Approach Channels

AGuide for Design

PTC U-30
Filial report of tbe joint Working
Croup PIANC and IAPD, in
cooperation lIith IMPA and IALA
Supplement to Bulletin no 95
(June 1997)

T. Rekonen
National Board of Navigation
(Finland)

PIANC

V.K.Shah
Formerly Marine Works, A & E Services
(Canada)

PIANC

J.C.K. van Toorenburg

Rijkswaterstaat
(The Netherlands)

PIANC

M.Vantorre
Universiteit Gent
(Belgium)

PIANC

*
**

Developments in sea transport are continually stimulated

by technological improvements and changes in transport
demand. If a port and its facilities are not ready to respond
to these developments, then delays, congestion, incidents
and accidents will result; in short, it will function
inadequately. The resultant penalty for the regional and
national economy is always heavy.
As already observed, adapting an existing port to new
maritime requirements is often a difficult, time-consuming
and expensive affair, especially if insufficient flexibility was
incorporated in the original design.Therefore in the
development of new ports, a thorough evaluation has to be
made at the outset of the type, size, loading and number of
vessels that will use it both now and in the future. Then,
because of the inherent inadequacies and errors in these
evaluations and forecasts, a maximum degree of future
adaptability to new types of ,ships in the port's approach
channels and manoeuvring areas must be incorporated.

Members of the editing sub-committee

Corresponding Members

All of the above considerations lead naturally to a

requirement for a logical and rationally-based design process
which will allow, among other things, for the determination of
the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the port's approach
channels and manoeuvring areas.

The design process is presented as two stages:

The design of an approach channel encompasses a number

of disciplines including ship handling and maritime
engineering in order to design waterways to a desired level
of navigability and safety. This requires the assessment of a
number of key elements, including vessel size and
behaviour, human factors in ship handling and effects of the
physical environment.

a Concept Design study, based on initial physical

environment data, a design ship and other requirements
derived from commercial considerations and forecasts.
This leads on to
a Detailed Design study, involving development and
validation of particular aspects.
In this report the more complex areas of Detailed Design are
discussed in some depth and the computer-based techniques
which they use are described. However, rather than just dwell
on the detail of such techniques, particular attention is given
to the steps which have to be taken by the designer to
prepare for their use and interpret the results.

Approach channel design involves designing the layout and

dimensions of a port's main water area with reference to:
the alignment and width of approach channels and port
entrances
the depth of approach channels
the size and shape of manoeuvring spaces within the
port, with particular reference to the stopping and
swinging areas.

Particular attention is drawn to Appendices C and D dealing

with squat and the determination of depth in muddy areas.

The layout and dimensions are of great importance, firstly

because in some instances the creation of the water areas
and related protection works constitute the biggest
investment by far in port infrastructure, and secondly
because factors such as entrance width, manoeuvring space
and breakwater alignment are very difficult to change or
adapt once the port has been built.
For deepwater ports which must receive large ships, in
excess of 50,000 dwt say, an important problem to be
faced is the fact that the actual track of these ships may
deviate considerably from the ideal. This is a consequence
of the slow response of large ships to rudder action or
engine movements. This characteristic may require the
introduction of different operational limits for such ships in
port approaches and other navigational areas and, as a
result, the provisions to be made for safe navigation may
have to be more extensive than those for ports catering
only for small vessels.

2.1 PORT
A port functions as a vital link in a transport chain, forming
an interface between modes of transport as part of
international or domestic trade or carriage of passengers
and/or cars. The port is an interface between ships on the
marine side and transport or storage on the land side.

5.2.3.1 Basic Manoeuvrability

low speeds in a cross wind, the ship-handler having to offer

the ship up to the wind, resulting in a slightly oscillatory
course {Figure 5.3).

