ISOTOPES;

Principles and Applications

Third Edition
by Gunter Faure and Teresa M. Mensing

End-of-Chapter Problems

The End-of-Chapter Problems are available on the web at: < www.wiley.com/college/faure >

Preface
The end-of-chapter problems provide an opportunity for students to test their knowledge of
the principles of isotope geology by making numerical calculations based on measured values of the
relevant parameters. In most of the chapters, the problems progress from substitutions of numerical
values into equations derived in the text to applications that lead to conclusions about the geologic
history of selected rock units or ore deposits. Therefore, we recommend that students solve the
problems in numerical order.
The problems are not meant to be difficult and require only a clear understanding of the
applicable principles and the ability to manipulate algebraic equations. In some cases, the problems
call for the plotting of graphs in order to visualize functions and to facilitate extrapolations.
Graphical methods are widely used in certain subject areas of the Earth Sciences (e.g., mapping of
outcrop patterns, structural geology, hydrogeology, geochemistry, et cetera) and therefore are
familiar to geology students. In some problems students are asked to fit a straight line to data points
by means of least-squares regression.
All of the methods of dating rocks and minerals by isotopic methods are based on
applications of the Law of Radioactivity. Therefore, the geochronometry equations are expressed
in terms of the number of atoms per unit weight of sample, whereas the concentrations of the
relevant elements are reported in weight units (e.g., micrograms per gram or nanograms per gram.).
Therefore the calculation of dates by the appropriate geochronometry equations requires the
conversion of weights of elements into the number of atoms of a specific isotope of that element in
a unit weight of sample. The theoretical basis for these kinds of calculations is taught in introductory
chemistry courses and is also explained in Chapter 1 of this book.

The mathematical relations that are used to interpret isotope ratios of elements whose
isotopes are fractionated in nature are explained in Chapter 26 and are used in the subsequent
chapters without further explanation. The problems associated with these chapters also progress
from simple substitutions to more interesting applications to environmental problems.
The answers to all of the problems are provided on the pages that follow. In addition, a
manual containing solutions to the problems associated with this book is available on line to
instructors who can obtain the necessary password from the Wiley representative in their region.

Table of Contents

1.

Page
Principles of atomic physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2.

Decay modes of radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3.

Radioactive decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4.

Mass spectrometry and isotope dilution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

5.

The Rb-Sr method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

6.

The K-Ar method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

7.

The 40Ar*/39Ar method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

8.

The K-Ca method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

9.

The Sm-Nd method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

10. The U-Pb, Th-Pb, Pb-Pb methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

11. The common Pb method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
12. The Lu-Hf method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
13. The Re-Os method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
14. The La-Ce method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
15. The La-Ba method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
16. Mixing theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
17. Origin of igneous rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
18. Water and sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
19. The oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
20. U-Th series disequilibria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
21. Helium and tritium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
22. Radiation damage methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
23. Cosmogenic radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
24. Extinct radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
25. Thermonuclear radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
26. Hydrogen and oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
27. Cargon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
28. Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
29. Sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
30. Boron and other elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Chapter 1
Principles of Atomic Physics
1.

2.

Use Figure 1.1 to answer the following questions:

a.

How many neutrons are present in the nucleus of an atom of

b.

What is the mass number of the set of isobars that includes

c.

How many isotopes of the element beryllium are stable and how many are unstable?

d.

What nuclear property do isotones have in common?

e.

Why do all of the isotopes of an element have identical chemical properties?

f.

What is the isotopic abundance of

Calculate the atomic weight of silicon: 28Si (92.23 %, 27.976927 amu), 29Si (4.67 %, 28.976494
amu), and 30Si (3.10 %, 29.973770 amu). (Answer: 28.085 amu.)

3a. Calculate the binding energies per nucleon for

amu),

(55.934940 amu),

(4.002608323 amu),

(115.901743 amu), and

(24.985837

(232.03805 amu) in units

of million electron volts.

b.

Plot the binding energies calculated above versus the atomic number and draw a smooth
curve through the points.

c.

Which element has the highest nuclear stability?

4a. Calculate the number of moles of strontium in 2.50 g of strontium nitrate. (Atomic weights: Sr
= 87.62, N = 14.00, O = 15.99). (Answer: 1.18 10-2.)
b. How many atoms of Sr are present in 2.50 g of strontium nitrate? (Answer: 7.11 1021 atoms).

2
c.

How many atoms of 87Sr are present in 2.50 g of strontium nitrate? (Abundance of 87Sr =
7.0 percent.) (Answer: 4.98 1020 atoms.)

d.

Calculate the ratio of the number of

(Abundance of

86

87

Sr atoms to

Sr = 9.9 percent.) (Answer:

87

86

Sr atoms in 2.50 g of Sr nitrate

86

Sr/ Sr = 0.707).

5. The concentration of K2O in a sample of orthoclase is 8.75 % by weight. How many atoms of
40

K are present in 1.0 gram of this material? (Atomic weight of K = 39.09, abundance of 40K

= 0.0117 % atomic). (Answer: 1.30 1017 atoms of 40K per gram).

Chapter 2
Decay Modes of Radionuclides
1.

Complete the following decay equations by providing the appropriate values of Z and A:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

2.

Naturally occurring

decays to stable

through a series of radioactive daughters. In

this decay series, four negatrons ($-) are emitted. How many alpha particles must be emitted
to produce

from

3
3.

that emits a suite of $- particles with an endpoint energy

Draw a decay-scheme diagram for

of 5.398 MeV followed by a (-ray of 1.6326 MeV. The total decay energy is 7.029 MeV.

4.

Draw a decay-scheme diagram for

that emits a suite of positrons having an end point

energy of 1.81 MeV and a gamma ray of 2.31264 MeV. The total decay energy is 5.1430 MeV.
5.

emits alpha particles having a kinetic energy of 6.87 MeV. What is the recoil energy of
the product nucleus? What is the total alpha decay energy of

? (Answer: Recoil energy:

0.123 MeV. Total alpha-decay energy: 6.99 MeV.).

6.

The most energetic suite of alpha particles emitted by

has a kinetic energy of 5.155 MeV.

and its daughter in amu. (MHe 4.0026 amu).

Estimate the difference in mass between

(Answer: 4.0082 amu.)

Chapter 3
Radioactive Decay
1.

Calculate the fraction of atoms remaining of

(T1/2 = 15.0 h) after a decay interval of 5.0 h.

(Answer: 0.7937.)
2.

Plot a straight line in coordinates of lnA and t for a radionuclide (T = 2.576 h) given that its
initial activity is 4 102 dis/s. What is the significance of the slope of this line?

3.

What is the halflife of a radionuclide whose disintegration rate decreased from 2.00 104 dis/s
to 1.26 104 dis/s in 10.0 hours? (Answer: 15.00 h).

4.

Plot a decay curve for the decay of

curve for the growth of the

(T = 15.0 h) to stable

and a complementary

. Assume that the initial number of

atoms, use linear coordinates, and express time as multiples of the halflife.

was 240 1010

4
5.

Calculate the age of a chemical system containing a radioactive nuclide N whose halflife is 5.00
106 y given that the ratio D*/N of that system at the present time is 1.75. (Answer: 7.298
106 y).

6.

Calculate the number of atoms of a radioactive daughter (N2) that would be present as a result
of decay of its parent (N1) after a decay interval of 15 hours, given that

= 104 atoms, 81 =

0.0693 h-1, and 82 = 0.1386 h-1. (Answer: 2.286 103 atoms).

7.

Calculate the abundance of 234U in secular equilibrium with its parent 238U, given that the halflives of 238U and 234U are 4.467 109 y and 2.44 105 y, respectively, and that the abundance
of 238U is 99.28 %. (Answer: 0.00542 %).

8.

Given that the observed counting rate (CR) of a radioactive sample is 5.0 104 counts/s, what
is the disintegration rate (A) in micro Curies, assuming a counting efficiency of 15 percent?
(Answer: 9.0 Ci).

9.

The activity of

(T = 15.0 h) in a neutron-irradiated sample is 6.38 106 dis/s. How long

should the sample be cooled to reduce its activity to 5.0 103dis/s? (Answer: 154.8 h).
10. Calculate the disintegration rate of

twenty five hours after termination of a 3.0 hour

irradiation of a 0.1 g sample containing 0.12% MnO2 with thermal neutrons having a flux of 5
1012 n/cm2 /s. (Atomic weights of Mn = 54.9380, O = 15.9994, isotopic abundance of 55Mn
is 100 %, neutron-capture cross section F = 13.3 barns, 8

= 0.2690 h-1) Express the result

in dis/s and micro Curies. (Answer: 3.67 104 dis/s and 0.99 Ci).
Chapter 4
Geochronometry
1.

