Welding Preheat Considerations

The phenomenon of heating the joint in the weld zone before the commencement of
welding procedure is known as pre-heating. Normally it is applied by the use of ovens,
flame producing torch, resistive heating elements and high frequency heating elements. It
helps to eliminate welding interruption and several imperfections and set the joining
phenomenon on smooth track.

Why to use Pre-heat?

Following are the main reasons for using the pre-heat in a welding procedure.
1.
The use of Pre-heat, eliminates the surface moisture; consequently reducing the
hydrogen induced cracking.
2.
It tweaks fusion and deposition of weld metal in a better way.
3.
It lowers the development of stresses by rendering uniform expansion and
contraction between weld and base metal.
4.
One of the main objectives, is to slow down the cooling rate in order to ensure
uniform weld solidification. Doing so, the more refined micro-structure is produced with
adequate mechanical properties.

Types
Based on the application considerations, the Pre-heat phenomenon can be defined in
different ways.
Pre-Heat Temperature The minimum temperature of the weld joint promptly before
the commencement of welding. In WPS it can be specified in specific range.
Inter-pass Temperature The maximum temperature of the weld in multi-pass
welding before the start of next pass. It should not be lowered than the minimum value of
pre-heat temperature.
Welding Maintenance Temperature The minimum temperature of weld zone that
should be maintained throughout the welding procedure. If any interruption occurs the weld
zone temperature shall not be lowered than the maintenance temperature.

Where to apply Pre-heat temperature?

Normally pre-heat is applied on the base metal at the specific distance from joint. Lets
suppose A is that specific portion from the joint edge then following are the two concerns
while calculating the joint distance for pre-heat application.
1.
If the parent metal thickness is less than and equal to 50 mm, then A should not
exceed 50 mm from joint.
2.
If the parent metal thickness is greater than 50 mm, then A should not be less than
75 mm from joint. (Ref: CSWIP 23.4)
Equipment
Now a days modern equipment have been developed which are being used in several
small/commercial industries for the purpose of pre-heat temperature indication,
measurement and control. Listed below are the common temperature sensing and
measuring equipment;
Contact Thermometer used to measure the temperature accurately up to 350 degree
Celsius. It consists of temperature sensing device known as thermistor whose resistance is
considerably reduced by heating i-e the resistance is inversely proportional to temperature.
However need of Periodic Calibration is the down side of this equipment in order to obtain
accurate results.
Crayons and Paste consist of the material that melts or changes its color by heating at the
specific temperature. Available at low cost they are also easy to use, however they dont
give accurate measurements.
Thermocouple works on the principle of measuring thermo-electrical potential difference
between the hot weld metal and the reference junction, in order to calculate the
temperature. It is applied during the post weld heat treatment for the purpose of continuous
monitoring and controlling of heating and cooling temperature. The equipment gives
accurate measurements over the wide range of temperatures but the need of periodic
calibration is the weighty concern.

5 Common types of Heat Treatment for Weldable Steels

3

Weld able steels are commonly supplied in heat treated conditions. The manufacturers
provide a material testing certificate which contains manufacturing conditions for that
particular material. An inspector conforms materials certificate to that required in codes and
standards. One such manufacturing condition is heat treatment of prepared steel plates (for
welding). Below is a brief overview on types of thermal treatments which are normally
employed
to
steels
before
supplying
for
welding.

1. Hot Rolling
In order to give strength and toughness to low strength carbon steels, hot rolling is
performed during manufacturing. What is Hot Rolling? It is working (rolling) of material to
required size, at a specific temperature and after that material is allowed to cool in air.
Variation in rolling temperature implies variation of toughness and strength in material
plates.

2. Normalizing
When the material is rolled to certain plate size, it is subjected to normalizing. What is
Normalizing? It is a type of thermal treatment in which the material is given heat about 900 980 degree Celsius and after that it is allowed to cool in air at a particular cooling rate. This
imparts strength and toughness in low alloy steels.
Its quite different from hot rolling because later involves rolling at high temperature and
variation in properties occurs while in normalizing the material is heated after rolling and
uniform mechanical properties are achieved for a specific material grade.

3. Thermo-control Rolling
It is a type controlled hot rolling in which the material is subjected to rolling within a
controlled temperature range. The working (rolling) of material to specific size is also
mechanically controlled along with thermal treatment. That is why the technique is also
know by the term Thermo-Mechanical Rolling. It is employed to cryogenic steels to give

sound toughness at low temperature applications. Moreover High strength low alloy steels
are also processed by this technique to optimize their properties.

4. Quenching and Tempering

Its a type of heat treatment in which the rolled material is heated to about or above nine
hundred (900) degree Celsius normally above upper critical temperature line and then
subjected to rapid cooling by mean of some cooling medium; oil or water. This rapid cooling
is normally referred to as quenching which may optimize strength but the material loses
ductility. In order to gain required ductility the quenched materials is processed by softening
technique, called Tempering. The technique is normally employed at wide range of different
temperature to improve the required mechanical properties of weld able low alloy steels.

5 Solution Treatment
In this technique, the cold or hot worked material is subjected to heat (at about eleven
hundred degrees Celsius 1100 oC). After heating to required temperature it is allowed to
cool rapidly by the process called quenching. Quenching is the fast cooling method by
simply immersing the hot material in the water or oil. Fast cooling wouldnt allow the
formation of other phases in microstructure. This type of heat treatment is normally referred
to as Solution Annealing. For welding austenitic stainless steel family are normally supplied
in solution annealed condition.

Last Comments
The above described thermal treatments are applied on weld-able steels before supply for
welding and joining. The type heat treatment which is employed to weldment for stress
relieving is referred to as Post Weld Heat Treatment.

Thermal Cycle of Post Weld Heat Treatment

3

In thermal cycle of Post Weld Heat Treatment, the weld parts are heated in furnace often at
lower temperature range (where material is not liable to phase change), followed by cooling
in furnace. Well its not that simple. In PWHT heating and cooling is carried out, in controlled
mechanized way with specific heating and cooling rates. For this, a number of
thermocouples are employed for the monitoring of cooling and heating process. There are
four essential elements that must be fulfilled in order to carry out effective post weld heat
treatment.

Heating Rate

Soak Temperature

Soak Time

Cooling Rate
Also See Types of Heat treatment for weldable materials
1. Heating Rate
The weld material is allowed to heat with controlled heating rate because on the detrimental
side if the heating rate is not monitored, the material will prone to stresses due to high
temperature gradient. In order to prevent any high stress level and consequent cracking, it
is a recommended practice to heat steel weld parts (for example Carbon Manganese
Steels) with heating rate range from 60 200 degree Celsius per hour. Normally the
monitoring of heating rate is started above three hundred (300) degree Celsius because
below this temperature most steels have adequate strength to avoid distortion which can be
caused by intensification of stresses. Moreover it is to be noted that heating rate is primarily
adjusted according to the weld thickness.

