Geomagnetic Polarity

Time Scale (GPTS)

Berggren et al., 1985
Berggren et al., 1995
Gradstein et al., 2004

ODP Site 1207,

northwest Pacific
Drilling Objectives:
P/E Boundary
K/T Boundary
Aptian/Albian

ODP Site 1207

ODP Site 1207

Age/Depth

Correlation of strata by fossils

BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
Correlation of rock strata based on fossil
characteristics
oldest method of determining relative age

Application
Marine & Terrestrial Strata
Relative (correlation) time

Calibrated to absolute (GPTS)

Basis - Evolution
1. Species appear and disappear (geologically instant)
2. Rapid distribution (ideally)

Controlling factors on the Distribution of

Organisms in the Rock Record
1. Evolution

Controlling factors on the Distribution of

Organisms in the Rock Record
2. Paleoecology
Environmental restrictions/preferences
facies controlled organisms - restricted to
specific sedimentary environment
e.g. molluscs - restricted to narrow substrates
Transgressive sequence
(deepening upward)
time 3
time 2
time 1

Controlling factors on the Distribution of

Organisms in the Rock Record
3. Preservation (Taphonomy)
present, but not preserved

Species Range

Biostratigraphic Zonations
Biozone - basic unit defined or characterized by presence of
fossil taxa that permit it to be distinguished from adjacent
rocks
Stratigraphic Nomenclature (applies to most fossil
groups)
range- stratigraphic distribution in a given section
first appearance datum (FAD) - immigration or
evolution
last appearance datum (LAD) - extinction or
emigration
range zone - all of the strata containing a specific
species or group of species.
Taxon range zone-FAD to LAD of a single species

Biozones

formally named, defined, and assigned type

sections
Fossil ranges (species A-D)

Biozones
Teilzone: local FAD & LAD of a taxon

Fossil ranges (species A-D)

Biozones
Taxon Range Zone: Global FAD & LAD of that taxon
Requires inference - Global correlation of horizons bearing the
fossil taxon
Fossil ranges (species A-D)

Biozones
Concurrent Range Zone: Intersection of the ranges of two
or more taxa (globally defined)

Interval Zone: two successive FADs or two successive

LADs (globally defined)
B
A

A
B

Biozones
Assemblage Zone: Characterized by 3 or more taxa in
natural assemblage

fuzzy boundaries, as FADs and LADs aren't simultaneous.

Fossil ranges (species A-D)

Biozones
Lineage Zone: defined by the evolutionary first appearance
of successive taxa in a lineage (related)

B
A

Abundance (Acme) zone: concentration of a

particular taxa

Additional Zonation Schemes

Hypothetical Stratigraphic Section

Composite Ranges (locally)

How are the absolute ages of these zones determined?

Potential Pitfalls in Biostratigraphy

1. Reworking and Hiatuses
bioturbation: various models , downslope reworking, currents
artificial range truncation of FAD or LAD.
2. Preservation (Taphonomy)
Dissolution, oxidation, etc.
3. Bioprovinciality
Restricted range
4. Migration (Emigration)
environment changes
Evolve
5. Sampling and/or counting biases
Artificial Range truncation
Last occurrence precedes extinction
1. Low temporal sample resolution
2. alternating good and bad preservation,
6. Taxonomic inconsistencies (misidentification)

10

Shallow Marine Biozones: Macrofossils

11

Graptolites - plankton
Conodonts - nekton
Paleozoic
Widespread
High rates of evolution

Dicranograptus nicholsoni
Planktonic or epiplanktonic graptolite

Index Fossils:
abundant fossils that are characteristic of a formation
or a period of time
characteristics of ideal index fossils:
distinctive
widespread
abundant
independent of facies
evolve rapidly
short ranging

Ideal Marine Index fossils are Planktonic

12

Calcareous nannofossils (Coccolith)

phytoplankton
autotrophic, Unicellular marine algae
Phylum-protists
Mesozoic to present

Coccolithophore Calcidiscus leptoporus

calcareous nannofossils (coccoliths)

Shell - CaCO3
Shields-elliptical to circular (1 to 15 m)
envelop the cell, form a sphere-post mortem disintegration usually
breaks down the shell into individual shields

Coccolithus pelagicus
temperate

Emiliania Huxleyi

13

calcareous nannofossils (coccoliths)

Advantages
1. High rates of evolution
short stratigraphic ranges

2. Morphologically more simple (easier to identify)

3. cosmopolitan species
rapid dispersal rates
not as diachronous

4. Abundant; reduced opportunity for sampling biases

5. Quick/simple method

Braarudosphaera bigelowi

Cruciplacolithus phylogenetic lineage

Appear at the K/T
boundary
C. Danicus

dominant genus Paleocene & Eocene

14

Discoaster Evolution
D. saipanensis

D. multiradiatus

Appear in mid-Paleocene
Evolve toward less robust bodies and
fewer rays

Eocene calcareous nannofossils

15

Planktonic Foraminifera
Zooplankton, single cell Protozoa
Calcite Shells

Morozovella
Velascoensis
Late Paleocene

16

Globorotalia opima continuosa (Miocene)

Globigerina yeguaensis (Oligocene)

Dinoflagellates
Mainly planktonic
Photoautrophic/
Heterotrophic
Virtually all aquatic
environments, but mainly
marine
Organic cysts
Fossils abundant in
organic rich, coastal and
high-latitude sediments

17

Enneadocysta partridgei
Eocene antarctic endemic
LO near E/O boundary

Dinocyst Ecology
Yes

No

18

Integrating biozones from a

variety of depositional
environments?
Sections interfinger
Boundaries between facies
Coastal Regions

Correlation Methods independent

of facies
Magnetostratigraphy
Chemostratigraphy?

Biostratigraphy in Continental Sediments

Challenges
Organisms tend to be highly provincial
Plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates (confined to water)

Fossil abundances extremely low

Dilution
Preservation

Case Study; Bighorn Basin, WY

Overbank flood basin muds, dissected

occasionally by channel sands, and sand lenses.
Carbonaceous shales and lignites (ponds and
backswamps)
Well developed paleosols

North America Land Mammal Age (NALMA)

Orohippus (Eocene)

Hyracotherium (Eocene)