

788.28

water

steams

.86i.

xc

If

have,

.782

tables.

write

.4733 +

lb.

xb) .016+4:5 4.403

"

then

can

the

.470

of water,

pound

pT"cdt+

"

ft.;

have

we

from

we

Xb

*6

Prob. 51.

cu.

"=.3143.

determine

(1

Vol.

4.403

log 492.7)

"

.4733

460.7; Vol.

213.03

460.7,

2.3026 (loj 788.28

r"

lb. steam10o

884.

Calling

what

pressure,

from

327.58

absolute

pounds

100

expands adiabatically to 15 pounds

is its volume

occupying

water

of
been

water

the

at

60

and

percentage

54

NOTES

Whenever

done

be

must

it at the
If

body expands

of its

expense

the

have

and

the

steam

is xu

of the

expansion

of work

done

53.

heat

is q2

water

the

the

at

portion

xxpx.

At

x2p2i and

the

is qx +

present

the heat

that

so

expansion.

and

steam

in

of

the end
amount

is therefore

In

"

of

work

of heat

quantity
of the

end

expansion

qi

Prpb.

the

at

mixture

the

in the

the

at

external

of

amount

difference

of

beginning

adiabatically,or

heat, the

own

beginning

we

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

Pi

*i

problem

?2-*2

how

(50)

a-

work

much

is done

in

the

expansion ?
From

the

work

the

tables

54.

q%

297.9,

pi

802.8,

181. 8,

pa

892.6,

802.8

107

778

What

"

297.9 +.861
or

Prob.

qx

weighing
80
Prob.

55.

"

pounds

pound

to

of

892.6

107 h.

u.,

83200 ft.-lbs.

if

cubic

20

feet

of

ture
mix-

water

from
pounds expands adiabatically

pounds

20

steam

adiabatically

181.8 ".782

"

is done

work

and

pounds

at

100

15

pounds.

to

pressure

expands

pressure

How

much

work

is

done?
Prob.

56.

"

pound

of
to

water

15

at

327

pounds

F.

degrees

expands

How

pressure.

much

batically
adiawork

is done?

If

we

dealing

are

mixture,

we

have

with

superheated

for the

value

instead

steam

"f-

of

"=r

three

of

parts:

NOTES

while

one

ON

it is still a

becoming

steam

at

is all converted

and

we

Jf

portion,

rp

""log,-^-'

T*

third

(as it

"

J- SUD.

*
*

superheated steam
for the

have,

or

it is

sat.
sat.

write

can

When

the

temperature,

LpUlf

7sat.

while

one

-^-,
T

steam),and

7*SUp.

liquid or

constant

into

55

THERMODYNAMICS.

of

amount

quantity

heat

of

we
expands adiabatically,

work

at

done, the

the

beginning

difference

in

and

of

end

expansion.
heat

The

ft

The

+Pi

9%

on

the
Prob.

"

P2

beginning is

I 0( Aup.
/

end

of

^sat.)

end

"

)1
A ( ^sup."Fiat.

expansion

fjl

is

"

of

steam

at

superheated until

remains

150

pounds

feet.

pressure

What

of 3.3 cubic

after it

expands adiabaticallyto

and

what

work

^g

volume

sure,

Kat)']

"

/t

[//(^sup.Tsat.)

pound

J.

A(^tup.

assumption that it
of the expansion.

the

57.

at the

heat

the

at

occupies a

is its condition

15

pounds

pres-

is done"?
OF

th

univf.
n

rv

"

$6
As

of saturated

pound

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

NOTES

occupies 3.01

superheated

steam

50

pounds
in the

steam

from

and

superheated,

be

must

feet, the

cubic

at

steam

pressure

problem

equation of

the

have

we

T==pv"97}Pi
'

93-5

$0

144

3.3

97i

(1

50x144)^
go^

'

935
Saturated

at

steam

of

358.26 degrees F.

superheated

At

15

degrees.

71

Pcdt

pdH

pounds

150

.5i33+-g^+.48x2.30261o

.5J33 +

1.6055.