2. Soak Temperature
It is a temperature range where the heated weld part is held for some time, to effectively
reduce the stress level. Soak Temperature is set according to the type of material and
normally ranges from six hundred (600) to seven hundred and sixty (760) degree Celsius.
3. Soak Time
It is a specific time during which the material is allowed to heat at sock temperature range,
in order to provide uniform heat throughout the weld thickness. Most important question
here is how to predict the time frame for soaking, to homogenize the heat throughout the
material thickness. Well suitable soak time is essential for the reduction of undesirable
stress levels and it is determined depending on the joint thickness. Normally the codes call
for soak time, one hour 1h per 20-25mm thickness.
4. Cooling Rate
In like manner, cooling rate must also be monitored carefully, in order to avoid higher stress
levels and consequent cracking due to large temperature gradients. After giving particular

soak time and temperature the material is cooled down in furnace with the regulation of
cooling rate by thermocouples. It gives a complete thermal cycle from heating to cooling.
Again the monitoring is required from soak temperature to three hundred (300) degree
Celsius. Below three hundred degree Celsius the thermally treated weld material has
enough strength to countenance the temperature gradients.
Last Words
PWHT is most common practice in steel fabrication industries and normally carried out
using oil or gas burning furnaces. The fuel must be clean from contaminants that may harm
the weld job. Type of steel and service applications are the major considerations for
applying post weld heat treatment because there are some exceptional applications
and grade of materials where PWHT may induce detrimental effects. However its intended
use is, to relieve stresses in steel welding that is why its commonly referred to as Stress
Relieving.

5 Primary Benefits of Post Weld Heat Treatment

2

Post Weld Heat Treatment is a type of thermal treatment which is employed to material
primarily after welding. This technique is a common practice, which is exercised in
industries to adjust the mechanical properties of weldment. The required welded material is
allowed to heat, usually at lower temperature in order to prevent any phase change. The
intended use of post weld heat treatment is;

to relieve unwanted level of residual stresses

to soften the hard weldment.

Great care is required in selection of temperature required for weld-able steels because due
to wrong adjustment of parameters, the weld outcome may suffer one of the following
problems;

Phase Change likely to occur

Material gets more harder

Depletion of weld strength may happen

Below is the description of primary advantages that make post weld thermal treatment an
exceptional process in welding industries.

1. Softening
After welding, the material (particularly HAZ) gets harder and excess hardness is nearly
useless for a particular service application. For this PWHT is the best tool, primarily used by
many industries, in order to temper the hard heat affected zone. This implies strong
protection and provides adequate resistance against brittle fracture failure during service.

Also See Assessment of weld brittle fracture failure during service.

2. Stress Relieving
Residual stresses during welding may occur due to high thermal gradient. During thermal
cycle of welding process, expansion cause to happen in some areas due to heat while in
cooling, also the localized contraction may occur, this whole produces undesirable residual
stresses. In order to reduce the level these stresses, thermal treatment is applied which
involves the baking of material (by uniform heating) at specific temperature and then
brought back to ambient temperature at particular cooling rate. See Thermal Cycle of Post
Weld Heat treatment.
3. Prevention of SCC
What is SCC? Stress corrosion cracking is referred to as SCC which occurs due to the
intensification of present cracks in the material due to applied stress or load. PWHT
facilitates the prevention of stress corrosion cracking.
4. Ease in machining
Well it is stated earlier that post weld thermal treatment tends to reduce the degree of
hardness, due to which the welded components can easily be machined to required
dimensional conditions. Softening of welded parts allow easy grinding, machining and other
surface treatments.
5. Prevention of brittle fracture
The primary role of post weld heat treatment is to improve the mechanical characteristics of
weldment and make it outlast for particular service conditions. Again what is demonstrated
in above paragraphs; PWHT helps to reduce the residual stress level and hardness,
imparting the required level of ductility in the weldment. This improves the strength and
resistance to brittle fracture and increase the lifespan of material for its service conditions.

Last comments
Post weld heat treatment is a type of thermal treatment which is applied to weld-able
materials (primarily steels) after welding and joining. In this technique the material is heated
below the lower critical temperature line (where no phase change occurs) and then allow to
furnace cool with controlled monitoring by using thermo-couples. There are some
exceptional cases when the welded joints are required to get normalized, for the treatment
of heat affected zone but normalizing is not a recommended practice and should be
employed with strict precautions, when there is no other option left.

Handouts for basic welding terminologies and definitions

1

Below listed are the welding related basic terms and definitions, sorted in alphabetical order
for the ease of your search about concerning content.

A number
The designation number used for analysis of deposit weld metal. It provides a better
understanding of weld materials type and their elemental study.

Air Carbon Arc Gouging

The process of cutting of metal by melting it with the heat of carbon arc and removing it by
the thrust of air. In steel welding industries gouging is carried out with the help of air carbon
arc cutting process. A special kind of equipment is applied to serve the joint preparation and
sometimes for the removal of undesired metal during back gouging etc.

Alloy
A material composed of two or more than two elements (metals and non-metals). An alloy
material exhibits the properties of a metal, because it is necessary that an alloy must have

at least one metal in its composition. For this an alloying material is added to a metal, in
order to improve its service (mechanical) properties. Examples are the steels (iron alloy),
brass (copper alloy) etc.

Alternating Current
An alternating current is characterized by its cyclic reverses of direction at specific regular
intervals, forming a sine wave. In welding both alternating and direct current are used,
depending on the type of welding procedures. Normally an alternating current creates arc
problems, making it unstable but recent advancements in welding power supply has made it
possible to produce good results.

Anti-Spatter
Liquid solution having the combination of chemicals like emulsifiers and corrosion inhibitors,
which are employed on weld parts by spraying action and are easily washable after
working. Now a days many anti-spatter sprays are available which are not only environment
friendly but also have no adverse effects on welding operations.

Arc Blow
During welding some sort of magnetism causes an arc to change its direction, turning it out
of the way from its track.

Arc Length
The extent of an arc from its one end (electrode) to the other end (weld). It depends on the
distance between the electrode and work piece. If the torch or gun is kept nearer to the
work metal, an arc gets shorter. On the other hand keeping the distance larger, makes an
arc longer as compared to the former case.

Austenitic
Type of steel, having a face centered cubic crystal structure. The steel has austenitic phase
in its structure because during its production heating is applied above the critical
temperature line to dissolve all the carbides and elements into a single phase. Having this
phase the material acts as a non-magnetic in nature. Austenitic stainless steels are the
most common weld-able materials used in steel welding industries.

Back Fire
The process of flame receding into the welding gun. It is a short term aflame and soon
tends to terminate.

Back Gouging
The process of scratching and excavation of parent metal and weldment from the side
opposite to the weld deposit in order to assist good penetration for next weld pass at the
gouged side.