What must be the accelerating voltage in order to focus 206Pb+ ions into the collector of a Niertype mass spectrometer under the following conditions. B = 2000 gauss, r = 30.48 cm, m =
205.9744 amu? (Answer: 870.7 volts).

5
2.

What is the mass of an ion that is focused into the collector of a mass spectrometer under the
following conditions: B = 5000 gauss, r = 15.24 cm, V = 3187 volts? (Answer: 87.92 amu).

3.

Calculate the radius of the path of 87Sr+ ions when they are acted upon by an accelerating
voltage of 4995 volts and a magnetic field of 3112 gauss, given that the mass of 87Sr is 86.9089
amu. (Answer: 30.47 cm).

4.

Calculate the Rb concentration of a rock sample from the following information pertaining to
an isotope dilution analysis: Rm = 87Rb/85Rb = 1.12, Sw = 29.45 :g,

= 95.4 percent,

= 4.6 percent, weight of sample = 0.35 g, masses of Rb isotopes: 87Rb = 86.9092 amu, 85Rb =
84.9117 amu. (Answer: 141.2 ppm.)
5.

Calculate the total Sr concentration of a sample of muscovite having the following isotopic
composition: 87Sr/86Sr = 5.30, 86Sr/88Sr 0.1194, 84Sr/88Sr = 0.0068. The isotopic composition of
the spike is 88Sr = 10.00 %, 87Sr = 2.50 %, 86Sr = 87.49 %, 84Sr = 0.01 %, and the concentration
of the spike solution is 3.55 :g/g. The weight of muscovite is 1.25 g, the amount of spike
added is 5.05 g, and Rm = 86Sr /88Sr = 2.05. The masses of the Sr isotopes are: 88Sr = 87.9056
amu, 87Sr = 86.9089 amu, 86Sr = 85.9092 amu, 84Sr = 83.9134 amu. (Answer: 8.86 ppm).
Chapter 5
The Rb-Sr Method

Use the following constants in solving the problems in this chapter:

8(87Rb) = 1.42 10-11y-1; 86Sr/88Sr = 0.11940, 84Sr/88Sr = 0.006756; atomic masses: 88Sr = 87.9056
amu, 87Sr = 86.9088 amu, 86Sr = 85.9092 amu, 84Sr = 83.9134 amu; 85Rb/87Rb = 2.59265, atomic
weight of Rb = 85.46776.
1.

Calculate the abundances of the isotopes and the atomic weight of Sr given that 87Sr/86Sr =
2.5000. (Answer: 88Sr = 70.192 %, 87Sr = 20.952 %, 86Sr = 8.3819 %, 84Sr = 0.4742 %; atomic
weight: 87.510).

6
2.

Calculate the

87

Rb/86Sr ratio (atomic) of a sample of biotite that has the following

concentrations: Rb = 465 ppm, Sr = 30 ppm, and whose 87Sr/86Sr ratio is 2.500. Use the results
of Problem 1 above. (Answer: 52.70).
3.

If the initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio of this biotite (Problem 2) was 0.7035, what is the age of this
mineral? (Use equation 5.2). (Answer: 2.36 109 y).

4.

What was the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of this biotite 1.8 109 years ago? (Answer: 1.135.)

5.

A sample of biotite is reported to contain 15.5 ppm of Sr, 265.4 ppm Rb, and has an 87Sr/86Sr
ratio of 2.25. Calculate the Rb-Sr date of this biotite assuming that its initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio is
0.70. (Refer to Problems 1 to 4 above) (Answer: 1.89 109y).

6.

The following data were obtained for three minerals from a pegmatite:
Rb,

Sr,

ppm

ppm

87

Muscovite

238.4

1.80

1.4125

Biotite

1080.9

12.8

1.1400

K-feldspar

121.9

75.5

0.7502

Sr/86Sr

a. Calculate Rb-Sr dates for each mineral assuming an initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.7040 (Answer:
Muscovite: 121.7 Ma; biotite: 120.5 Ma; K-feldspar: 690.2 Ma..)
b. Why are the Rb-Sr dates of these minerals discordant?
7.

Plot the 87Sr/86Sr and 87Rb/86Sr ratio minerals of Problem 6 on an isochron diagram using graph
paper. Calculate the slope and intercept of the isochron by a least-squares regression method
using an electronic calculator. Calculate a date from the slope of the isochron and report the
initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio. (Answer: Intercept: 0.7377; date: 114.6 Ma).

8.

Given that the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of a mineral is 0.955 0.001 and its 87Rb/86Sr ratio is 62.5 1.9,
calculate the model date of this mineral and the uncertainty of this date corresponding to the
analytical errors? Assume that (87Sr/86Sr)0 = 0.704. (Answer: t = 282 10 Ma).

7
9.

The following data apply to whole rocks and separated minerals of the Baltimore Gneiss,
Maryland (Wetherill et al., 1968). Geol. Soc. Amer., 79:757-762.
Samples

87

Rb/86Sr

87

Sr/86Sr

Rock 1

2.244

0.7380

Rock 2

3.642

0.7612

Rock 3

6.59

0.7992

Biotite (3)

289.7

1.969

K-spar (3)

5.60

0.8010

Plagioclase (3)

0.528

0.7767

Rock 4

0.2313

0.7074

Rock 5

3.628

0.7573

Biotite (5)

116.4

1.2146

K-spar (5)

3.794

0.7633

Plagioclase (5)

0.2965

0.7461

Interpret these data by means of suitable isochron diagrams. Determine Rb-Sr dates and initial
87

Sr/86Sr ratios and use them to reconstruct the geological history of the Baltimore Gneiss.
Chapter 6
The K-Ar Method

Use the following constants to solve these problems:

8e = 0.581 10-10y-1, 8$ = 4.962 10-10y-1, 8 = 5.543 10-10y-1, Ab40K = 0.01167 % (atom.), At. Wt.K
= 39.0983.
1.

Biotite from the Silver Point quartz monzonite of Idaho contains 8.45 % by weight of K2O and
6.016 10-10 moles/g of radiogenic 40Ar (40Ar*). Calculate a K-Ar date for this mineral. (Miller
and Engels, 1975. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 86:517-528, sample 68). (Answer: 48.8 Ma).

2.

Hornblende from the same rock (Problem 1) contains 0.6078 % K2O and 0.4642 10-10 mol/g
of 40Ar*. Calculate a K-Ar date. (Answer: 52.0 Ma.)

8
3.

A small pluton east of Chewelah in northeastern Washington (state) contains biotite and
hornblende analyzed by Miller and Engels (1975, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 86:517-728, sample
85).
Mineral

K2O,%

40

Biotite

8.71

12.83 10-10

Hornblende 1.44

4.348 10-10

Ar* mol/g

Calculate K-Ar dates for both minerals and speculate regarding the history of this pluton assuming
that it may have been reheated during a late phase of intrusive activity in this area. (Answer: biotite,
99.5 Ma; hornblende, 198.3 Ma).
4.

Another pluton in northeastern Washington (state) contains biotite and muscovite analyzed by
Miller and Engels (1975, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 86:517-528, sample 91):
Mineral

K2O,%

40

Biotite

7.90

6.996 10-10

Muscovite

10.72

13.66 10-10

Ar* mol/g

Calculate dates and derive a conclusions regarding retentivities of these minerals for 40Ar.
(Answer: biotite, 60.5 Ma; muscovite, 86.4 Ma).
5.

Another sample from the small pluton east of Chewelah in northeastern Washington (state)
contains biotite with K2O = 8.83 % and 8.481 10-10 mol/g of

40

Ar* yielding a date of 65.6

Ma. If the crystallization age of this pluton is 200 106 y, what fraction of radiogenic 40Ar was
lost from this biotite relative to the amount of 40Ar that should be present now? (Miller and
Engels, 1975, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 86:517-528, sample 87). (Answer: 68.46 %).

9
Chapter 7
The 40Ar*/39Ar Method
Use the same constants as in Chapter 6
1.

The 40Ar*/39ratio of the fraction of Ar released from a biotite is 12.31. The J value is 1.925
10-2. Calculate the corresponding 40Ar*/39 Ar date. (Bryhni et al., 1971, Norsk Geologisk
Tidsskrift, 51:391- 406, sample FMX-25). (Answer: 383.6 Ma).

2.

The same authors analyzed several Ar fractions from another biotite (FM7025) with following
results:
Heating Step

40

Ar*/39Ar

2.27

4.97

6.68

9.58

10.25

10.10

10.26

Calculate dates for all fractions for J = 2.90 10-2 and plot them versus the number of the
heating step. Estimate the age of this biotite and outline its geologic history consistent with the
spectrum of dates. (Answer: about 489 Ma).
3.