1.6055,trie

expansion,

33"

we

two

have

1.7473

evidently

.3143+*

.901.

superheated

at

1.433,

of work

amount

than

have

we

the

not

is greater

heat

at

the

done

during

this

initial condition

["^(890-819)
3-Qii) j
I5"7X7g44(3-3
~

[Heat
=

the

determine

*,..+Pi..+

965.1

and

pressure

is

steam

1.6055

To

.0525+0.397

of these

sum

lower

pressure

/cdt
the

is

steam

890

the

ture
tempera-

then

have

We

the

818.96,or

r
^

pounds

As

has

pressure

added

+778-1 +26.07

less work

II34-I7

done]

NOTES

ON

final condition

the

At

134. 17

Prob.

58.

If in the

"

done

work

above

at

the

condition

pounds

150

the

is

steam

892.6

and

u.

985.03.

how

16000

had

volume
what

pressure,

if it had

done

been

in the

h.

149.14

problem

feet

heat

is

985.03

"

the

181.8 + .901X

?lft+ .90ip16=
The

$7

7HERM0DYNAMICS.

been

would

much

to

15

4 cubic

have

work

expanded

ft.-lbs.

been

would

have

pounds

sure
pres-

?
Prob.

59.

If

"

of

pound

60

at

pounds

15

is

degrees

pounds

100

steam

heated
super-

adiabaticallycompressed
what

pressure,

pressure

to

is its temperature

and

volume?

of Constant

Curve
saturated
have

the

pressure,

having

water

such
the

is called

"

If

steam,

and

pounds

.30

30

pounds
x

is

Prob.

61.

"

what

for the

from

expands
there
volume

weight

33 +

is

90

always
at

is 5

every

.01

60

12

pounds?

is

the

in

and

always

weight.

water

30

volumes

at

120

is

cent

per

at

of

curve

steam

15

volume

120,

90,

.70

of the

.016, and

1.1245 cubic

steam

per
15

the

water

cent
to

and

60,

for

have

stant
con-

expands

there

that

its

steam

steam

so

the

are

pressure

of 60 per

mixture

of

steam

expands

we

1. 11

of

of

curve

constant

mixture

3.71 1, and

volume

present,

of

pressure

always

120

steam

curve

of

we

whatever

mixture

that

manner

its pressure,

of

of

pound

pounds

At

of

pound

steam

given proportion

proportion

same

60.

if

Or

If

"

is called

curve

that, whatever

way

expansion
Prob.

expansion
weight.

steam

such

saturated

of

pound

Weight.
in

expands

steam

always

Steam

and

pounds
cent

pounds

40

steam

the total

feet.
water

percent

pressure,

steam.

pressure,

so

What
if the

that

is the
total

58

ON

NOTES

To Determine
done

determined
of

the

and

n,

f"vM=K'f
the

from

and

find the

approximately
convenient

expansion

way

is in

curve

value

probable

most

of the

equation

be

most

the

of work

amount

only

The

that

assume

The

"

can

calculation.

it is to

form

Done.

expansion

an

by

doing

Work

the

such

by

THERMODYNAMICS.

determine

curve

of

the

area.

To
not

the

determine

The

them.

average

least squares,
is not

at

several

determine

to

correct

values

following,from
the

gives

all difficult

follow

to

of

values

in the

logarithmic equation

these

log A +

logA +

*l"g^

log A +

multiply

coefficient

Adding
2

log

vx

vs

of

of the

in that

log

vi

log A

log

v2

log A

log

*'s +

K' ',etc.

these

have

we

and

n2

(A)

(logvf

we

K"

log

vi ;

K"

log

v%\

K"

log

z/8.

we

the

have

(log vx f
(log v2 )2
(log ^3 )2

and
as

original equations by

equations together

log p log v +

of

of

K";

K"\

equation

log A

these

and

"2logz/=^Ar"

each

write

and

of

it is

method

below

as

log K'

equations together
2log/

Now

log

n9

value

desired, and

as

of

Determine

out.

values

/ and

the

probable

most

many

Add

value

probable

most

have

2K"

log v.

(B)

NOTES

59

THERMODYNAMICS.

(B) will give the most

probable
Ordinarily three-place logarithms are not
and

Solving (A)
of

ON

n.

this

for

enough

work.