Backhand Welding Technique

Type of welding technique in which the welding torch comes ahead of the welding rod. In
this case, the feeding welding rod is positioned between the molten weld and flame, making
an angle with welded portion.

Base Metal
The metals which are cut and joined by welding or employed to any other fabrication
process for commercial and industrial use. Base metals have kind of a lower defensive
character as compared to noble metals that is why they tend to be oxidized or corrode
easily. Well there comes another definitions for a base metal. In welding, the metal which is
to be cut and welded is referred to as base metal. Also in surface treatment applications, the
metal under the coating/surface prepared is called as base metal. In terms of an alloy, the
metal of main constituent in the composition is also referred to as a base metal.

Butt joint
The weld joint where both work metals are joined, lying in the same line horizontally. As the
name expresses, sides of flat work pieces are headed up with each other and weld is laid
on upper surface of joint line.

Cap pass
The raised portion of weld, made by the last weld pass to end/terminate the welding
procedure. The last weld pass is termed as cap pass.

Cladding
The application of material layer on the work metal, to provide protection against
atmosphere, oxidation, corrosion and wear. For example in welding industries, it is a
common practice to clad the inexpensive carbon steel with the layer of stainless steel. The
technique offers so many advantages and benefits by reducing the cost and can be applied
by using arc welding processes; submerged arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, plasma
transferred arc welding, flux cored arc welding etc. The cladded layer on weld is also
termed as weld overlay.

Cold Lap
In welding, cold lapping is characterized by partial or incomplete overlapping between the
weld metal and parent metal and may induce small cracks. The main cause of cold lap, is
incomplete fusion of a cold weld when made to a thick base metal.

Corner joint
Type of a fillet weld joint, where the work pieces are aligned perpendicularly making a
shape of L. In this case, the weld is laid at the corner (meeting sides of work pieces) that is
why it is referred to as corner joint.

Crater Crack
The cavity produced due to burning at the end of weld pass. It looks like an indentation on
the weld surface.

Cryogenic
The fabrication and behavior of a material concerns with lower temperature usually below
minus one hundred and fifty (-150) degrees Celsius. It deals with study of behavioral
characteristics of weld-able materials at extremely low temperature and implies it in their
fabrication and production. Cryogenic applications involve the storage vessels for liquefied
gases like nitrogen and helium.

Deposition Rate
The amount of weld metal deposited in a specific period of time. The units for deposition
rate are kilogram per hour. In welding, another term is also used to express the ratio of
amount of weld metal deposited on the joint to the net amount of consumable used,
referred to as deposition efficiency.

Dilution
The process of changing the composition of consumable material in a weld bead due to
blending of filler metal either with parent metal or with previously deposited weld metal. In
welding, dilution is calculated by measuring the amount of parent metal or weld metal from
previous weld bead.

Direct Current
The current having a unidirectional flow. Direct current mode is easiest to use and
commonly preferred by most welders, for it does not cause severe weld spatter and no
other consequent weld defects. In welding there are two electrode connections; direct
current electrode positive and direct current electrode negative.

Direct Current Electrode Negative

When the work piece is attached to positive pole and the welding electrode is connected to
negative pole of power supply, the electric current flows from the welding electrode. Such
type of connection is termed as direct current electrode negative, (shortened form DCEN) in
arc welding. This produce less amount of heat as compared to DCEP, therefore best suited
for welding of thinner sections.

Direct Current Electrode Positive

When the welding electrode is attached to the positive pole and work piece is connected to
negative pole of power supply, the current flows into the electrode therefore producing high
heat input. In arc welding such connection is referred to as direct current electrode positive
and its shortened form is termed as DCEP.

Electro Slag Welding

Type of an arc welding process in which the feeding filler metal is heated and melted due to
the electrical resistance offered by a molten slag. The process involves the use of electric
arc and an additional flux that is why it is termed as electro slag welding. An arc is initiated
from the filler wire which is used to heat and melt the feeding flux converted into a molten
slag. There comes a point when the molten slag comes in contact with the wire tip, due to
which the arc tends to be terminated. Due to the electrical resistance in molten slag, high
heat is produced that helps to melt the feeding wire straight into the weld joint. Electro slag
welding is primarily applied to weld thicker parts and sections in vertical position, merely in a
single pass and in shortened from it is referred to as ESW.

Electrode
A welding electrode acts like a conductor and is used to conduct electric current in the work
metal in order to join the work pieces together. An arc is produced between an electrode
and work piece that produces considerable heat to melt and fuse the work pieces. On the
basis of consumption, it is classified in two sub-categories; consumable and nonconsumable. Former not only produces an arc but also gets filled in the weld joint. Later is
only used to produce arc and melt additionally added filler rods. They are available in
different shapes, size and composition. Common shapes are rods, sticks and continuous
wires.

Electrode Extension
The extension of electrode wire, out from the electrode holder. It is defined as the portion of
welding electrode/wire that extends out from the contact point of a gun. In arc welding,
another term used for electrode extension is electrode stick out. It is an important factor to
deal with the heating of electrode wire. Say if the wire is kept less extended, less heat will
be produced therefore decreasing the deposition rate. But less stick out gives higher
penetration results. On the other hand if the extension is kept higher, more heat will be
produced giving higher deposition rates but in doing so shallow penetration results are
obtained.

Electron Beam Welding

EBW stands for electron beam welding in which a high speed electron beam is allowed to
concentrate on the work pieces to fuse them together. In this technique the kinetic energy of
fast electrons on striking with the work metal, is converted into heat energy. This heat
energy in turn helps to melt and blend the metal pieces together. The process involves the
acceleration of electrons that can be made possible in the presence of vacuum. An electron
beam welding equipment is specially designed in which the electron beam is monitored in
vacuum with the help of electric and magnetic field generators.

F number
The number used for the specification, welding characteristics and material type of
electrodes. It indicates the electrode type (covering, material, flux) and welding properties
(current, voltage, and penetration).

Filler Metal
An additional metal that is melted and fed to fill a joint between the work pieces. A filler
metal adds up the material that fuses with both joint pieces.

Fillet Weld
Joining of work pieces which are orthogonal (at 90 degrees) to each other. Fillet welding
includes three types of joints; tee, corner and lap. The weld looks like a triangle in shape
with the facing side flat, convex or concave. Fillet weld are most commonly used joining
method and offer less cost in steel fabrication industries.

Flux
The material used to clean the weld from unfair oxides and material in the form of slag and
consequently the slag acts as a protective coating over the weld. Also a flux on melting in
the heat of arc, produces a gas shield against atmospheric pollutants.