A specimen of anorthosite from Hadley Rille on the Moon (Apollo 15) was analyzed for dating
by the 40Ar*/39Ar method with the following results (Husain et al., 1972, Science, 175:428-430,
sample 15415,9):

10
Cumulative
39

Ar,%

40

Ar*/39Ar

58.14

10

61.34

27

72.77

61

80.15

79

83.32

100

79.80

Calculate 40Ar*/39Ar dates for each fraction of Ar released (J = 9.83 10-2) and plot them versus
the percent of 39Ar released. What is the age of this sample? (Answer: (96 0.02 Ma).
4.

The monitor irradiated by Turner et al. (1971, Earth Planet. Sci. Letters, 12:19-35) was a
hornblende whose age is 1.062 109 years based on a conventional K-Ar date. Its 40Ar*/39Ar
ratio after irradiation was 29.33. Calculate the value of J. (Answers: 2.733 10-2).

5.

Podosek and Huneke (1973, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 37:667-684) measured the following
40

Ar*/39Ar ratios in Ar fractions released at increasing temperatures from the achondrite

Pasamonte:
T, C

40

Ar*/39Ar

545

106.0

630

128.0

745

141.2

850

141.5

935

146.9

1040

145.8

1195

168.6

1515

183.8

The age of the flux monitor was 1.062 109 years and its 40Ar*/39Ar ratio was 14.01. Calculate
a date for each Ar fraction and plot them versus the extraction temperature. Observe the resulting
spectrum and estimate the age of this meteorite.

11
Chapter 8
The K-Ca Method
Use the following constants to solve the problems in this chapter:
8$ = 4.962 10-10 y-1
8 = 5.543 10-10 y-1
Ab40K = 0.01167 %
1.

Calculate the isotope abundances of Ca given the follow ratios: 40Ca/44Ca = 47.153, 42Ca/44Ca
= 0.3122, 43Ca/44Ca = 0.06486, 46Ca/44Ca = 0.00152, 48Ca/44Ca = 0.08871. (Answer: 40Ca =
96.99%,

42

Ca = 0.6397%,

43

Ca = 0.1329%,

44

Ca = 2.0492%,

46

Ca = 0.003114%,

48

Ca =

0.1817%).
2.

Calculate the halflife for the decay of 40K 40Ca + 40Ar given that 8$/8 = 0.8952 and that 8$
= 4.962 10-10y-1 (Answer: 1.250 109 y).

3.

Calculate ,(Ca) for a biotite sample whose present 40Ca/42Ca ratio is 151.941 0.004 (Answer:
+61.25 1.0, Marshall and DePaolo, 1982, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 46:2537-2545).

4.

Calculate a model date relative to the primodial 40Ca/42Ca ratio for a sample of muscovite
having ,(Ca) = 8.6 3.4 and 40K/42Ca = 2.569. (Answer: 99 38 Ma, Marshall and DePaolo,
1982, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 46:2537-2245).

5.

Calculate the initial 40Ca/42Ca ratio of a rock that crystallized at 160 Ma whose present 40Ca/42Ca
= 151.059, K = 34,450 ppm, Ca = 6,504 ppm. Assume that the abundance of 40K = 0.01167%
and that of 42Ca = 0.6397% (Answer: 151.051).

6.

Calculate a date from the following data for two coexisting minerals from the Pikes Peak
batholith of Colorado. Marshall and DePaolo, 1982, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 46:25372545).

12

Medium

K
ppm

Ca
ppm

Plagioclase
Biotite

18,110
57,860

27,420 151.040
833
151.941

(Answer: 1043 Ma)

Chapters 9
The Sm-Nd Method
1.

Calculate the 147Sm/144Nd ratio of a rock sample containing 1.83 ppm Sm and 5.51 ppm Nd.
The abundances of the relevant isotopes are listed in Table 9.2. The atomic weight of Sm is
150.4 and that of Nd is 144.24. (Answer: 147Sm /144Nd = 0.1999).

2.

What is the average time-integrated Sm/Nd ratio of a magma source whose present 143Nd/144Nd
ratio is 0.51300? Assume that t = 4.60 109y and that the initial 143Nd/144Nd ratio of the magma
source was 0.50684. (Answer: Sm/Nd = 0.335).

3.

Calculate the

4.

Calculate the value of the epsilon parameter for

(Answer: ,t = + 23.35).

5.

Calculate a model date relative to CHUR for a rock sample, given the following data: Sm =
0.580 ppm, Nd = 1.539 ppm, 143Nd/144Nd = 0.513101. (Answer: t = 2.33 109 y).

6.

A pigeonite basalt (12039, 19) from the Ocean of Storms on the Moon collected by the
astronauts of Apollo 12 yielded the following results (Nyquist et al. 1979, 10th Lunar Planetary
Sci. Conf., Geochim. Cosmochim. Supplement, 77-114).

143

Nd/144Nd ratio of CHUR at a time 2.5 109 y ago, given that

and that
= 0.1967. (Answer:

Sample
whole rock
plagioclase
pyroxene

147

143

Sm/144Nd
0.2090
0.1727
0.2434

Nd/144Nd = 0.51150 for t = 1.8 109 y

143

Nd/144Nd
0.513142
0.512365
0.5138611

a. Calculate a Sm-Nd date by means of least-squares regression of these data to an isochron.

(Answer: t = 3.20 109 y).
b. Express the initial 143Nd/144Nd ratio of this rock it as an epsilon value relative to CHUR at
3.2 Ga. (Answer: Initial 143Nd/144Nd = 0.508712,
).

13
c. Estimate the Sm/Nd ratio of the source rocks in the interior of the Moon, assuming that its
primordial 143Nd/144Nd ratio was 0.506609 and that its age is 4.6 109 y. (Answer: Sm/Nd
= 0.355).
7.

Basaltic rocks from the greenstone belts of Zimbabwe have yielded the following analytical
results (Hamilton et al., 1977, Earth Planet. Sci. Letters, 36:263-268).
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

147

Sm/144Nd
0.2088
0.2151
0.2267
0.1485
0.1710
0.1675
0.2036
0.1873
0.1196
0.1222

143

Nd/144Nd
0.512868
0.512872
0.513101
0.511785
0.512104
0.512183
0.512796
0.512426
0.511221
0.511352

a. Calculate a Sm-Nd date for these rock samples by least-squares regression of the data to
an isochron and plot the isochron to scale. (Answer: t = 2.627 109 y; initial 143Nd/144Nd
= 0.509202).
b. Recalculate the initial 143Nd/144Nd ratio as an , value relative to CHUR at the indicated
time. (Answer:
).
Chapter 10
The U-P, Th-Pb, and Pb-Pb Method
1.

a. Calculate the abundances of the isotopes of Pb having the following isotope ratios relative
to 206Pb. 204Pb = 0.143, 206Pb = 1.000, 207Pb = 12.95, 208Pb = 21.96 (Answer: 204Pb = 0.3966
%, 206Pb = 2.7736 %, 207Pb = 35.9193 %, 208Pb = 60.9103 %).
b.

Recalculate the isotope ratios relative to 204Pb. (Answer:206Pb/204Pb = 6.9934, 207Pb/204Pb

= 90.5680, 208Pb/204Pb = 153.5811).

c.

Calculate the atomic weight of this sample of Pb:

204

Pb = 2039730 amu, 206Pb = 205.9744 amu, 207Pb = 206.9759 amu, 208Pb = 207.9766
amu. (Answer: 207.54).

14
2.

The isotopic composition of Pb in a zircon is: 206Pb/204Pb = 2702.7, 207Pb/204Pb = 668.92, and
Pb/204Pb = 188.92. The concentration of U is 767 ppm, that of Pb is 478 ppm. Calculate the
radiogenic 206Pb/238U and 207Pb/235U ratios. The initial Pb isotopic ratios are (206Pb/204Pb)i = 14.2
and (207Pb/204Pb)i = 15.0. (Answer: 206Pb*/238U = 0.5467, 207Pb*/235U = 18.81).

208

3.

Calculate three dates from the following data for a zircon: U = 962 ppm, Pb = 548 ppm,
206
Pb/204Pb = 1960.8, 207Pb/204Pb = 464.9, and 208Pb/204Pb = 147.4. The initial isotopic ratios are
(206Pb/204Pb )i = 14.2 and (207Pb/204Pb)i = 15.0. (Answer: t206 = 2.614 109y, t207 = 2.873
109 y, t7/6= 3.056 109 y).

4.

The present abundances of the U isotopes are : 238U = 99.2743 % and 235U = 0.7200 %.

5.

a.

Calculate the abundance of 235U at 4.600 Ga. (Answer: 66.8068 %).

b.

Calculate the abundance of 238U at 4.600 Ga. (Answer: 202.646 %).

c.

Calculate the abundance of

0.0112029 %).

d.