The dynamics of ships are such that, when under manual

control (as is usually the case in approach channels) they
sweep a path, in the absence of all external perturbations
from wind, waves, current, etc., which exceeds their
breadth by a certain amount (Figure 5.2).This is due to the
speed of response of both the ship-handler in interpreting
the visual cues indicating position, and that of the ship in
reacting to the rudder. Clearly the width of the swept path,
which is the basic manoeuvring lane, will depend on a
number of factors, but the key elements are:
the inherent manoeuvrability of the ship (which will
vary with water depth/draught ratio);
the ability of the ship-handler;
the visual cues available to the ship-handler;
the overall visibility.

y
/

Figure 5.3 -Handling in a Strong Wind

(Exaggerated for Clarity)

BASIC MANOEUVRiNG

Cross wind effects depend on:

the windage of the vessel;
the depth/draught ratio (because a ship's resistance to
lateral motion changes as the depth/draught ratio
approaches unity. Wind causes less drift at small
underkeel clearances);

REAL COURSE

the wind speed and direction relative to the ship.

Some width allowance must be made therefore for wind
effects over and above that needed for basic manoeuvring.
In order to compute this, information on wind speeds and
directions for the area under consideration is needed. The
collection of this data is dealt with in Section 6.2 below; in
this section it is simply assumed that such information is
available.

Figure 5.2 -Width of Manoeuvring Lane allows for :

- Ship-Handler's Ability & Response
- Ship Manoeuvrability & Response

Current
Of these the first two are the most important, for the
other two can be dealt with by suitable aids to navigation
both outside (e.g. buoys) and navigational aids inside the
ship (e.g. radar).

Cross currents affect a ship's ability to maintain a course,

longitudinal currents affect its ability to manoeuvre and
stop. As will be shown, the manoeuvrability of a ship
changes as its depth/ draught ratio approaches unity.As a
result, its ability to cope with currents will also change as
the water depth reduces.

5.1!.3.2 Environmental Factors

CrossWind

In some ports, the currents may be too strong at certain

states of the tide to allow certain ships to navigate with
safety. This may cause their arrivals and sailings to be
restricted to certain time periods (or 'current windows') in
the tidal cycle. This implies times (downtime) for which the
channel will not be available for such ships and the decision

Cross wind will affect the ship at all speeds, but will have its
greatest effect at low ship speeds. It will cause the ship to
drift sideways or to take up an angle of leeway, both of
which increase the width required for manoeuvring.
Seldom will the ship be able to maintain a steady course at

15

regarding acceptable downtime levels will be based mainly

on economic considerations.

will depend on ship speed (the higher the speed, the

greater the bank interaction), bank height and slope, and
depth/draught ratio.At and early stage in design it is
probably adequate to cater for only the first two.

Collection of current data is considered in Section 6.2.

Waves

Waves will naturally have an effect on channel depth, but, if

the wave fronts move across the channel then they will
also have an effect on manoeuvring and hence channel
width. Waves can cause transient effects on yaw ('knocking'
the ship's head off course) which can be corrected by the
shiphandler, and they can also cause a mean drift in the
direction of the wave.
Wave scatter tables for the area (using local information
obtained as discussed in Section 6.2 or information in
publications such as Reference 5.3) should be obtained and
a judgement, based on experience, made as to what wave
height and period (length) should be used for design.

5.2.3.3 Aids to Navigation

The importance of aids to navigation lies in the cues they
give to the ship-handler. They will usually be visual although
radar reflectors may be used. Electronic means are being
developed in which a combination of DGPS and electronic
charts may be used.A well-marked channel will require less
width than one that is poorly marked. For Concept Design
a judgement must be made regarding the adequacy of the
available aids to navigation in accordance with compulsory
carriage requirements. Suitable types and positions of
channel markers can be determined at the Detailed Design
stage by the use of manoeuvring simulation as discussed in
Sections 6.3 and 6.4. Reference 5.5 gives useful information.

PASSING DISTANCE, Wp , LARGE ENOUGH TO REDUCE

SHIP-SHIP INTERACTION TO A CONTROLLABLE MINIMUM

Figure 5.4 - Passing Distance

5.2.4 Depth Considerations

5.2.3.4 Type of Cargo

It is apparent that depth/draught effects have to be allowed
for in some considerations of channel width and some of
them are considered here. These are:

If the cargo being carried by the Design Ship is hazardous

in nature, then an additional width allowance is required to
reduce the risk of grounding and to ensure that such
vessels are well clear of other waterway users.