Flux core arc welding

Modified variation in metal inert gas welding which uses continuously feeding flux core
electrode wires. As the name expresses, the wire has a flux inside the core of metal, which
not only protects the weld pool by slag formation but also provides gas shielding. Same
equipment is used for both MIG and FCAW processes, the only difference is the use of
electrode wire type either the metallic wire or a flux cored wire. Flux core arc welding also
classified into two subcategories on the basis of shielding type; Self Shielding (production of
gases by the inside flux) and dual shielding (by the use of additional gas supply). The
process also has close resemblance with shield metal arc welding because the flux has
same constituents as in stick electrodes.

Flux core TIG filler rod

Filler rods having a flux in core, are employed to tungsten inert gas welding of three
hundred (300) series of stainless steel and dissimilar metals, primarily to eliminate purging
process. Their intended use is to produce quality welds in all positions and especially root
pass without high-price purging methods.

Forehand Welding Technique

Type of welding technique in which the welding rod comes ahead of the welding torch,
making an angle with un-weld portion. In this case the welding flame is directed between
the rod and molten weld pool.

Friction Welding
The type of welding that does not involve the melting of work metal that is why it is referred
to as solid state welding. In this process one part is allowed to rotate against the surface of
a fixed part. The friction offered by the sliding surfaces, helps to produce heat. This in
conjunction with the applied force on lateral sides cause to deform contact surface
plastically and blend the parts together.

Fusion
The joining and blending of two pieces of metal or the base metal with filler metal by melting
during the welding process.

Globular Transfer
Type of a metal transfer mode in GMAW in which globule like molten droplets are formed at
the tip of electrode wire due to high heat produced. These molten droplets disengage and
tend to separate from the electrode and fill the weld pool due to short circuiting or gravity.
The technique costs less and often uses carbon dioxide as shielding gas but on the
detrimental side it causes undesirable spatter, residual stress level and rough weld surface.
As the separation of globule like droplets is caused by gravity, the mode is only employed to
flat and horizontal positions.

Grinding
The process of wearing the uneven work piece surface, in order to make it smooth and
clean. In weld fabrication industries several kinds of grinders are applied on work metal to
facilitate the welding process.

Groove Weld
Type of joining by filling the weld metal in the groove (opening) between the pieces. For this
beveling is process to make space where the weld metal is filled to provide complete
penetration. Groove weld is applied on high strength welds and is most common practice in
pressure equipment fabrication industries. Depends upon the beveling, groove weld mostly
referred to various joint shapes; U bevel, J bevel, V bevel, double bevel.

Heat Affected Zone

The part of parent metal next to the weld metal, is affected by the heating and cooling cycle
during welding and is normally termed as Heat Affected Zone. Due to unfair cooling, the
affected part is subjected to variation in micro-structure and mechanical properties.

J groove weld joint

Type of a joint for groove welding, having a gap in shape of alphabetic letter J between the
two work pieces. In this case, one metal piece has flat edge while the other one has
concave appearance.

Joint Preparation
This includes the beveling of parent metals to produce groove for the weld metal to be filled.
In steel fabrication industries, edge preparation is done by cutting, grinding and machining.

Lap joint
Type of a fillet weld joint, where the work pieces overlap each other making a right angle at
the edges.

Leg
The size of a fillet weld is determined by a factor, termed as Leg. It is a distance measured
from weld root to the toe.

MIG Welding
Type of an arc welding process, where heat is produced due to an arc formed between
electrode wire and work metal. The heat produced as a result helps to melt both the wire
and work metal, render them to join. In this technique the electrode wire uncoils from a
spool and allow to feed through a welding gun. Within the same gun, a supply of shielding
gas is allowed along with electrode wire, to avoid any entrapment of surrounding
contaminants. Base on the type of shielding, the process is classified in two categories;
Metal Inert Gas (when the inert gases like argon, helium are used) and Metal Active Gas
(when mixture of gases like carbon dioxide, argon, oxygen in particular composition are
employed). Common names are Metal Inert Gas referred to as MIG, Metal Active Gas
referred to as MAG and Gas Metal Arc Welding referred to as GMAW. The process is used
to weld steel family and non-ferrous metals like Aluminum.

P number
The designation number of weld-able materials assigned by American Society of
Mechanical Engineers. The number describes the specifications, mechanical and welding
characteristics of materials. Another designation number, referred to as S number also
used for some materials.

Parent Metal
In welding industries, the pieces of metal (weld-able steels) that are joined by welding or
brazing. The term parent metal is also referred to as base metal and weld-able metal.

Partial Joint Penetration

Not complete penetration of weld metal into the joint, which is made deliberately.

Penetration
It is a measure of depth to which the weld metal penetrates from open joint surface.
Penetration is an important point of consideration in Weld Inspection.

Post Weld Heat Treatment

As the name states, the controlled heat treatment of a welded material next to the welding is
referred to as post weld heat treatment. The intended purpose of PWHT is to minimize/relief
residual stresses and to soften the hardened weld material in order to prevent cracking
during service. This practice is commonly exercised in steel welding fabrication industries.

Pulsed Spray Transfer

It is a modified form of spray transfer mode, using current pulses to allow the transfer of tiny
molten droplets through stable arc. For this, specially designed power sources are used to
produce current in pulses with specific frequency. As the current settings and heat input are
lower, the process can be employed to weld thinner material. The weld pool area is not too
big due to lower heat input, render it to be practicable in all positions. Now a days, pulsed
spray transfer is applied to a variety of ferrous and non-ferrous materials and gives quality
weld results.

Root Face
The flat or unbeveled part of beveled edges of parent metal at the joint root. For groove
welding, joint is prepared by beveling. The portion at the root of joint is left flat which is
termed as root face.

Root Opening
It is referred to as the space between the edges of beveled parent metals at joint root. It is
an important joint consideration for effective root welding results.

Shield Metal Arc Welding

One of the most commonly used arc welding procedure throughout the world. The
procedure uses flux coated electrodes which is heated and fed due to an arc formation
between the consumable electrode and work piece. The coated flux not only produce a
protective slag but also provides shielding due to the formation of gases. Common names
are; Manual Metal Arc Welding referred to as MMA, stick welding and flux shield arc welding
referred to as FSAW. It has been the most popular arc welding process in Steel fabrication
industries.

Short Circuiting
Type of transfer mode in gas metal arc welding by using lower current settings, to produce
lower heat as compared to globular transfer. Due to which molten droplets instead of falling
into the weld pool, prefer to make a gap between pool and electrode wire and consequently
short circuit occurs. As a result a series of alternating extinguishes and reigniting takes
place at a rate of hundred (100) cycles per second. This occurs so rapidly that the arc looks
continuous to an observer. SCT stands for short circuit transfer, provides better weld
surface with minimal spatter allowing it to apply for all positions. But on the detrimental side
due to lower current and heat, this mode may not give sound results in thicker material.

Lower heat and fast cooling may impart lack of fusion and penetration problems in
weldment.

Slag
The fused coating over weld due to the burning of flux used in welding process. The slag
coating provides protection and facilitate cooling of weld. It must be removed either by
chipping or brushing before the next weld pass.