The

value
rate
accu-

of

amount

work

is then

To

heat

the

at

done

of

We
three

the

heat

the

to

the

work

heat

the
plied.
sup-

determine

to

heat

the

at

the

how

that

quantities so

the

steam

to

quired
re-

that

to

in the

added

will be

know

added

shown

already

that

we

expansion

expansion

have

of these

expansion,

the

equal

be

must

beginning

of

end

of heat

quantity

this

produce

to

be

the

determine

"

supplied

can

determined.

Prob.

62B

"

of steam

pound

pounds

40

heat

work

and

pressures
60

50 lbs.

\ogp

the

determine

n\ogv

K"

law

of

constant

is done
We

V=

lbs. V

40

of

steam

how

the

much

following

7.096

cu.

ft.;

8.414

cu.

ft.;

cu.

ft.

expansion write

1.778+

.851/*

K"

1.

513

.724*=

.851^"

1.699+

.925/1

K"

1.572

.856/*=

.925A"'

K"

1.628

4.713

+2.612/*

1.602+

1.

oi6"

=^K"

5.079+2.792/*

(A)
n

60
...

Work

144x7-096
"

"

40

"

144x10.37
"

"

1.07

"

1.032/*

1.016^"

2.792A"' (B)

1.07.

to

10.37

and

have

volumes

lbs.

expands

pressure

curve

supplied ?

At

To

pounds
a

much

be

must

for the

along

How

weight.

60

at

21500
*

.,

ft. lbs.

60

NOTES

TT

"

Heat

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

21500

required

^40 + ^40 +

236.4+850.3 + 27.6

261.9

"

"~

"

830.7

"

In

Rectangular Hyperbola.
"

q**

Pm.

"

21.7 h.

u.

gular
rectan-

cases

many

hyperbola practically represents the expansion

under
and
of steam
water
taking place in a mixture
actual

This

conditions.
line

expansion

for

here

is pv

the

AT, and

The

the

of work

amount

it

but

cally
practi-

in

place

of

law

theoretical

takes

actually

steam-engine cylinders.

sense

no

expansion,

steam

what

represents

is in

many

expansion
is

done

A^,log.g)=A^log.(^).
The

q%

the
to

of heat

amount

required

log. Mj

+P1V1

x*fh

Prob,

"

xxPlt

final condition,

and

initial condition.

63.

"

of

pound
of

so

heat
64B

"

of

moisture

along
work
the

added

30

taken

or

mixture

rectangular

is done,

what

expansion,
or

taken

moisture

away

is

20

always

and

must

away,

and

much

100

how

30

pounds

hyperbola.
how

to

is done,

is the

and

cent

per

work

containing
from

expands

30

pounds

100

of

cent

per

much

added

be

pound

that

containing
from

expands

How

present.

mixture

water

moisture

pounds,

Prob,

qx

"

the

subscript 2 referring to
the

is

condition
much

cent

per
to

30

pounds

How
at

heat

of

much

the end
must

of
be

NOTES

CYCLES

work

and

done

determined

being
b,

of

are

in

BY

cylinder

of

amount

the

of

amount
can

Fig.

a,

and

that,

the

at

VAPORS.

required

that

of vapor

suppose

vapor,

heat

Suppose

mixture

and

vapor,

parts

xb

the
follows

as

pound

is used

vapor

YNAMICS.

THROUGH

PASSED

When

have

THERMOD

ON

22,

be
we

liquid,xa parts

at
maining
re-

pressure

constant.

From

b to

according
be the
heat

to

and

then

the

separate

be

can

area

abb' a!

The

area

edd'e'

The

areas

expansion

The
heat

under

amount

required

and

"

Let

J?

bec'b'

(x6
(xc

is the

the

end

of the

the

figure

by findingthe
that

so

edd'e'

as

beginning.

of

area

them

add'a',

xa)Apaua.

ad

depend

required

to

the

at

as

be determined

can

fa + xcPc)

the

at

law

xJ)Apcuc.