Speed/Depth Relationship

The hydrodynamic resistance to motion of a ship in

shallow water is governed by the Froude Depth Number
Fnh which is broadly a non-dimensional ratio between
speed and depth. It is defined as:

5.2.3.5 Passing Distance

If a two-way channel is proposed then some arrangement
must be made to allow vessels to pass safely. Such a
distance must ensure that ship-ship interaction is reduced
to an acceptable minimum and it is usual to allow for a
central 'strip', equal to a multiple of the beam of the larger
passing ship, between the overall manoeuvring lanes of the
passing vessel (Figure 5.4).

(I)
where:

The width required for passing will also depend on the

traffic density in the two lanes - the greater the density, the
greater the width required.

5.2.3.6 Bank Clearance

is the speed through the water in

metres/second

is the undisturbed water depth in metres

is the acceleration due to gravity (about

9.81 m/sec2).

When Fnh approaches or equals unity, the resistance to

motion reaches very high values which most displacement
ships have insufficient power to overcome. In fact such
ships are unlikely to be able to exceed Fnh values of 0.6 or
0.7 (the former for tankers, the latter for container ships)
which results in an effective speed barrier.

Bank interaction can cause a ship to sheer uncontrollably

(Figure 5.5). To avoid this in a channel with underwater
banks it is necessary to allow additional channel width
outside the manoeuvring lanes (Figures 5.6 and 5.1 I). This

16

and maintain
manoeuvrability.
Squat may be
estimated in many
ways and is discussed
in detail in Section
6.5.2 below. For a
quick first estimate,
the ICORELS
expression (Reference
5.4) may be used for
open water:

'"" ''""''"""""'"'''"'"''""'"'''""'''''""''''''' '" "'''""""""'\"""'"""'"'"\

ONE rLOODED BANK

TWO PARALLEL FLOODED BANKS

CANAL BANKS

Figure 5.5 - Computed Sheers due to Bank Effects

Squat(m)

SLOPING CHANNEL EDGES AND SHOALS

where V
LPP

(2)

= volume of displacement (m') =C8 .LppB.T

length of ship between perpendiculars {m)
= ship beam (m)

B
T
ship draught (m)
C8
block coefficient
Fnh = Froude Depth Number
(See also Section 6.5.2.3)

The graphical method of Figure 5.7 can also be used to give

values of squat adequate for Concept Design.
A simpler way to allow for squat, draught and sounding
uncertainties (and also to give a margin for safety) is to set a
minimum value on water depth/draught ratio. In many parts
of the world a value of 1.1 0 has become accepted although a
value of 1.15 can be found. These values are for calm water
only and greater values would be necessary if the channel is
subjected to wave action, where figures of 1.3 or more may
be used. The closer the ratio is to unity, the more
directionally stable is the ship and, consequently, the more
sluggish its response. It is usual to allow for this by increasing
channel width - another occasion when width and depth are
linked.

STEEP AND HARD EMBANKMENTS AND STRUCTURES

Figure 5.6 - Bank Clearance

Bank Clearance W B to be great enough to reduce
Bank Effects to a Controllable Minimum
Therefore, before deciding on the speed with which to carry
out the channel width calculations, it is advisable to check
that it is compatible with the depth under consideration.
(Alternatively the limiting Froude Number can be used with a
chosen speed to set a minimum depth limit.)

Tide Height
Squat, Waves and Depth/Draught Ratio
If the waterway is subjected to tidal action a decision
may have to be made as to whether it must be usable
throughout the tidal cycle. If not then a suitable tidal
window must be chosen bearing in mind the commercial
consequences of any downtime. The window must be
compatible with depth, speed and squat. Shortening the
window may require an increase in transit speed,
resulting in problems of squat, resistance and additional
width allowance.