Slag Inclusion
Type of a weld imperfection when the particles of solid slag are entrapped in the weldment
or between the parent metal and weld metal, leaving the weak zones in the weld. This
occurs when no proper slag removal and weld cleaning is exercised.

Spray Transfer
Type of metal transfer in gas metal arc welding in which tiny molten droplets from electrode
wire are fed to weld pool mainly in the form of spray due to higher current and heat supply.
This mode is used in higher weld deposition applications with minimal spatter. As the weld
pool area tends to be bigger due to higher heat input, it is primarily employed to weld thicker
material. Although reduce spatter and higher deposition rate are the benefits but on the
other hand this mode is only recommended to flat position.

Submerged Arc Welding

An arc welding process in which arc and the weld pool is submerged under the thick layer of
granular flux. Normally the flux used, (consists of lime, calcium fluoride, manganese oxide
and silicon dioxide) on melting plays several important roles during welding. The flux has
tremendous ability to act as a conductor and provides a conductive path between an
electrode and work piece. Apart from slag making, it gives off shielding gases that provides
protection to the weld zone from atmospheric pollution and in this way no additional gas
supply is required. Similar to Metal inert gas welding, SAW also involves the continuous
feeding of electrode wire. In this process flux overlay prevents the weld spatter and
envelops the intense fumes and sharp light.

Tee joint
Type of a fillet weld joint, where the work pieces are perpendicular to each other making a
right angle between the sides. As the name states, the joint assembly looks like a tee.

Throat
In fillet weld there are two strength consideration factors
Actual Throat it is defined as the length/distance from weld root directed to the center of
curved weld face. In other words, it is the length of actual fillet weld.

Theoretical Throat Consider a right triangle inside the fillet weld. The distance determined
from the weld root directed in a straight line perpendicular to the hypotenuse of that
triangle.

TIG Welding
Type of an arc welding where high melting tungsten/tungsten alloy electrode is employed to
burn the feeding filler wire to deposit the weld. The welding procedure is known as Tungsten
Inert Gas Welding because an inert gas argon, helium or their mixed combination is used as
shielding against surrounding contaminants. It is primarily applied to weld steel family,
aluminum, coper and magnesium alloys.

Travel Speed
In easy sense, it is defined as How fast a weld deposit is laid. It is a rate at which weld
covers a certain distance/length. Fast travel means, weld covers a long length in short time
while on the other hand slow travel means, weld covers same length within long duration of
time. Travel speed if determined by measuring the time by using stop watch and the length
of weld deposit.

Undercut
An undesired depression due to melting of parent metal, usually occurs at the weld toe and
root. This makes a weak weld due to incomplete blending.

V groove weld joint

Type of a joint for groove welding, having a gap in shape of alphabetic letter V between the
two work pieces. A joint having V groove on both upper and lower side is referred to as
double V bevel.

Weld Bead
A part of metal melted and deposited to the joint in one pass. A weld bead is also termed as
weld layer.

Weld Pass
Deposition of weld metal to the joint in single move. The welding involves more than one
pass is referred to as multi-pass welding.

Weld Toe
The portion between the exposed weld face and parent metal. It is defined as the joining
line of weld metal of exposed surface with the parent metal.

Welding
The process of joining materials through fusion by applying heat, resistance or pressure.
Based on joining techniques, welding is characterized into many types; Arc welding,
Resistance Welding, Laser Welding, Electron Beam Welding, Gas Welding etc.

6 prerequisites of Visual Inspection

1

An inspection personnel serves in fulfilling the quality requirements of welded items. For this
he must have good work experience about quality control activities. Following are the key
characteristics of a welding inspector;

Properly trained to use inspecting tools

Make interpretation according to the specific requirements.

Must be competent in finding welding flaws and defects.

Not only this but also he knows how to record the examined information. BS EN 970 calls
for the basic requirements for visual inspection. Following are the specifications that must
be fulfilled for quality inspection of welded items.

1. Trained Inspection Personnel

First requirement of sound inspection, is a skillful personnel who have ability to understand
the codes and interpret the requirements. He must be familiar with whole quality inspection
plan. Before appointment for the job, his vision should be examined and during job regular
checkups must be conducted. Now a days for a good career some inspectors used to get
certification
along
with
practical
experience.
See Welding schools for educational training of welders and Inspectors.
2. Pre-conditions
For visual inspection there are also some requirements for inspectors vision that is good
light, suitable position in shop, easy access to required surface. In some industries where
daylight is inadequate or scanty, additional lights are provided to support operations and
activities. One of the most important factor that matters a lot, is the shop layout. Proper
positioning of machines and items keeps the activities/operations smooth.
Proper lighting not only in welding shop for items inspection but also in office so that
inspector may not lose their vision.
Access to the surface for correct inspection, keeping inspectors eye at a view angle not
less than 30 degree.
3. Correct usage of equipment

An inspector must have detailed knowledge about tools and equipment; how to use, their
calibration and correct use for the specific purpose. Before inspection make sure that
equipment is properly calibrated. Use of different gauges and measuring taps for making
correct measurements. Moreover detailed knowledge of different measuring scales for the
measurement of lengths in specific job/item. Different gauges are available for the
observation of joint size, angle, high-low, alignment etc.
4. Magnifying objects
Use of magnifying objects like mirror/lens, to enlarge the image where direct vision cant
help inspection. Now a days latest fiber optic systems are available for viewing complex
joint profiles.
5. Liquid contrast
Use of liquids or other dyes to make color contrast between the weld imperfections and
background that supports visual inspection. Non-destructive test like dye penetrant, serves
for such purpose where complex surface cracks are made visible to inspector.
6. When to Inspect
The most important concern is, when the inspection is required? In large firms, throughout
inspection is needed where complex pressure equipments are fabricated. Not only inspector
but also different people of organization including client come to examine different stages of
production.
Before welding, some inspection activities are involved to provide confidence that operation
requirements are fulfilled. Part of inspection activities is implemented to ensure quality
control during production of welded items. And a part of inspection activities are
implemented after welding to find out imperfections so that suitable remedy can be applied
on them. Many other inspection stages are also involved like blasting, coating, pneumatic
and hydrostatic test in case of pressure equipment (as mentioned above).

Ten elementary weld components

4

It is essential for welding associates especially that of Inspection, to have work knowledge
about basic elements of weldment. For this he must have a good practical experience of
observing and examining the very basic weld components. He must have great skills to
make a clear distinction between weld components and to identify them. Some elements
are the points of great significance and must not be neglected in Inspection. Any negligence
may cause severe weld defects. For example Hydrogen Induced Cracking at Weld Toes;
weak toes are the primary source of serious cracking. Following are the ten basic weld
components that a welding personnel must know.