Recalculate the abundances of the U isotopes at 4.60 Ga to 100%. (Answer: 235U = 24.79
%, 238U = 75.20 %, 234U = 0.0041 %.

234

U at 4.600 Ga assuming secular equilibrium. (Answer:

Nicolaysen et al. (1962) reported the following data for samples of gold-bearing conglomerate
from the Witwatersrand mining district of South Africa:

Sample
B153
KCGI
KCGIV

U
%
2.46
0.201
0.520

Pb
%
1.77
0.112
0.350

206

Pb
Pb
571
249
326

204

207

Pb
Pb
142
68.3
84.7
204

208

Pb
Pb
52.6
62.6
69.1
204

The initial isotope ratios of Pb are: 204:206:207:208 = 1.0:12.4:14.5:32.7. Calculate the age
of these samples by means of a concordia diagram. (Answer: 3.15 Ga)
6.

A suite of whole-rock samples from the Seminoe Mountains of Wyoming has the following
isotope compositions of Pb (Rosholt et al., 1973, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 84:989-1002).

15
Sample
Number
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

206

Pb
204
Pb
30.09
31.49
31.86
32.02
32.28
33.02
34.04
36.80

207

Pb
Pb
18.03
18.30
18.40
18.14
18.41
18.46
18.88
19.40

204

Plot a Pb-Pb isochron and determine the age of these rocks. (Answer: 2.89 Ga).
Chapter 11
The Common-Lead Method
Use the following constants to solve the problems in this chapter:
81 (238U) = 1.55125 10-10 y-1
82 (235U) = 9.8485 10-10 y-1
83 (232Th) = 4.9475 10-11 y-1
Primeval Pb (Holmes-Houtermans model, Fig. 11.2)
206

Pb/204Pb = 9.307
207
Pb/204Pb = 10.294
208
Pb/204Pb = 29.476
T (age of the Earth) = 4.55 Ga
Primeval Pb (Stacey-Kramers model)
First stage
206

Pb/204Pb
207
Pb/204Pb
208
Pb/204Pb
T

= 9.307
= 10.294
= 29.487
= 4.57 Ga
= 7.192
= 32.208

Second stage (point Q, Fig. 11.4)

206

Pb/204Pb = 11.152
207
Pb/204Pb = 12.998
208
Pb/204Pb = 31.230

16
T = 3.70 Ga
= 9.735
T = 36.837
Present isotope ratios (t = 0)
206

Pb/204Pb = 18.700
207
Pb/204Pb = 15.628
208
Pb/204Pb = 38.630
1.

Lead-bearing fumarolic incrustations of an active andesite volcano on White Island, New

Zealand, have the following isotopic composition: 206Pb/204Pb = 18.757, 207Pb/204Pb = 15.603,
208
Pb/204Pb = 38.644. Using the single-stage Holmes-Houtermans model and Table 10.3,
calculate the age of the Earth (Answer: T = 4.41 109 y).

2.

The average isotopic composition of Pb in the Pb-Zn mining district in southeastern Missouri
is 206Pb/204Pb = 20.81, 207Pb/204Pb = 15.97, 208Pb/204Pb = 40.08. (Heyl et al., 1974, Econ. Geol.
69:992-1006). Plot a single-stage lead-growth curve for = 9.0 including the geochron and, by
means of that diagram, determine whether this Pb is ordinary or anomalous. (Answer:
anomalous).

3.

Galena samples in ore deposits associated with the Tintina trench in the Selwyn fold belt of the
Yukon Territory, Canada, have the following isotopic compositions (Kuo and Folinsbee, 1974,
Econ. Geol. 69:806-813).
Deposit
Faro 1
Faro 2
Fyre Lake
Mt. Hundere
Kathleen Lake
Keno Hill
Mt. Selous
Pike Lake
Fortin Lake
Francis Lake

Nod Claims
Godlin Lake
Pyrite in
metatuff

18.372 15.671
18.412 15.709
19.360 15.767
19.450 15.794
19.701 15.845
19.356 15.765
18.521 15.718
19.370 15.774
18.691 15.700
18.675 15.701
18.699 15.706
18.717 15. 738
18.655 15.672
19.700 15.861
18.755 15.717
19.025 15.748

17
a. Calculate the slope and intercept of the anomalous-Pb line defined by these samples using a
least-squares regression procedure. (Answer: slope = 0.11421, intercept = 13.576).
b. Plot a single-stage Pb-growth curve for = 8.79 and superimpose on it the anomalous-Pb line
calculated above. The primordial Pb-isotope ratios are: 206Pb/204Pb = 9.307 and 207Pb/204Pb =
10.294. (Answer: see graph)
c. Calculate the Pb-separation date based on the coordinates of the point of intersection of the Pbgrowth curve and the anomalous -Pb line. (Answer: 2.49 109 y ).
d. Use the instantaneous model to estimate the time when the radiogenic Pb component was
generated. (Answer: 1095 106 y).
4.

Plot a two-stage Pb-growth curve (Stacey-Kramers) and superimpose on it the anomalous-Pb

line for ore samples in the Tintina trench, Yukon Territory (Problem 3). Estimate the time of
original separation of the Pb using the coordinates of the point of intersection of the anomalousPb line and the two-stage growth curve. (Answer: 1058 Ma).

5.

Galena from the ore deposits at Manitouwadge, Ontario, has the following isotopic
composition: 206Pb/204Pb = 13.211, 207Pb/204Pb = 14.401, 208Pb/204Pb = 33.069. Calculate the
source-separation age of this Pb and the 238U/204Pb (:), 232Th/204Pb (T), 232Th/238U (6), and Th/U
ratios of its source region using the Stacey-Kramers model. (Answer: t = 2.698 109 y,
238
U/204Pb = 8.056, 232Th/204Pb = 31.66, 232Th/238U = 3.929, Th/U = 3.80).

6.

Fifteen samples of basalt from the seamounts at the north end of the Juan de Fuca ridge form
a line in coordinates of 206Pb/204Pb (x) and 207Pb/204Pb (y) having a slope equal to 207Pb/206Pb =
0.101. Calculate the age of the U/Pb system in which these Pb samples evolved. (Answer:
1.64 109y).

7.

The same samples (Problem 6 above) also form a line in coordinates of 206Pb/204Pb (x) versus
208
Pb/204Pb (y) whose slope is 0.861. Calculate the 232Th/238U and Th/U ratios of the source
region of these basalts, assuming that the age of the source is 1.64 109 years. (Answer:
232
Th/238U = 2.95, Th/U = 2.85).
Chapter 12
The Lu-Hf Method

Constants: Ab 176Lu = 2.59 %, Ab 177Hf = 18.6 %, At.Wt. Lu = 174.967, At.Wt. Hf = 178.49

= 0.28286 at t = 0
= 0.279742 at T = 4.56 Ga

18
= 0.0334
8 ( Lu) = 1.94 10-11 y-1.
176

1.

Calculate the Lu/Hf ratio of the magma sources of two basalts and thereby set limits on the
apparent heterogeneity of the mantle (Patchett and Tatsumoto, 1980, Geophys. Res. Letters,
7:1077-1080).
1a) Atlantic MORB, 176Hf/177Hf = 0.283516;
1b) Tristan da Cunha, 176Hf/177Hf = 0.282848. (Answer: a. 0.287, b. 0.236).

2.

Zircon in the Amitsoq gneiss of West Greenland, contains 19.86 ppm Lu and 11,056 ppm Hf.
Calculate the 176Lu/177Hf ratio. (Pettingill et al., 1981, Earth Planet. Sci. Letters, 55:150-156).
(Answer: 0.0002551).

3.

The same authors reported that the initial 176Hf/177Hf ratio of the Amitsoq gneiss at 3.59 Ga was
0.280482. Calculate the value of ,t relative to CHUR. (Answer: ,t = + 1.14).

4.

Calculate the age and initial 176Hf/177Hf ratio for the Nuk gneisses of West Greenland from the
following data (Patchett et al., 1981, Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., 78:279-297).

Rock
1
2
3
4

0.004449
0.003381
0.02128
0.001108

0.281230
0.281193
0.282177
0.280988

(Answer: 2.87 109 y, 0.28096)

5.

Use the initial 176Hf/177Hf ratio of the Nuk gneisses (problem 4) to calculate a model Lu-Hf date
relative to CHUR. (Answer: 2.85 Ga).

6.

176

Lu/177Hf ratio of a basalt from the Reykjanes Ridge south of Iceland is 0.02253 and its
Hf/177Hf ratio is 0.283297 (Patchett and Tatsumoto, 1980, Geophys. Res. Letters, 7(12):10771080). Calculate the 176Lu/177Hf ratio of the magma source and explain the difference in the
light of the geochemical properties of Lu and Hf.
176

Chapter 13
The Re-Os Method
Constants: Ab187Re = 62.6 %, Ab188Os = 13.29 %, At. Wt. Re = 186.207, At.Wt.Os = 190.2286,
8 (187Re) = 1.666 10-11 y-1..