Squat is the tendency of a vessel to sink and trim when

underway, thereby reducing its underkeel clearance.
Squat depends strongly on speed and is accentuated (and
may become critical) in shallow water. Therefore it is
wise to check that the depth of the channel is sufficient
to allow for any squat engendered by the necessary
speed of the ship in transit to negotiate the tidal window

17

Table 5.3 -Additional Width for Passing Distance

in Two-Way Traffic
Width for passing distance,WP

Outer Channel
exposed to
open water

Vessel speed (knots)

-fast> 12
- moderate> 8- 12
- slow 5-8

5.3.6 Definitions and Notes

for the Tables

Inner Channel
protected
water

The following definitions apply to the various boxes in

Tables 5.1 to 5.4. Where necessary, some notes for
clarification are also given.

2.0 B
1.6 B
1.2 B

1.4 B
1.0 B

5.3.6.1 Table 5.1 -Ship Manoeuvrability

The rational classification of ship manoeuvrability is not

easy and often a considerable amount of judgement must
be used. In the open ocean a ship which possesses good
manoeuvrability is one that is course-stable at its design or
service speed. However the very qualities which make it
course-stable do not help it in rapid manoeuvring or
navigating around tight bends
Table 5.4 -Additional Width for Bank Clearance
which may be thought of as 'good
manoeuvrability' in the
Width for bank clearance
Vessel
Outer
Inner
approaches
to a port.
Speed
Channel
Channel
(W 8 .orW8 g)

Encounter traffic density

- light
- moderate
- heavy

0.0
0.2 B
0.5 B

0.0
0.2 B
0.4 B

exposed to
open water
Sloping channel edges and shoals:
fast
moderate
slow

0.7 B
0.5 B
0.3 B

fast
moderate
slow

1.3
1.0 B
0.5 B

Steep and hard embankments, structures:

Note: Referring to the design ship:

B = Beam
L =Length
T =Draught

5.3.4 Bend Width and Radius

Bend width and radius can be estimated from the ship
turning data in Figures 5.8 and 5.9.A mean rudder angle for
the bend should be chosen and the appropriate radius and
width read off for a given depth/draught ratio.

protected
water

As mentioned above, the

manoeuvrability of a ship also
changes noticeably in shallow
water.As depth/draught ratio
0.5 B
reduces to about 1.3 to 1.5, the
0.3 B
ship may become slightly less
directionally stable and more
'twitchy'.As the depth/draught
ratio reduces still further the
1.0 B
vessel
may become more
0.5 B
directionally stable until, at very
low underkeel clearances
(depth/draught ratios of 1.05 to
1.1 0), it turns very sluggishly
indeed. This improvement in
directional stability (illustrated for turning in Figure 5.8) is
an advantage in a straight channel if the ship is not
deflected from its proper course. But if it is, its sluggish
response may give handling problems, and therefore
require additional room to manoeuvre.

Therefore a general classification of the inherent

manoeuvrability of ships is difficult, because it depends very
much on context. As a rough guide, the following may be
used:

If, in traffic studies, it becomes apparent that passing on

bend is unavoidable, then a separate, detailed, study will be
required for each bend so affected.

I. Long slender ships (UB > 6.5) are more directionally

stable than short fat ones (LIB< 6).The latter will be
able to manoeuvre around tight bends more easily.

Cross wind and current allowances in bends should be

made in Detailed Design phase, but as a guide, the width of
navigable channel in the bend should be no less than that of
the straight.

2. In shallow water (h/T s 1.5) all ships will turn less

readily.

Additional width is preferably placed on the inside rather

than the outside of the bend.

3. Low speed manoeuvrability may be quite different from

that at the service speed for which the ship was
designed.
4. Single screw I single rudder ships will manoeuvre quite
well, but will experience screw bias (an offset due to
lateral movement of the stern induced by the propeller
necessitating counter rudder).

5.3.5 Alignment
Alignment should follow the guidelines given in Section
5.2.2 above.

5. Ships with single controllable-pitch screws may

experience screw bias, even when the propeller pitch is
set for low or zero thrust.