1. Base metal
This is also called as parent metal. These are the pieces or parts of metal that are joined
with the help of brazing and welding techniques. The parent metals are of different materials
ranging from metals to some plastics. In welding industry some metals and alloys are being
used that have superior metallurgical and physical properties. It is said that parent metal is
being selected on the basis of good corrosion resistance and welding characteristics.
2. Filler metal
The metal which is introduced after melting for joining purposes. For the joining of different
materials there is also a variety of filler metals. Wide range of filler materials are available in
the form of;

Bare or covered electrodes

Flux coated or flux cored

Rods and wires.

One additional advantage of filler metal is to make repair welds. Moreover somenonconsumable electrodes like tungsten and tungsten alloys are also being used.
3. Weld metal
The piece of metal that after melting, flows and covers the joint and allows the base metal to
be connected due to firm fusion. The weld metal must correspond to the parent metal in the
sense of chemical composition and physical properties. So the suitable filler metals should
be added according the type of parent material.
4. Heat Affected Zone
The zone of base metal that is affected by the heat of welding. It changes the metallurgical
attributes of that zone or part without going in melting state. The microstructure along with
properties tend to be changed due to thermal cycle while the heat input, filler metal and the
parent metal define the extent of alteration in microstructure.
5. Fusion Line
The distinction between weld metal and heat affected zone is identified with the help of
imaginary line called fusion line. See the fusion line in the figure. The fusion line is also

source of different weld defects (like lack of fusion). So care should be taken in order to
avoid weld defects.
6. Weld Zone
The weld zone in conjunction with heat affected zone is collectively called Weld zone. In
other words the combination of weld metal and HAZ is called weld zone. An Inspection
personnel must have good knowledge about examining the components of weld zone.
7. Weld Face
The weld surface which is exposed to the welding personnel. In brief the surface that is
situated on the other side of the root from where the weld is deposited.
8. Root Pass
The first weld pass that is laid to make a connection of joint. The separation between the
two plates at the unbeveled portion of joint is called root where the first weld layer is
deposited.
9. Weld Toe
The distinction between the weld surface (weld face) and base metal is identified by the
boundary line. In other words weld toe is a dividing line between the weld face and parent
metal. Moreover weld toe is also termed as a boundary line between the weld runs. As it
has been previously stated that weld toe is very imperative weld feature for inspection
purposes. Since high stress concentration occurs at weld toes, and consequently cause the
initiation and propagation of catastrophic stresses. So an Inspection personnel must keep
an eye on such kinds of toe defects.
10. Excess weld
It is a kind of an excess metal that is deposited during welding just to impart reinforcement
to joint. For this purpose an extra amount weld metal is deposited from both upper (weld
cap) and lower side (root) of the joint. It should be noted that overfill may also impair the
strength of weld.

Why is an Impact Toughness Test required in Welding

3

Charpy V-notch test is used to determine the toughness of the weld output by measuring
the energy to fracture a notched test sample. As toughness of steel for specific application
must be adequate enough to prevent any brittle fracture loss but low alloy steels may lose
their toughness at quiet lower temperature. So after welding the specimen is tested at the
specific temperature to determine the relative impact toughness and consequently evaluate
the weld materials. The test is applied to assess the quality of weld output. It dont give the
fracture toughness that is entailed in service estimations.

What is toughness?
Toughness can be defined in two ways.

Resistance to brittle failure in a material. A tougher material will show more

resistance to brittle fracture and cracks.
Energy required to cause a brittle failure. So more energy will be required to get
brittle fracture in a tougher material.
Why impact toughness test?
In carbon and low alloy steels, change in fracture toughness is associated with the change
in temperature. With the decrease in temperature, these materials turn to brittle from ductile
nature. Plot of impact energies against the temperature gives S curve, which is divided into
two shelves; upper shelf and lower shelf. Above mentioned steel types show ductile
behavior at the upper shelf and switch to brittle nature when the temperature falls to the
lower shelf. The temperature at which the transition of ductile to brittle occurs, is called
transition temperature.

From the above discussion it is important to have a sound knowledge of temperature

at which the change in fracture behavior may occur and for weld structure to perform at the
upper shelf temperature.
Specimens
Codes and standards demonstrate the dimensions required for impact test specimens.
Normally they are 10mm x 5-7.5mm x 55mm. Energy values may tend to vary for the same
test so three specimens are taken for each test and an average is calculated from the
energy values. The location of specimens within the weld and even the position of notch on
the specimen is quiet an important factor in evaluating the impact energies.
Test Machine
Impact testing apparatus has an I shape appearance and consists of anvil at the lower
portion and scale assembly (graduated scale with a moving pointer) at the upper end. A
pendulum hammer swings from a specific height and strikes the specimen placed on the
anvil.
Standards
Standards for Charpy V impact testing are BS EN ISO 148-1 and ASTM E23.
Procedure
First the specimen with notch is allowed to cool at the specific temperature by immersing in
liquid/gas container. After the temperature is stabilized, the specimen is quickly shifted to
machine and the hammer is impacted behind the notch. The height through which a
hammer swings, is the measure of energy. The energy in joules, utilized to break the
specimen is recorded on the machine scale by the movement of a pointer on that scale.
After taking average, a comparison is made between the test results and the
values specified in codes and standards. The comparison tell us whether the specific
requirements have been met or not. On the other hand this test also tell us about some
toughness attributes which are;

Crystallinity If fractured surface has crystalline appearance, the fracture will be

brittle. More the crystallinity more the brittle fracture and vice versa.

Expansion If the fracture halves from behind the notch are expanded, specimen
will have more toughness. It is better to say that more the expansion more will be the ductile
fracture. On the other hand less the lateral expansion more will be the brittle fracture.
Last Comments
For impact testing, correct adjustment of welding parameters is important, as values may be
changed due to welding consumables, heat input, post treatments, composition and many
other factors.
Aluminum alloys and austenitic stainless steel (300 series) are used in cryogenic
applications because they dont exhibit fracture behavior change as the temperature falls.

Five must to know welding electrode coatings

7

In welding, flux always has a vital role in a number of ways and that is why it is
frequently utilized in electrode outer coatings. Sometimes it is present in core of the
filler wires (as in case of FCAW wires and flux cored TIG rods). First you need to know
that what are the primary functions of flux in a welding process?
Flux helps;

To remove impurities from the molten metal.

In slag formation which can be easily removed from the weld.

To protect the weld deposit from air contamination.

To add alloy materials in the weldment.

To add an additional filler metal to the weldment.