19
CHUR (Os)

= 0.12863

= 0.095257

= 0.423
T = 4.558 109y
1.

What is the initial 187Os/188Os ratio of a sample of Os that was separated from CHUR at 1.0 Ga?
(Answer: 0.121523)

2.

What is the present 187Os/188Os ratio of a crustal rock containing Os derived from CHUR at 2.7
Ga, if its Re/Os ratio is 15.0? (Answer: 3.4301)

3.

Iron meteorites have high Re/Os ratios that facilitate dating them by the Re-Os method. (Shen
et al., 1996, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 60:2887-2900).

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Name
Negrillos
Bennett Co
Coahuila
Tocopilla
Hoba
Duchesne

187

Re/188Os
0.3515
0.3751
0.5826
0.9357
0.3350
0.6698

187

Os/188Os
0.12326
0.12507
0.14130
0.16903
0.12189
0.14839

a. Plot these data on a Re-Os isochron diagram, derive the equation of the isochron by leastsquares regression, and calculate a date from the slope of this isochron (Answer: t = 4.54 109
y).
b. Express the initial

187

Os/188Os ratio of the iron meteorites in terms of , (Os) relative to

at 4.536 109. (Answer: ,t = + 22.2).

c. Calculate the date in the past when CHUR had the same
187
Os/188Os ratio of iron meteorites. (Answer: 4.51 109 y.)

187

Os/188Os ratio as the initial

20
4.

A sample of osmiridium whose 187Os/188Os ratio is 0.900 0.005 was derived from a source
whose present 187Os/188Os ratio is 1.040 0.010 and whose 187Re/188Os ratio is 3.34 0.14.
Assume that the Re/Os ratio of the osmiridium sample is equal to zero. (Answer: tmax = 2.839
Ga, tmin = 2.118 Ga, t = 46 0.36 Ga).

a. Construct a graph to illustrate the isotopic evolution of Os in the source and in the sample of
osmiridium.
b. Calculate the date at which the separation occurred. (Answer: 2.464 109 y).
c. Determine the maximum and minimum values of this date permitted by the measurements.
(Answer: t = 2.46 0.36 Ga).
Chapter 14
The La-Ce Method
Constants: Ab138La = 0.09%, Ab142Ce = 11.08 %, 8$ = 2.33 10-12 y-1, 8e = 4.42 10-12 y-1, 8
= 8$ + 8e = 6.75 10-12 y-1, At.Wt.La = 138.9055, At.Wt.Ce = 140.12.
1.

Write the geochronometry equations that represent the branched decay of

to
.

2.

Convert the La/Ce concentration ratio to the atomic

(Answer: (138La/136Ce)atom = 0.4778 (La/Ce)conc.).

3.

Convert the 138La/142Ce ratio into the corresponding

(Answer: (138La/138Ce)atom = 44.32 (138La/142Ca).

4.

A sample of granite from Merredin in the Yilgarn block of Western Australia (sample 86-306)
yielded the following data for the Sm-Nd and the La-Ce systems (Makishima et al., 1993,
Chem. Geol., Isot. Geosci. Section, 104:293-300).

138

188

to

and

La/136Ce ratio. (Ab136Ce = 0.19 %).

La/138Ce ratio (Ab

138

Ce = 0.25 %).

Mineral
Apatite
Titanite
Plagioclase
Biotite
Whole rock

0.176
0.103
0.0668
0.0786
0.0770

0.512144
0.510978
0.510316
0.510472
0.510430

0.00235
0.00230
0.00496
0.00400
0.00440

0.0225607
0.0225594
0.0225764
0.0225695
0.0225747

a. Plot two separate Sm-Nd and La-Ce isochrons and determine their slopes and intercepts by a
least-squares method. (Answer: slope = 0.0063854, intercept = 0.0225451).

21
b. Calculate Sm-Nd and La-Ce dates form the slopes of the isochrons (8147Sm = 6.54 10-12 y-1).
(Answer: Sm-Nd date = 2.58 Ga, La-Ce date = 2.72 Ga).
c. Calculate the ,t (Ce) value of the granite sample from Merredin in Western Australia (Use
equation 14.5 in Section 14.4, p. 329). (Answer: ,t (Ce) = - 0.22).
Chapter 15
La-Ba Method
Constants: Ab138La = 0.09 %, Ab137Ba = 11.23 %, At.Wt.La = 138.9055, At.Wt.Ba = 137.33,
8e (138La) = 4.42 10-12 y-1, 8 = 6.75 10-12 y-1.
1.

Allanite of the Mustikkamki (Blueberry Hill) pegmatite in Finland contains La = 3.218 104
ppm and Ba = 62.34 ppm. Calculate the atomic 138La/137Ba ratio. (Answer:

2.

The isotopic abundances of the stable isotopes of Ba are: 130Ba = 0.106 %, 132Ba = 0.101 %,
134
Ba = 2.471 %, 135Ba = 6.592 %, 136Ba = 7.854 %, 137Ba = 11.23 %, 188Ba = 71.70 %. Calculate
the 138Ba/137Ba isotopic ratio of common Ba. (Answer: 138Ba/137Ba = 6.3846).

3.

The minerals of the Mustikkamki pegmatite have the following compositions (Nakai et al.,
1986, Nature, 320:433-435).
Mineral
Allanite 4.058
6.42033
Apatite

Sphene
0.00973 6.38972
(Titanite)

0.07489 0.511101
0.1618 0.512157
0.4779 0.5158910

a. Plot Sm-Nd and La-Ba isochrons and determine the slopes and intercepts by a least-squares
regression method. (Answer: slope = 0.0119166; intercept = 0.510217)
b. Calculate the Sm-Nd and La-Ba dates from the slopes of the isochrons (8147Sm = 6.54 10-12
y-1. (Answer: Sm-Nd date = 1.81 Ga, La-Ba date = 1.70 Ga).
4.

Given that the average La/Ba ratio of chondrite meteorites is 0.079 and that the present
Ba/137Ba ratio is 6.38972 (BCR-1, Nakai et al., 1986, Nature, 230:433-435). Calculate the
value of the primordial 138Ba/137Ba ratio at 4.60 Ga. (Answer: (138Ba/137Ba)T = 6.38970).

138

22
Chapter 16
Mixing Theory
1.

Calculate the concentration of Sr in a sediment sample composed of component A (calcium

carbonate) and component B (silicate detritus). The sample contains 40% of component A.
Assume that SrA = 600 ppm and SrB = 100 ppm. (Answer: Sr = 300 ppm).

2.

Calculate the concentration of component A in a mixture of components A and B containing 265

ppm of Sr. Assume SrA = 85 ppm, SrB = 450 ppm. (Answer:fA = 50.7 %).

3.

Calculate SrM and (87Sr/86Sr)M for a series of mixtures of components A and B for values of f =
0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8. Assume that SrA = 600 ppm, (87Sr/86Sr)A = 0.7090, SrB = 100 ppm,
(87Sr/86Sr)B = 0.7250. Plot the results in coordinates of 87Sr/86Sr and Sr and draw a smooth curve
through the points.

4.

Calculate concentrations of SiO2 and 87Sr/86Sr ratios for a series of mixtures of components A
and B for values of f = 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8. Assume that (SiO2)A = 72%, SrA = 150 ppm,
(87Sr/86Sr)A = 0.7300, (SiO2)B = 48%, SrB = 475 ppm, (87Sr/86Sr)B = 0.7040. Plot the points in
coordinates of 87Sr/86Sr and SiO2 and draw a smooth curve through the points.

5.

Use the calculated coordinates of the points in problems 3 and 4 above to plot the 87Sr/86Sr ratios
of the mixtures versus the reciprocals of the concentrations of Sr and SiO2, respectively. What
conclusions can you draw about the mixing equations?

6.

The Sr concentrations and 87Sr/86Sr ratios of detrital, noncarbonate fractions of a suite of deep
sea sediment samples are:
No. Sr, ppm

87

1
2
3
4

0.7136
0.7109
0.7083
0.7043

111
143
200
500

Sr/86Sr

Fit a mixing equation to these data by least-squares regression. Assume that the end members
of these mixtures have 87Sr/86Sr ratios of 0.7150 (component A) and 0.7030 (component B).
Calculate SrA and SrB and determine the concentration of component A in all four samples.
(Answer: SrA = 99.4 ppm, SrB = 982.8 ppm, 1:98.7 %, 2:95.0 %, 3:88.6 %, 4:54.6%).
7.