"

be and

same

have

of affairs

combining

the

to

easily calculated

of heat
from

let xc

we

done

abb9 a' +

The

the

that

most

and

areas

according

of work

amount

at

first at constant

condition

same

It

and

be, so

curve

be

expansion

of the vapor.

away

expansion

abed.

law,

any

taken

pressure,

The

let the

proportion

be

cycle

and

fa +

is

to

upon
as

do

equal

the

shown

this work
to

*oPa) + abee'a'.

law

of

before.
is the

62

NOTES

The

The

(?a +

{qc+

values

the various

is

away

Xcpc).
of

is adiabatic, the value

if xa

determined

be

taken

depends

expansion.

expansion

If the
can

of the

law

be

must

"*dcc'd'

XaPa) +

between

relation

the

on

which

of heat

amount

"

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

and

and

xd

have

We

given.

are

xb

of xc

/
all tl

cdt

As
for

Tb

rb and

and

d,

we

xara
\

are

equal

can

write

"

W=:

Apbub{xb
-

xbrb

(xb

~(xb

"

"

then

xa) +

"

ra

xarb

"

"

Td

(*,

"

x^rJ^-^Y

written

[qb +

xbpb
-

xd)rc

/"

"

two

similarly
equations

Xd).

be

"

last

(xc

"

-f-xdrc

xcrc

Ta9 and

and

the

from

xd)

Apcuc(xc

*a)r,

"

to

can

and

_xdrd

T
Ta

done

work

The

xc;

determined.

jr{xb Xa)
"*"