22

6.5 CHANNEL DEPTH

6.5.2.1 Factors Influencing Squat

In what follows the important qualitative factors with
respect to squat are given, so that the specification of the
planned channel can be checked against them. Special
attention should be given to the design ships, their
expected speed and manoeuvres as well as the channel layout and environmental conditlons.lf one or more factors
apply, it is advisable to take squat in consideration.

6.5.1 Introduction
The determination of channel depth and underkeel
clearance has been considered in detail in an earlier PIANC
report (Ref. 5.1 ). This is by and large still relevant, but in
some special fields more progress has been made and this
part of the report comprises three main sections, the first
dealing with methods for the calculation of squat, the
second dealing with underkeel clearance in waves. The third
deals with the actual depth of water available, especially
when the sea-bed consists of mud and is therefore not well
defined. To help this situation, the concepts of nautical depth
and nautical bottom are introduced and discussed.

Ship-related Factors
design ship
The choice of the design ship should be checked in
those cases where squat is important. For example, a
design ship sailing at low design-speed may be less
critical than a fast-moving 'close-to' design ship.
(See Appendix C, Chapter C3)

operational ship speeds

Under 6 knots and in sufficient water depth there is generally
no significant squat (Values generally less than 30 em).
A proper indicator is the Froude depth number (see
Section 5.2.4).1f this is smaller than 0.3 there is
generally no significant squat.
Over 6 knots - squat increases rapidly with increasing speed.
(refer to Appendix C, Figures C8 and C9)

6.5.2 Squat
Squat is the combined effect of sinkage and trim due to the
forward velocity of the ship and has been introduced in
Section 5.2A. Methods for its computation in calm water
are discussed below, with the aim of providing the designer
with straightforward methods.Attention has been focused
on comparatively simple formulae, but it should be borne
in mind that more accurate predictions can be made for a
given ship by the use of computer models developed for
squat in both calm water and waves. The question of
underkeel clearance in waves is discussed in Section 6.5.3.

ship form
Squat is sensitive to ship form. This may influence the
choice of the design ship. Care should be taken in
selecting the appropriate equation.
(refer to Appendix C,Table C3)

initial trim
A complete overview of the available methods is presented
in Appendix C which includes a discussion of the state of
the art and provides examples. From this work it is
apparent that the use of the different (but appropriate)
formulae can give widely varying values for squat
(Appendix C, Section C3.3 and Figures C8 to C I 0).

Initial trim influences the value of the maximum squat

and in some cases its location (bow or stern). Even a
small trim by head may increase the squat at the bow.
For high speed ships with block coefficients less than
0.7 and in very narrow channels or canals the
maximum squat may occur at the stern.
(refer to Appendix C, Fig C7)

Because of this only three of the available methods are

presented in this chapter:

Waterway-related and Other Factors

relation with channel width

Huuska/Guliev (ICORELS)
Barrass II
Eryuzlu et al.

There is no strong linkage. In general squat reduces

underkeel clearance and as such influences the
manoeuvrability of the ship. The effects on manoeuvring
of width are discussed in Section 6.4.
In those cases where ships are forced to steer a
markedly eccentric course from the channel's axis in
the proximity of banks or in narrow canals, the matter
is complicated by bank effects and eventually, if there is
a chance of grounding, by an increase in the distance to
the bank, leaving less width for other traffic.

The recommended formulae cover a wide range of ships

and waterways. The Barrass and Eryuzlu formulae are
validated with full-scale measurements, while the
Huuska/Guliev (ICORELS) formula has been recommended
earlier (see Reference 5.4) and as such is commonly
accepted.
Nevertheless when using one of these formulae for a
practical case, it should be borne in mind that all of them
must generalize the problem and most were developed for
particular conditions and limits. Therefore experience and
judgement are necessary for their application.

channels
For smaller depth/draught ratios (diminishing underkeel
clearance) squat will increase above normal, solid
bottoms. This may be the case with muddy bottoms.
(Appendix C, Section C4.4 and Section 6.5.4.6 below)