The following analytical data pertain to water samples from the North Channel area of Lake
Huron:

23
No.

Sr
:g/L

Ca
:g/mL

1
2
3
4
5
6

28.8
48.8
62.3
66.6
72.5
78.6

14.3
18.2
21.1
22.0
22.1
23.4

87

Sr/86Sr

0.7151
0.7130
0.7123
0.7112
0.7113
0.7111

Assume that the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of component A (Lake Superior) is 0.7180 and that of component
B (Lake Huron) is 0.7107. Estimate the concentrations of Sr and Ca of water in Lake Superior
and Lake Huron from these data and calculate the volume percent concentration of Lake
Superior water in each of the samples. (Answer: Lake Superior water: Sr = 20.06 :g/L, Ca =
12.80 g/mL; Lake Huron: Sr = 102.8 g/L, Ca = 28.25 :g/mL; abundance of Lake Superior
water: 89.2 % (1), 65.3 % (2), 48.9 %(3), 43.8 % (4), 36.6 % (5), and 29.2 % (6)).
Chapter 17
Origin of Igneous Rocks
1.

Plot a Sr-Nd isotopic mixing curve based on two components A and B having the following
concentrations and isotope ratios of Sr and Nd.
Component A
Component B
SrA = 125 ppm
SrB = 465 ppm
87
86
87
86
( Sr/ Sr)A = 0.7500
( Sr/ Sr)B = 0.7035
NdA = 40 ppm
NdB = 6.70 ppm
143
144
143
144
( Nd/ Nd)A = 0.5115 ( Nd/ Nd)B = 0.5135

2.

The isotope ratios of Sr and Nd of the principal magma-source components in Table 17.1 (p.
364) are:
Component 87Sr/86Sr 143Nd/144Nd
DMM
0.7022
0.51330
EM1
0.7055
0.51235
EM 2
0.7075
0.51264
HIMU 0.7028
0.51258

a. Plot these isotope ratios and connect the points by straight lines to form a polygon of mixing.
b. Plot the isotope ratios of volcanic rocks from the Azore Islands on the diagram constructed
above (Turner et al., 1997, Chem. Geol., 139:145-164).

24
Number
S1
S2
S3
S7
S10
S19
SP2
SP8
SJ26
SJ30
SJ31b
T2
T6
T18

87

Sr/86Sr
0.70423
0.70502
0.70452
0.70444
0.70496
0.70499
0.70419
0.70479
0.70337
0.70350
0.70348
0.70352
0.70348
0.70355

143

Nd/144Nd
0.51281
0.51272
0.51269
0.51279
0.51282
0.51262
0.51280
0.51265
0.51297
0.51283
0.51284
0.51296
0.51292
0.51290

c. Characterize the plume component of the basalt flows extruded on the Azore Islands.
3.

Isotopic mixtures of Pb.

a. State the equations for the 206Pb/204Pb and 207Pb/204Pb ratios of two-component mixtures having
different isotope ratios and concentrations of Pb.
b. Plot a graph for a series of mixtures of components A and B in coordinates of (206Pb/204Pb)M and
PbM as well as 1/PbM.
Component A
Component B
(206Pb/204Pb)A = 17.00 (206Pb/204Pb)B = 21.00
PbA = 10 ppm

PbB = 50 ppm

c. State the equations for the 206Pb/204Pb and 207Pb/204Pb ratios of two-component mixtures,
assuming that PbA = PbB and plot the (206Pb/204Pb)M and (207Pb/204Pb)M ratios of these mixtures.
Component A
(206Pb/204Pb)A = 21.00

(207Pb/204Pb)B = 15.75

Component B
(206Pb/204Pb)B = 17.00
4.

(207Pb/204Pb)B = 15.30

The 206Pb/204Pb ratios and Pb concentrations of basalt erupted along the Reykjanes Ridge and
on Iceland were measured by Sun et al. (1975, Science, 190:143-147).

25

a.

Sample

Pb 1/Pb
ppm ppm-1

IC58
18.777
TR101-11D2 18.680
TR101-1D-2
18.665
TR101-23D-1-6 18.674
TR101-27D-7A 18.460
TR101-31D-9C 18.217
TR41-19D
18.259

0.722
0.540
0.449
0.384
0.246
0.176
0.207

1.385
1.851
2.227
2.604
4.065
5.681
4.830

Plot the 206Pb/204Pb ratios versus the concentrations of Pb and versus the reciprocal Pb
concentrations.

b. Write an essay about the petrogenesis of the basalt on Iceland and along the Reykjanes Ridge
based on the isotope composition of Pb. Use information from Sun and Jahn (1975, Nature,
255:527-530); Sun et al. (1975, Science, 190:143-147), and from Section 17.4b.
5.

What fraction of shale having 187Os/188Os = 10.0 must be assimilated by basalt magma having
187
Os/188Os = 0.12863 to raise the 187Os/188Os of the hybrid magma to 1.445? Shale, Os-1.72
ppb, basalt (diabase), Os = 0.26 ppb. (Answer: 2.3 %).
Chapter 18
Water and Sediment

1.

Big Walnut Creek in central Ohio, USA, has two tributaries that enter from opposite sides but
at the same location. Therefore, the water downstream of the confluence is a mixture of three
components (Petz and Faure, 1997, Ohio J. Sci., 97(5):113-115).
The concentrations of Na and Sr upstream of the confluence are:
Stream

1.
2.
3.
4.

Na
mg/L
Upstream
Big Walnut 30.4
Blacklick 49.5
Alum
25.7
Downstream
Big Walnut 33.1

Sr
mg/L
0.41
0.48
0.69
0.56

26
a. Plot a mixing triangle in coordinates of the concentrations of Na and Sr of water upstream of
the confluence and mark the location of sample 4 (Big Walnut, downstream of the confluence)
within that triangle.
b. By means of a graphical construction (Section 16.1c) determine the abundances of the water
contributed by the tributaries to Big Walnut Creek. (Answer: Alum Creek: 47 %; Blacklick
Creek: 25 %; Big Walnut Creek: 28 %).
2.

The Sr concentrations and 87Sr/86Sr ratios of snow collected along a traverse across the
Scandinavian peninsula were reported by Andersson et al. (1990, Atmosph. Environ. 24A:26012608).
Station Sr
g/L
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

0.76
0.22
0.47
0.16
0.12
0.04
0.03
0.16

Distance from the

North-Sea coast, km
0.70976
0.71072
0.70980
0.71164
0.71320
0.71307
0.7140
0.71936

25
81
122
159
241
303
381
466

a. Plot the concentrations of Sr and the 87Sr/86Sr ratios versus distance from the coast of the North
Sea.
b. Plot the 87Sr/86Sr ratios versus the reciprocal concentrations of Sr and determine the number of
sources that contribute Sr to meteoric precipitation in Scandinavia.
c. Label the corners of the mixing triangle constructed in 2b above as follows: Sample 1 = A,
sample 8 = B, sample 7 = C. Draw a straight line from sample 1 through sample 5 to a point
M on the line BC. Use the Sr concentrations of samples 1 and M to calculate the
abundance of Sr derived from source A in sample 5. (Answer: 8.61 %).
d. Use the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of sample 1, 5, and M to obtain a second estimate of the abundance
of marine Sr (component A) in sample 5. (Answer: 8.61 %).
3.

Soil fractions (< 2 mm) leached with NH4Cl-methanol at South Point, Hawaii, were analyzed
by Whipkey et al. (2000, Chem. Geol., 168:37-48).

27
Depth
cm
1. 30-50
2. 122-160
3. 160-169
4. 258-266
5. 266-300

Sr
g/g
1.16
2.40
2.49
3.69
3.18

0.70825
0.70750
0.70712
0.70659
0.70622

basalt
78.5
diluted seawater 2.16

0.7035
0.70917

a. Plot the soil-data in coordinates of 87Sr/86Sr and 1/Sr (g/g)-1.

b. Calculate the abundance of basalt-Sr in sample 4. (Answer: 2.0 %).
c. Draw a horizontal line at 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70917 and use it to determine the concentrations of
marine Sr in the remaining soil samples. For example, a line drawn from the basalt point
though sample 1 intersects the diluted-seawater line at 1/Sr = 1.02 (g/g)-1 which yields (Sr)1
= 0.98 g/g. (Answer: Sample 1, f = 0.23 %).
d. Plot the abundance of basalt-Sr as a function of depth in the soil profile.
Chapter 19
The Oceans
1.

The isotopic composition of Sr in solution in seawater is expressed by equations 19.5 and 19.6
(p.441) and by Figure 19.2 on p. 442.

a. Set v = 0 and express s as a function of m. What is the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of seawater in case m =
0.25? (Answer: 0.717).
b. What value of v would allow the
(Answer: v = 0.634).