except

~~~
-

T
T^

be

can

xd

Tc

known

cdt

,d

which

Tk~

are

i
from

of which

terms

xbrb

"qc"

\qa +

xapa

xcpc~\
-qd"

xdpd~\

NOTES

the

In

last

63

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

(x^" xa)

equation

is the

ra

heat

added

Ta"Tc
from

is Carnot's
this

is

exists
of

The

b.

to

efficiency,as

Carnot

in

efficiencyis

boiler, engine,

that

the

65.

all the

How

"

and

work
of

pounds
pounds
the

The

per

884.0 h.

Fig.

67.

"

xl

from
not

those

the

same

60

inch, pd

square
.i, *b

if 5

expands

water

15

.9 ?

how

much

work
1

(.9

Td

1) x 884.0

"

673.7.

3536 h.

u.

ft.-lbs.

778 =402000

through
work

10

in

cycle, as

degrees F., td
much

last

weight

vc

pounds
is done

pound

engine
the

788.3 ;

Fig. 22,

cycle, like

foot,/a=150

in

and

expands

cubic

actual

an

the

in

degrees F.,

is done

and

how

is.required ?

required if
In

1, how

"

heat

If in

is

b is

to

3536

NH8

If ta

22.

.1,

much
Prob.

of

pound

xa

assumed

is

done

"

have

cycle of Fig. 3f

steam

per

Ta

788.3
"

of

xa)ra=

"

work

u.

788.3-6737,

66.

the

in

inch, xa

from

added

Jlf(xb

Prob.

functions

substance

pounds

square

of affairs

fulfils the
we

as

cycle.

is done

100

expected

tables

heat

The

of the

"

condition

as

the

mixture

having fia

ra

of

points

much

From

condenser,

c, which

'

been

this

cylinder

weight

given

cylinder at
Prob.

When

cylinder, the

have

might

cycle.

therefore

the

of

steam

cubic

and

feet, va
inch, pc

per square
how

much

15,

heat

is

is used?

conditions

figure,as

in the

10

from

different

are

cylinder, and

to

b there

from

to

is

64

NOTES

the

weight also varies.

interchange of
the

and

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

And
heat

Fig.

stant
con-

cylinder walls

clearance

steam

steam

from

and

fills the

At

boiler

cylinder

place

d9

to

The

admitted

is
to

the

steam

is .r*.

proportion

takes

is filled with

the

takes

cylinder-walls,

cylinder.

volume

whose

the

represents what

23

the

in

place

of

action

suppose

sion
Expan-

c.

exhausts

and

again.

Let

the

be in the

pounds
from

added

be

the

between

is

steam.

First, neglecting the

to

there

in addition

the

boiler.
from

coming

steam

cylinder at

x* be

Let

If

boiler.

the

a, and

pounds

the

value

we

know

for

the

Ve
volume

at

r^"
-f-M

+ (1-*)

.016

have

we

ct

volume

of

pound
r

and

*A

from
To
at

added

which

xe

find the
added
to

work

the

to

the

can

heat

be

found.
from

work

b to

We

be

might

m(qA +

received

have

xapa

done

("+i/Xfc+*cPc)+Work
Work

-j^^g.

"

is

from

have

we

equal
the

to

be

the

the

heat

boiler,

heat
at

or

bc=m(qa+xapa)+M{qc+x'rc).
xcp").
xcpc)+ M(x'rc
qe
-

written

Work

that

(VC-

Va)pcf

it has

but

attention

fact

the

to

in the

written

been

that

equation

contains

rc and

the

brought

into

heat

includes

which

work
the

boiler,

and

under

ad,

cd

under

work

the

The

x'pc, but

the
the

forcing this

first

is that

reason

also

call

to

the

in

from

cylinder
in

given

boilers
external

steam

of

out

x'Apeue.

or

work

The

first

last term

pc.

the

done

be

must

form

the

not

qc and

only

not

65

THERMODYNAMICS,

ON

NOTES

is determined

under

is the

da

before

as

of

area

the

shown,

rectangle

or

{Vd-Va)pd.
Prob.

68.

In

"

for

engine having Fig. 23

an

feet, V*

cubic

pa

15

How

batic.

First find

xa

.9,

much

xs

feet, pi

Xd

.8, cd

being

x
an

144,

adia-

is done

work

100

.4

.8rlt

1.0

Jx%

cubic

xc.

cjU

AM

144,

card, let V*

__

Tx%

r,00

7UM, r.8r,"
_

Pi^cdn
_

788.3 f.8x

965.1

-]

__

To

the

find

volume

along cd and

the

tables

Sd

{\

"

Xa)md.oi6

-5

"

"

"

"

weight

8.

8
2

.381(.88x4.403

+ .?2

lbs.:
"38i
J
9

.8x26.154-.2x.016
Vc

the

26.15 I

8
Md

know

must

we

have

we

Xd*HdSd

From

at

20.952
x.

016)

1.47 cu.

ft.

66

The

work

be

The

work

cd

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

NOTES

(1.47

"

=
.

4)100

"

381^100 +

144

88pioo

fi*

"

.8p,6]x778

"

15400

32000
47400

in

Work
Prob.

da

work

The

69.

"

(8

In

70.

=31000

steam

through
71.

Prob.

"

In

taken
xe

at

cylinder-walls if

exhaust

Fig.

continuing

the

24,

by

the

In all

24'

the

engines using

is

To

again

over

in

the

substance

utilized

for

quantity

of heat

doing
for

as

work

which
each

in

reduced

must

be

de

heat

be

by

deter-