In those cases where squat is of importance and if serious

doubt exists with respect to the applicability of a particular
formula (Appendix C, Chapter C3) or the situation is not
covered by one of the published methods (Appendix C,
Chapter C4) additional, specific, research may be necessary.

canals
Ships sailing in a canal cause considerable back-flow of
water through the canal's wetted cross-section. This
causes a water level depression which is far more

40

pronounced than when sailing a restricted channel or

in unrestricted shallow water.
Squat formulae for these latter types of fairways will
underestimate squat considerably if used for canals.
(Appendix C, Section C2.1.4 and Table C3)

lead to modifications of the allowable draught or to

corrections of the maintenance dredging program.
Most squat formulae are meant for ships moving on a
straight course in the centre line of a channel.
Deviation from these conditions may lead to higher
squat values. In such conditions, the effect of squat
increase can be reduced by imposing lower speeds or
increasing water depth.

proximity of banks
Passing a bank at close distance increases squat.
(Appendix C, Section C4.2)
relatively abrupt depth changes (e.g. approaches
over sills or banks)
Care should be taken here due to the dynamic
behaviour of the ship.
(Appendix C, Section C4.3)

6.5.2.3 Calculation of Squat

All the methods which follow are valid for straight channels
with flat bottoms and subcritical ship speeds (i.e. Fnh < I).
The type of waterway and the block coefficient determine
the appropriate formula. The limits of hiT and Uh
respectively should be observed.

muddy channel bottoms

A muddy bottom generally decreases squat.An
exception is the case of a fast moving ship that
penetrates a low-density mud which may experience an
increase in squat.
(Appendix C, Section C4.4 and Section 6.5.4.6 below)

The resulting squat will be greatest at the bow for all fullformed ships (i.e. ships with high block coefficient) and for
normal merchant vessels sailing in unrestricted shallow
water. For high-speed ships with block coefficients less than
0.7 and in very narrow channels or canals the maximum
squat may occur at the stern. Initial trim influences the
location of maximum squat.

other traffic
Passing or overtaking increases squat.
(Appendix C, Section C4.1)

Method I: Huuska/Guliev (ICORELS)

cross wind
In channels open to cross wind ships may have to sail
with large drift angles which may increase squat.
(Appendix C, Section C4.5)

The equation calculates bow sinkage, sb. It is valid for

unrestricted waterways, restricted channels and canals and
has already been mentioned in Section 5.2.4, Equation (2).

bends
Ships drift when sailing through bends in the channel
and this may increase squat.
(Appendix C, Section C4.5)

(8)
with

6.5.2.2 Recommendations for the Estimation

of Squat

V'
Lpp
Fnh

The use of different methods for the same ship under the
same conditions can lead to significant variations in the
prediction of squat. At present, the reason(s) for these
differences are not clear and therefore the following are
recommended:

Ks
Ks
s1
K1
As
Ach

ship's volume of displacement ( m')

ship's length between perpendiculars (m)
Froude depth number (see Section 5.2.4 Equation
(I))
7.45 s 1 + 0.76
for s 1 > 0.03
I for s 1 :s: 0.03
(As/Ach)/KI
correction factor, (see Appendix C, Figure C6)
ship midship section area""' 0.98 BT
wetted cross section area of channel/canal with
extrapolated slope to the water surface (see
Appendix C, Figure C3)

In general cases use expressions which yield average

squat results. In this category fall the methods of
Huuska/Guliev (ICORELS), (1976, 1980) and Barrass II
( 1979) and for full-bodied ships the method of Eryuzlu
et al ( 1994).
(see Appendix C for References)

This equation should not be used for Froude Depth

numbers greater than 0.7.

To select a more 'pessimistic' method (Appendix C,

Chapter C3) when the risks involved with touching the
waterway bottom are considered to be high. (e.g.
dangerous cargo, bottom structure.)

For full form ships with a high block coefficient some

authors recommend other values for the coefficient 2.4 as
used by Huuska.They propose coefficient values varying
between 1.75 and 2.4.

If problems with squat effects are expected in

particular conditions with a specific type of ship, model
tests are recommended.