87

Sr/86Sr ratio of seawater to be 0.70685 if m = 0.25?

c. What must be the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of the sialic crust in order to cause the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of seawater
to rise to 0.7150, assuming that m = 0.5, s = 0.2, and v = 0.3 and that the isotopic composition
of Sr in marine limestone and volcanic rocks remains constant? (Answer: 0.749).
2.

The effects of isotope exchange reactions between seawater and volcanic rocks erupted in the
oceans are expressed by equation 19.15 on p. 461.
Plot the 143Nd/144Nd and 87Sr/86Sr ratios of altered volcanic rocks as a function of W/R = 0, 102,
103, 104, etc.:

28
Tholeiite basalt

Seawater

= 0.51300

= 0.51245
(Nd)w = 2.6 10-6 ppm

(Nd)r = 8.0 ppm

= 0.70300

= 0.70918

(Sr)r = 120 ppm

(Sr)w = 8.0 ppm

Express equation 19.15 in terms of isotope ratios.

3.

Construct a Sr-Nd isotopic trajectory for the alteration of alkali-rich basalt by seawater. Plot
the results in coordinates of 87Sr/86Sr and 143Nd/144Nd at the same scale as in Problem 2.
Alkali-rich basalt

Seawater

= 0.51308

= 0.51245

(Nd)r = 45.317 ppm

(Nd)w = 2.6 10-6 ppm

= 0.70269
(Sr)r = 970.5 ppm

= 0.70918
(Sr)w = 98.0 ppm

4.

Rocks of the Samail ophiolite in Oman include sheeted dikes one of which (G10) has 87Sr/86Sr
= 0.70535 and Sr = 162 ppm. Assume that the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of unaltered rocks in this complex
was 0.70296 (plagioclase, sample K9). (McCulloch et al., 1981, J. Gegophys. Res., 86(B4):
2721-2735). Calculate the W/R ratio using equations 19.13 on p.461. (Answer: 12.6).

5.

The minerals of a lherzolite inclusion in a Tertiary basalt flow erupted at Kilbourne Hole, New
Mexico, have a range of 87Sr/86Sr ratios and Sr concentrations (Stueber and Ikramuddin (1974,
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 38:207-216).
Mineral
Clinopyroxene
Orthopyroxene
Olivine

Sr,
ppm
0.7026 43.7
0.7059 1.17
0.7061 1.01

1/Sr
(ppm)-1
0.0228
0.854
0.990

a. Plot the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the minerals versus the reciprocals of their Sr concentrations and draw
a straight line through the cpx-point parallel to the 1/Sr axis.

29
b. Draw straight lines from the opx and olivine points to a point whose coordinates are 87Sr/86Sr
= 0.725 and 1/Sr = 0.0. Extrapolate these lines backward to intersect the horizontal line drawn
through cpx.
c. Determine the 1/Sr values of opx and olivine from the coordinates of the points of intersection
obtained in part 5b above.
d. Express the 1/Sr values as the concentrations of these minerals and interpret the results of this
construction originally proposed by Lutz et al. (1988, Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., 98:212-223).
(Answer: opx, Sr = 1.00 ppm; olivine: Sr = 0.86 ppm.
Chapter 20
Uranium/Thorium-Series Disequilibria
Constants: 8234 = 2.829 10-6 y-1; 8231 = 2.13 10-5 y-1; 8230 = 9.1929 10-6y-1; 8210 = 3.06 10-2
y-1.
1.

The following activity ratios of 230Th/232Th in a manganese nodule were reported by Ku and
Broecker (1967, Earth Planet. Sci. Letters, 2:317-320).
Depth,
mm
0 - 03 43.7 1.8
0.3 - 0.5 26.2 0.6
0.5 - 0.85 10.4 0.3

3.77
3.26
2.34

a. Estimate the rate of accretion of this nodule by means of equation 20.10 on p. 500. (Answer:
3.36 10-6 mm/y or 3.36 mm/106 y).
b. Calculate a date for the manganese nodule at a depth of 1.0 mm below the surface (Answer:
297,000 y).
2.

The activity ratios of excess 230Th/231Pa in the same manganese nodule (Problem 1) are :
Depth,
mm
0 - 0.3 22.1 0.7
0.3 - 0.5 44.9 1.3
0.5 - 0.85 93.8 3.8

ln
3.09
3.80
4.54

Estimate the rate of deposition based on equations 20.42 on p. 517. (Answer: 4.39 mm/106 y)

30
3.

The disintegration rates of excess 230Th and 231Pa in the same manganese nodule (Problem 1)
are:
Depth,
mm
0 - 0.3
0.3 - 0.5
0.5 - 0.85

230

Th
dpm/g
1.41
0.76
0.38

231

Pa,
dpm/g
63.6
17.1
4.0

Calculate growth rates based on the activities of each of these radionuclides. (Answer: a = 3.68
mm/106 (230Th), a = 4.04 mm/106 (231Pa)).
4.

A coral (Montastria annularis, sample 1152-C) from a coral-reef terrace on Barbados has a
Th/234U activity ratio of 0.52. (Broecker et al., 1968, Science, 159:297-300). Calculate a date
for this coral and its initial 234U/238U activity ratio, given that the present value of this ratio is
1.11. (Answer: (0 = 1.14, t = 78,700 y).

230

5.

The following activities of 210Pb in samples of firn from a core taken at Camp Century in
northern West Greenland were reported by Crozaz and Langway (1966, Earth Planet. Sci.
Letters, 1:194-196). Plot the data in coordinates of depth (x) and ln (210Pb)A (y) and estimate
the average accumulation rate of water per year at this site. (Answer: a = 33.15 cm/y).
Chapter 21
Helium and Tritium
Constants: 8238 = 1.55125 10-10 y-1, 8235 = 9.8485 10-10y-1, 8232 = 4.9475 10-11 y-1; 8 (3H) =
5.6537 10-2 y-1.

1.

The accumulation of radiogenic 4He in U, Th-bearing minerals that retain He quantitatively is

expressed by equation 21.6 on p. 548. Calculate the amount of radiogenic 4He in a specimen
of hematite containing 71.1 ppm U and 0.8 ppm Th. (Wernicke and Lippolt, 1993, Earth Planet.
Sci. Letters, 114:287-300). Assume that t = 150 106 y. (Answer: 1.349 L/g).

2.

The temperature dependence of the diffusion parameter (D/r2) for He in the mineral apatite was
expressed by equations 21.15 on p. 550 (Zeitler et al., 1987, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta,
51:2865-2868).
ln

= 16.4 - 1.9375 (104/T)

where D = diffusion coefficient,

31
r = radius of the mineral grains in cm,
= is expressed in units of s-1,
T = temperature on the Kelvin scale,
and the equation is valid for temperatures between 250 and 400C.
a. Calculate the value of D/r2 for He diffusion in apatite at 300C, 350C, and 400C. (Answer:
D/r2 = 2.77 10-8 s-1 at T = 573.15 K (300C)).
b. Plot log10 D/r2 vs. the temperature in degrees Celsius.
3.

A sample of apatite from the Anglesy-1 borehole in the Otway Supergroup in South Australia
was analyzed by House et al. (1999, Earth Planet. Sci. Letters, 170:463-474) for dating by the
U-Th/He method.
Sample Number: Al-3b, Ft = 0.82, 4He = 0.635 nmol/g, U = 5 ppm, Th = 26 ppm. (Ft is the
fraction of 4He atoms remaining). Calculate the U-Th/He date of this sample. (Answer: 12.8
Ma).

4.

Geochemistry of tritium.

a. Calculate the number of hydrogen atoms in one liter of water. (Answer: 668.5 1023 atoms/L).
b. Calculate the number of tritium atoms in 1.0 L of water containing one tritium unit (TU) of 3H.
(Answer: 668.5 105 atoms).
c. Calculate the rate of decay of 3H in 1.0 L of water containing 1.0 TU (8= 5.6537 10-2 y-1) and
express the result in dis/s. (Answer: 0.1197 dis/s).
d. Express the decay rate in becquerels and in pico Curies. (Answer: 3.235 pCi).
5.

Calculate the disintegration rate of 3H in 1.0 L of water containing 5000 TU (See Section 21.4a,
page 556). (Answer: 161 104 pCi).

6.

Plot a He-Sr mixing line for two components A and B mixed in progressively changing
proportions.

32
A (basalt)

B (crust)

= 0.7030

= 0.7150

= 1.21 10-5

= 1.40 10-6

Assume that SrA = SrB and HeA = HeB

The 3He/4He ratio of basalt on the East Pacific Rise was reported by Ozima and Zashu (1983,
Earth Planet. Sci. Letters, 62:24-40).
Chapter 22
Radiation - Damage Methods
Constants: 8" = 1.55125 10-10 y-1; 8f = 8.46 10-17 y-1; F = 580.2 10-24 cm2;
1/137.88.
1.