Moreover care is required for handling of coated electrodes, even a slight blow or poor
handling can lead to the damage. An electrode with damage coating may cause severe
weld defects like porosity, undercuts, lack of penetration etc. Listed below are the types
of coating that are normally applied in commercial/industrial welding operations.
1. Cellulose electrodes

Such coatings are made of cellulose which includes organic materials (primarily wood
flour is used). They are thin and assist in easy removal of slag and are most suitable for
positional welding (best for vertical). On heating, these type are dissociated
into hydrogen and carbon dioxide which in turn serve as shielding gases. Normally direct
current power supply is employed but addition of some stabilizers can also facilitate the
use of alternating current for cellulosic electrodes.
2. Rutile electrodes

As we know rutile is the mineral of titanium and this type electrode contains titanium
dioxide in coating. The presence of titanium dioxide, gives an acidic slag and other
contents of coating provides gas shielding of hydrogen, oxides of nitrogen and carbon for
sound protection. These type electrodes are used for low carbon steels in all positions
and produce sound weld with sound mechanical properties. Some addition of cellulose in
rutile electrodes, provides an additional supply of gas shield and are known as medium

rutile electrodes. Sometimes minor addition of cellulose in rutile gives further

improvement in performance, such a combination is called heavy rutile electrodes.
3. Iron oxide electrodes

Such type of coating contains metallic oxides including iron oxide, silicates and
manganese oxide which produce acidic slag. Both direct and alternating current can be
employed on these electrodes. Due to high oxygen content these electrodes may lead to a
low strength weld deposit. For this addition of some deoxidizers in iron oxide electrodes,
assists in producing a controlled deoxidized weldment with best mechanical properties
and also due to which the slag can be removed easily. Such addition makes the iron oxide
electrodes suitable for positional welding.
4. Basic electrodes or Hydrogen controlled electrodes

Basic electrode contains calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, calcium fluoride and
other minerals along with water. These electrodes are required to store in dry condition
and properly bake before use. With the formation of basic slag, sound welds with sound
mechanical properties are achieved. Gas shield includes carbon dioxide with low
hydrogen and oxygen content. The control of hydrogen provides protection from
cracking and makes these electrode suitable for high strength steels, low alloy steels and
low carbon steels.
5. Iron Powder electrodes

Iron powder is added in all types of coating to increase the efficiency of electrodes. Iron
powder addition increases the deposition rate. It reduces the voltage and enables the
cellulosic electrodes to cope with alternating current. Moreover it controls the flow of
slag that is quite beneficial in positional welding.
What is deposition rate, alternating current and voltage in welding?

7 Effective Ways to Prevent Weld Undercutting

19

Undercut is an imperfection which is characterized by a groove formation at the weld toe

due to overheating at the free edges of base metal or weld metal (of previous run). This
happens when a welder tries to make weld either with high welding current or with fast
travel speed. Also the use of incorrect angle, directs the arc towards thinner edges where

overheating can burn the metal. See what are the angles which help to eliminate welding
defects? Moreover the incorrect usage of gas shielding, wrong welding technique and
position, are other primary causes of undercut imperfection.

Undercutting always has been a serious concern in steel welding industries and efforts have
been made to resolve this problem in recent years. Following are the preventions that
effectively assist, in reducing the concentration of undercutting in your weld.

1. Correct Heat Input

One of the major causes of undercut in weld, is high heat settings while making a run near
to the free edges. This may lead to the overheating and melting of near parent metal or
previous weld metal. In order to prevent this, one must take great care of weld heat by
reducing the current, when approaching to thinner and free edges.

2. Correct Electrode Angle

As we know welding angles always play a vital role in producing defects free runs. If one
makes a run with an incorrect angle which directs more heat to free edges, here in this case
weld is more prone to undercuts. For this one must use correct angles (lead, work,
electrode, travel, and slope) in order to direct more heat towards thicker components as
compared to the free edges.

3. Moderate Travel Pace

Making a weld with high travel pace, is another big cause of weld undercutting. In doing so,
some portion of parent metal is drained into the molten metal and never came back due to
fast solidification, leaving a depression along the edges. It is recommended to travel a weld
run with moderate pace because too slow travel also does not give satisfactory results.

4. Right Selection of Gas Shielding

In case of MAG (metal active gas) process, wrong selection of gas shielding is also one
major cause of undercuts in a weld. Welding associates must ensure the correct
composition of gas according to the requirement of material type and thickness. Use
of Carbon dioxide in conjunction with inert gases, provides quality results in welding of
carbon steels.

5. Correct welding Technique

Problem of undercut also arises when a welder endeavors to make a weld run with
excessive weaving style. Codes and standards call for the recommended width of weaving
according to the electrode size. Size of weaving should not be exceeded to acceptable limit,
otherwise weld may prone to undercut grooves. In order to prevent this one must endeavor
either to reduce the size of weaving or to produce weld with multipass technique.

6. Correct Welding position

Sometimes making a fillet weld in horizontal-vertical position, also results in weld undercuts.
In this case a depression is formed due to inadequate metal filling along the joint edges. In
order to prevent this, try to weld in flat position to ensure the adequate electrode
consumption.

7. Use of multi-run technique

This one is the best option to adopt, in order to reduce the level of undercuts in welding.
Multi-run technique supports all above mentioned preventions and helps to produce fine
welds with improved mechanical properties.

10 causes of weld porosity and their practicable preventions

17

Porosity is referred to as cavities produced in a weld due to the entrapment of gas. The
introduction of gas in a weld is supported by some mistakes that ought to be eliminated. In
weld metal porosity is categorized according to shape and location of occurrence. Some
gas cavities occurs in spherical shape, some in elongated (like in case of worm holes) while
on the other hand some cavities occur throughout weld metal and some on the weld
surface. These gas cavities appear either singly called voids or uniformly distributed
throughout the weld and sometime developed in clustered form. These voids and cavities
are produced primarily by gas entrapment during the solidification procedure of weld. So
making prediction about mistakes that may cause porosity and their removal is essential
part before welding. Given below is the complete detail about common porosity reasons and
their solution.

1. Moist electrodes
It is recommended to use baked electrodes in Stick welding process in order to avoid
involvement of moisture content in weld metal. In worst, steam can be driven out, during
heat of welding which creates small cavities in the weld metal. Porosity eventuates when
stainless steel electrodes or low hydrogen electrodes are not properly kept in dry condition.
Although in low hydrogen electrodes some moisture is required within a limit, for better
performance but is some case if moisture exceeds from the limit, the weld metal will prone
to porosity. For prevention following are the steps to follow;

Parent metal must be preheated in order to remove any moisture.

The electrodes must be stored in dry conditions.

Apply final backing before use.

Electrodes must not be oven baked before use, because a little amount of moisture
is required for better performance and weld-ability of electrode.