of

jected
re-

Fig.

supplied

24,

to

an

and

over

liquefied,pumped
All the

heat

which

amount

the

the

of heat

substance

liquid

and

#,

be

or

evaporated again.
less the

apply

shown.

23,

total

it must

will

quantity

working

same

engine

working

substance

Fig.

the

of

engine,

an

boiler, and
from

in the

the

use

of

da

large proportion

engine.
into

line

the

the

vapors,

it had

a,

temperatures,

will

already

as

to

point

new

aef, which

area

mined

along

and

corresponding

and

of work

amount

"v

the

in

of pressures

etc., for

IG*

x*

formula

above

putting

values

been

have

must

.88 ?

of

what

of heat

loss

no

heat

much

the

by

up

of the

If, instead

stopped

68, how

problem

was

bt and

at

cylinder-walls?

the

to

or

cylinder

of xj, if there

the

must

steam

in the

was

value

the

was

much

if x?

furnished

have

much

how

problem,

above

the

How

"

16400

cycle
boiler

Prob.

.4)15 x 144

"

remains
be

cannot

same

must

be

cycle

is therefore

engine.

supplied

to

jected
re-

the

the

again
The
ing
work-

amount

which

ON

be

added

to

discharge

from

must

of its
Prob.

72.

In

"

Fig.
me

the

Prob.

73.

.\,pb

much

heat

is

and
Prob.

74.

heat

When

the

has

that

From

pound

problem

is

expended
of

data

to

equal

the

the

is done

cycle ?

problem

the

72,

done

stance
sub-

what

and

cylinder-wallsis

Assume

the

that

at

taken

be

made

c,

Fig.

into

after

23,

of moisture

which

is

steam

nearly
without

without

true,

we

and

rectangular hyperbola,

stance
sub-

cycle ?

is steam

be

not

may

much

work

per

is the work

per

is

how

72,

what

ammonia,

saturated

supplied,

discharged
or

of

given proportion

expansion

been

steam

may

with

further

assume

cycle

following analysis might

steam

that

data

of the

Hirn.

and

per

the

of

*44"

3ox

Jt

rectangular hyperbolas,

action

method

1, xe

pa

144,

the

account,

have

the

SOa, what

expended

ture
tempera-

heat

much

the

.7, tne

=15

is done

If, having given the

"

if xc

are

ea

anhydrous

is

the

and

given

how

liquid at

engine.

steam,

expended

is

the

work

If, having

"

as

100x144,^

cd

curves

how

it

using

24,

67

THERMODYNAMICS,

NOTES

and

moisture

and

that

the

which

moisture,

true.

cylinder-walls

give

must

up

heat

per

to

Vd

(9d+ *dPd)+pcVc l""ge

y-{3c+

all the
can

be

terms

of

calculated

which

are

known

*dPc),

except

xd.

This

from

(i-^).oi6=^-p^.

68

NOTES

d to

From
the

ON

walls
cylinder-

the

THERMODYNAMICS.

give

must

K)
pXVi?~

-(m
This

is, of

The

for and
75,

Suppose

"

made

feet, volume
cubic

What

100,

exhaust

the

i, and

heat

received

assumed
The

heat

The

work

is

received

100X

is

curve

boiler

M(qe

.64,

xa

the

less that

work

done,

.9.

"

of the

having

rectangular

from

sure
pres-

cylinder.

rejected to
as

we

have

rc).

is
7

144X.88

pound;

1.08

radiation.

no

done

the

condition

the

cubic

7.2

supplies steam

air is the

or

xc

radiation

no

.35

15;

expansion

from

condenser

the

boiler

if the

steam

accounted

feet, volume

theoreticallybe

hyperbola,assuming
The

volume

used

steam

heat

no

true.

cubk

.14

be

can

23,

pressure

should

Fig.

feet; weight
c

that

assumption

exactly

have,

we

+ M)(ga+xdpd).

radiated

amount

formula

the

the

on

course,

is radiated.

ioox

to

amount

tn{q.+ *.Pa)+ M{qa + ra)

Prob.

heat

up

1.08

144X

20

log,-^"g

7.06X 144X

"

15

I.Oo

The

heat

M(q

rejected
+

is

xara)

M(qe

rc)

34.7 h.

u.

and

M{qa-\-xar^

ft.-lbs.=

27000

"

34.7

_-35(fr+rc-?g)-347
r
Xa

"~

Mr

.35(297-9+ 884

181.8)

34-7
_

.35x965.1
showing
steam

tbat

under

will have

these

6.9 per

cent

'93

conditions

moisture

'

the

exhaust

in it.

NOTES

Prob.

76.

69

THERMODYNAMICS.

ON

condensing

engine

between

working

150

"

pounds
steam

If

Draw

77.
"

is

the

be

hour

in

be

square

is

inch,

be

there

100,

120,

being

cylinder,
the

of

at

no

dry

and

radiation.

pounds
if

steam,

140,

rated
satu-

hour.

rated
satu-

horse-power

per

160

what

exhaust

quantity

exhaust

saturated

dry
80,

the

used

dry
per

the
of

the

must

that

order

may

pressure

showing
that

steam

from
condition

average

pounds

horse-power

radiated

diagram

15

indicated

per

heat

no

must

Prob.

requires

pressure

of

and

the

pounds

per

sure
pressteam-

per

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