Method 2:

Barrass II

Barrass analyzed the squat results from different ships and

model tests with block coefficients ranging from 0.5 to 0. 9
both in open water and in restricted channel conditions for
hiT-ratios ranging from 1.1 to 1.5. For laterally

It is recommended that the squat estimations made

during the design stage be validated by means of fullscale observations. Such an a posteriori evaluation may

41

unrestricted water (depth restriction only) the effective

width W eff of the waterway must be at least

6.5.2.4 Special Cases of Squat

The special effects on squat are dealt with in the Appendix
C, Chapter C4.

(9)

The effects considered are:

passing or overtaking of ships
proximity of banks
bottom configurations of waterways
muddy bottoms
drift and yawing.

With a ship waterplane area coefficient Cwp of about 0. 9 this

gives an effective width W eff greater than eight beam widths.
Barrass modified and simplified his earlier expression to
2

c.B s3v2.os
2 k
30

(10)

6.5.3 Vnderkeel Clearance in Waves

where

S2

In a channel subject to wave action it is important to

ensure that adequate underkeel clearance is available to
accommodate ship motions generated by waves. The
vertical motions of heave, pitch and roll all combine with
squat to further decrease underkeel clearance and thereby
increase the risk of some part of the ship touching bottom.

blockage ratio: As I Aw
midship section area (m 2)
wetted cross-section area of waterway (m'):
Aw =Ach -As
equivalent wetted cross section area of channel
with slopes extrapolated to the water surface (m 2)
block coefficient
ship's speed through the water (knots).

As
Aw
Ach
CB
vk

The design of a channel affected by swell requires:

detailed analysis of the wave spectrum in the location,
the estimation of the vertical motions of the design
ship in response to different wave climates,
the establishment of the allowable maximum vertical
movement of the design ship during transit of the
channel,
the formulation of safety criteria and decision rules for
transiting the channel.

The range of validity of equation (I 0) is:

0.5 s cBs o.9
I. I s h/T s 1.5
Fnh s 0.7
Method 3:

Eryuzlu et al.

Eryuzlu et al. undertook thorough model tests with general

cargo ships and bulk carriers having bulbous bows (CB 2 0.8,
UB 6.7- 6.8, BIT = 2.4- 2.9) in laterally unrestricted
water with restricted depth ( 1.1 s hiT s 2.5). The effect of
channel width on squat was investigated in supplementary
model tests carried out in a channel (height of dredged
underwater trench hT = 0.5 h, bank slope I on 2).

6.5.3.1 Wave Spectrum

Data for the determination of wave spectra is accumulated

by methods described in Section 6.2.3 and collated by
appropriate computer programmes. The angle of incidence
of waves with ship directions is of crucial importance to all
computations as this determines the rolling motion.

An empirical expression, valid for block coefficients 2 0.8

and for both channels and canals, was obtained and
evaluated by means of full-scale squat measurements. Its
form was as follows:

where h
T
V
g
and
Kb
Kb

6.5.3.2 Vertical Motion of the Design Vessel

Critical conditions and probable dredging quantities can be
investigated with either computational or physical models.
Vertical ship movement is, heavily damped when underkeel
clearance is low and the accurate prediction of this effect
causes problems. Techniques have been developed to
estimate the response of vessels to wave action. Computer
models, based on linear theory, are available which give a
reasonably good approximation of ship response in the
form of Response Amplitude Operator (RAO) curves for a
given ship in a given depth at a given speed. The RAO
technique co-relates vertical motion with wave height,
period and direction and can therefore be used to estimate
underkeel clearance in varying conditions. Due allowance
must also be made for squat.

water depth (m)

draught (m)
speed through water (m/s)
acceleration due to gravity (m/s 2)
= 3.1/(w/B)lh
when w/B < 9.61
= I
when w/B 2 9.61

where w = channel width at bottom (m)

B

=ship's beam (m).

In the absence of fully-developed computer models,

physical models may be used and, provided these are of a
large enough scale, they should help to predict shallow
water motions with reasonable accuracy.

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