2. Contaminated surface
Parent metal or electrodes may be subjected to atmospheric contamination. Any grease, oil
or moisture content on surface contribute gas formation when exposed to welding
temperature and may cause porosity problems in your weld. In order to fix it, clean the
material by specified surface preparation procedures.
3. Improper Gas Shield

The possibility of air entrapment due to inconsistent gas shield may also cause porosity
problems. For this the welder must check gas hose attachment with the equipment and
remove hose contamination if any. Correct connection prevents any loss of gas shield and
consequently no air entrapment. Moreover air flow and draughts in shop can cause
restriction in gas flow. Some sort of screening is required to avoid such kinds of restrictions
in gas flow.
4. Too high gas flow
High flow rate of gas shield may cause turbulence due to which air can be drawn into the
weld metal. Optimize gas flow, provides quality welds with no gas loss. Moreover it saves
cost on the other side.
5. Inadequate electrode deoxidant
During solidification, the excess oxygen comes out from weld metal due to reduced
solubility and may undergo carbon monoxide formation that may cause porosity too. For this
some deoxidants are added in electrodes, filler metals and even in parent metals to remove
the oxygen content (which is so called deoxidation). Therefore inadequate deoxidants may
result in poor deoxidation and are responsible for weld defects. In order to prevent this, use
electrodes with adequate deoxidants.
6. Too high arc length
Too much longer arc length (in other words high voltage) is also a cause of weld porosity. If
the welding gun is held away from the joint keeping arc length longer, the magnitude of
shielding is reduced which may lead to air entrapment from atmosphere. Correct arc length
is recommended primarily to avoid draughts/breezes.
7. Incorrect surface treatments
Release of gases, during painting/surface treatments, can impair weld characteristics.
Treatments like zinc coating or galvanizing produce gas and other unwanted particles. In an
endeavor to fix this problem, make predictions about the outcome of chemical reactions
before specific surface treatments.
8. Open work surface
Any surface which is open to atmospheric air can be contaminated. Air introduction from
back side through root opening, gets entrap in the weld puddle. Make sure that weld joint is
protected from such kinds of air crevices.
9. Laminated surface
Laminated surface also creates disturbance in welding. In case of welding a laminated
work piece, prepare un-laminated parent metal to conduct quality weld procedure.
10. In-appropriate flux
Welding flux must be treated with great care as they have capability to absorb moisture
(granular SAW flux). They must be supplied in dry condition. On the other hand, use of low
activity flux results in surface porosity. That is why it is recommended to use high activity
flux which offers quality welds with no porosity.

Fracture tests for welder qualification

1

Fracture tests are conducted to qualify a welder by the examination of fracture surfaces of a
weld metal rather than using expensive macroscopic examination. The procedure is applied
in order to assess the quality of test weld made by a welder. Although standards elucidate
the test procedure, test location, technique, dimensions and type of specimen. There are
two types of fracture tests; Fillet weld fracture and Butt weld fracture in which a notch is
machined on the weld metal that enables the specimen to fracture easily. Following are the
critical points regarding these tests.
Nature and dimensions of Test specimens

Number of tests

Location of test

What is the method and technique for making fracture

Weld defects that ought to be detected

Job description of an inspector

Butt Weld Fracture

The procedure is applied to observe the fracture piece of groove weld in order to detect the
weld imperfections. Common problems like solid inclusion (slag, flux, and oxide), porosity
and lack of fusion which have severe effects on groove weld, can be detected by simply
breaking the test weld. No other technique like radiography is used that may be expensive.
Also See How to reduce concentration of weld porosity?
Test specimens taken from the groove weld are notched in order to take fracture path from
the middle of the weld. That is why it is also known by a term Nick Break Test in industries.
The techniques that are used to cause fracture are; three point bending and hammering.

You can split the weld parts by simply hammering or on the other, if the test piece is
supported on two points and the load is applied from the above, required breakage is
obtained.

Fillet Weld Fracture

With the same procedure and objective as in butt weld fracture, fillet weld fractures are used
to qualify a welder for fillet test welds. Fracture is made to find out the weld imperfections
that may harm fillet weld. Defects like porosity, lack of penetration, solid inclusion are
observed on fracture surface of split parts.
Dimensions and nature of test piece are specified by the standards and codes and required
specimen is obtained accordingly. A notch of specific profile is indented on the weld.
Normally the shapes of notch are;
V-shaped

Square profile

U-shaped
Specimen are placed in specific direction or clamped is special tools to achieve the required
fracture through throat. After placement, hammering or pressing is applied and the split
parts are ready for examination.

What is the job of Inspector?

Inspector must have a close examination throughout the procedure. After observing the
splitting/ breakage, he must identify the weld defects with great care. It is essential that he
has work experience about determining the imperfections on the fracture surface and
assisting others to conduct the procedure in right way. Moreover he should give a
systematic report containing meaningful information about;
The shape of fracture

Imperfections and their types

Position of imperfections on Butt/Fillet weld surface

Also Learn Visual Welding Inspection
Last comments
Fracture tests are conducted as a second choice for welders qualification in place of other
examination techniques as it serves for the same purpose of visualizing the weld defects
deep inside or at the root of the weld.

Mechanics of Crack Tip Opening Displacement

2

Crack tip opening displacement is kind of a destructive testing that is applied to measure
the fracture toughness of the material. In shortened form the method is known as CTOD. In
this technique a notch is made on the test material and subjected to bending at specific
temperature (usually at low temperature) until the crack initiates. Bending is applied in such
a way that the crack tip opens widely and the extent of opening without brittle fracture is
measured as toughness. The technique proves quite useful in repair works when the crack
is appeared during service. Following is the demonstration on mechanics of crack tip
opening displacement.

Specimen
Specimens are taken across the axis of weld metal or heat affected zone. The dimensions
of test specimen are demonstrated in codes and standards. A rectangular piece is cut in
10T x 1T x 2T (L x W x H) where T is total thickness of weld. From the middle of rectangular
specimen a V-cut is indented inside. It is to be noted that V-cut is applied inside the notch,
not at the surface of specimen. See the figure.
Technique
Test technique is as simple as bending a long bar. The specimen with V-cut is inserted in
bending equipment and subjected to cyclic bending until a crack initiates. A bending former
is pressed at the bottom so that notch is in tension. Stress concentration at the tip of crack,
causes the crack to open widely. A gauge is connected to the opening which measures the
length of gap created by the widening of crack tip. The experiment provides the statistics
about the increase in opening against the load and the required CTOD value in millimeter is
calculated.

Test Conditions
Temperature The experiment is performed normally at low temperature. For this
the specimen is put inside the cooled liquid or gas to achieve the required temperature.
Position location of notch on weld metal or HAZ.

What information it gives?

CTOD value assists to determine the toughness and brittleness of weld metal. Tougher the
test weld, wider will be the tip opening. In this case considerable tip opening is observed
when applied load is increased. Bending load pulls the crack edges apart. On the other

hand slight loading may cause fracture in brittle test piece. Here brittle crack is developed
without any widening.
It also assists in determination of maximum crack size that can cause fracture. This
information is quite helpful when a crack is inspected in weld metal during service. It gives
an idea about the extent to which the crack can withstand particular conditions of
temperature and load. Moreover determination of maximum load/stress that can cause
failure for specific crack size at particular temperature hence, making it easier to make
judgments accordingly to prevent failure.