235

U/238U =

Apatite and sphene in the granite at Mt. Ascutney, Vermont, were analyzed by Naeser (1967,
Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 78:1523-1526) with the following results:
Ds

Mineral
Apatite
Sphene

Di
(tracks/cm2)
4.82 105 10.1 105
1.95 106 4.29 106

N
(n/cm2)
5.88 1015
5.88 1015

Calculate the fission-track dates of both minerals (Answer: t (apatite) = 138.0 106 y; t
(sphene) = 131.6 106 y.)
2.

Church and Bickford (1971, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 82:1727-1734) analyzed an apatite in the
granite of the Sawatch Range of Colorado. The granite has a whole-rock Rb-Sr date of 1650
106 years. The rock sample from which the apatite was taken yielded a Rb-Sr mineralisochron date of 1275 106 years. The analytical results for the apatite (A38G-II, 4) are as
follows:
Ds = 20 tracks/0.1 mm2, Di = 580 tracks/0.1 mm2, n = 2.5 1016 n/cm2. Calculate a fission-track
date and interpret the result. (Answer: 42.7 Ma).

3.

Muscovite from Val Grosina in the Swiss Alps was dated by the Rb-Sr, K-Ar, and fission-track
methods. (Miller and Jger, 1968, Earth Planet. Sci. Letters, 4:375-378).

33
Rb-Sr date = 252 Ma, K-Ar date = 217 Ma
Ds/Di = 5 10-3, n = 6.2 1016 nc/cm2
Calculate the fission-track date of muscovite and interpret the differences between the dates
obtained by different methods. (Answer: 15.4 Ma).
4.

Muscovites from the Alps have been dated by the Rb-Sr, K-Ar, and fission-track methods.
(Miller and Jger, 1968, Earth Planet. Sci. Letters, 4:375-378).
Fissiontrack
Locality
Brissago
6
Frauenkirch
1.6
Aaf Massif
16
Binntal
4
Krummenalp
13
Verzasca
25
Mt. Odro
23
Brissago
<19
Gotthard Massif
15
Aar Massif
15
Binntal
19
Silvretta
29
Olgiasca
25
Sparese
28
Mte Viacava
12
Val Grosina
19
Mondei
15
Mondei
15
Mondei
23
Schneeberg (biotite) 14

K-Ar
Ma

207
215
219
217

Rb-Sr
216
282
313
19
292
21
19
216
365
313
19
300
~270

252
200
210
204
80

Represent these dates by two histograms, one for the fission-track dates and one for the Rb-Sr
and K-Ar dates combined. Let the subdivisions be 25 Ma and align the time-axes in order to
facilitate comparisons of the different kinds of dates.
5.

Write an essay about the tectonic history and regional metamorphism of the Alps based on
these dates.

34
Chapter 23
Cosmogenic Radionuclides
Constants: 10Be: 8 = 0.459 10-6 y-1; 26Al: 8 = 0.983 10-6 y-1; 14C: 8 = 1.209 10-4y-1; 32Si: 8
= 4.95 10-3 y-1.
1.

The specific radiocarbon activity of a sample of wood is 6.25 dpm/g of C. The specific activity
of the NBS oxalic acid standard is 14.27 dpm/g of C. Calculate the 14C-date of the wood
sample. (Answer: 6400 y).

2.

The specific radiocarbon activity of a sample of wood that was 310 years old when it was
analyzed in 1970 is 15.09 dpm/g of C. Calculate the initial activity of 14C in this sample .
(Answer: 15.66 dpm/g of C).

3.

Calcium carbonate of a modern shell of the fresh-water mollusk Elliptio has a *13C value of
- 11.45 . Calculate the correction factor to be applied to the measured activity of 14C to
correct it for isotope fractionation to *13C = - 25.0 . (Answer: 0.9729).

4.

A specimen of wood was recovered from an archeological site and its 14C activity in 1970 was
10.15 dpm/g of C and the *13C value was - 28.7 . Calculate the radiocarbon date of this
sample corrected for isotope fractionation and express it as a date in terms of years AD or BC.
(Answer: 357 BC).

5.

The radiocarbon content and *13C value of a mollusk shell from a post-Pleistocene lake deposit
are: 5.62 0.56 dpm/g of C and - 7.90 , respectively. Calculate the radiocarbon date of this
shell, corrected for isotope fractionation, and determine the uncertainty of the date due to the
analytical error of the radiocarbon activity. Assume that A0 value was equal to the normal
biospheric value. (Answer: 7567 827 y).

6.

Given that the concentration of Be in deep-ocean water is 28 picomol/kg, calcuate the

concentration of Be in parts per billion by weight? (Answer: 2.52 10-4 ppg).

7.

Given that the concentration of 10Be in rainwater is 60,000 atoms/g, calculate its disintegration
rate in dpm/kg? (Answer: 5.23 10-5 dpm/kg).

8.

Given that the disintegration rate of 26Al in seawater is 2 10-8 dpm/L, calculate its
concentration in atoms/mL of seawater? (Answer: about 10.7 atoms/g).

9.

The 10Be concentrations of a Mn nodule at increasing depths below its surface are:

35
10

Depth, mm
0-5
5 - 11.6
19.4 - 29.4

Be, dpm/kg
23.5
10.1
2.2

Calculate the growth rate of this nodule in mm/106 y and determine the initial decay rate of
Be in dpm/kg. (Answer: initial decay rate = 27.69 dpm/kg; growth rate = 4.37mm/106 y).

10

10. The activities of 32Si in a marine sediment core taken near Antarctica vary with depth as follows
(Kharkar et al., 1969, Earth Planet. Sci. Letters, 6:61-68):
Depth, cm
0 - 25
25 - 50
60 - 85

32

Si, dpm/kg SiO2

9.45
4.56
0.12

Calculate the rate of sediment deposition and plot a graph of depth (x - coordinate) versus the
natural log of the decay rate of 32Si (y - coordinate). (Answer: 0.662 mm/y, see graph).
11. Calculate the production rate of cosmogenic 10Be in quartz at 20N latitude at an elevation of
4000 m above sealevel. (Use Table 23.5 on p. 635). (Answer: 49.69 atoms/g/y).
12. Quartz-bearing boulders occur on the Saglek Moraine in the Torngat Mountains of Labrador,
Canada. (Clark et al., 2003, Geology, 31(7): 617-620. One of these boulders (NK 96-13)
yielded the following results:
10

Be concentration (P) = 1.12 105 atoms/g,

production rate (R) = 9.48 atoms/g/y
8 = 0.459 10-6 y-1

erosion rate (,) = 0 cm/y because the boulders have retained their glacial polish and striations.
Calculate the exposure date of this boulder (See Section 23.3a, pages 634-636). (Answer: 11.9
ka).
Chapter 24
Extinct Radionuclides
Constants: Atom. wt.Ag = 107.8682; atom.wt. Pd = 106.42; Ab 108Pd = 26.46 %; Ab. 109Ag =
48.16 %; 8 (107Pd) = 0.106 10-6 y-1; Ab 53Cr = 9.50 %;

36
1.

The iron meteorite Canyon Diablo has an epsilon 107Ag value of + 1.3 (in parts per 10,000)
relative to 1.07917 for the 107Ag/109Ag ratio of the NIST SRM 978a Ag standard. (Carlson and
Hauri, 2001, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 65(11):1839-1848). Calculate the 107Ag/109Ag ratio
of Canyon Diablo (CD). (Answer: 1.07931)

2.

The metal of Canyon Diablo contains 3650 ng/g of Pd and 37.3 ng/g of Ag. (Carlson and Hauri,
2001, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 65(11):1839-1848). Calculate the atomic 108Pd/109Ag ratio.
(Answer: 54.49).

3.

The same authors reported analytical data for several samples of Canyon Diablo:
Sample
Metal (1)
Metal (2)
Sulfide (1)
Sulfide (2)

52.3
54.5
0.652
0.0291

1.07923
1.07931
1.07790
1.07801

Plot these ratios in coordinates of 107Ag/109Ag (y) and 108Pd/109Ag() and fit a line to the points
by least-squares regression (Answer: slope = 2.47796 10-5; intercept: 1.077946).
4.

Calculate the time interval between the separation of Canyon Diablo and Gideon from the solar
nebula (Chen and Wasserburg, 1996, in Basu and Hart, eds., Geophys. Monograph 85, pp. 1-20,
Amer. Geophys. Union, Washington, D.C.
= 2.4 10-5 =

(Answer: t = + 0.30 106 y).

5.

The decay of short-lived 53Mn (T = 3.7 106 y) to stable 53Cr by electron capture has caused
variations in the 53Cr/52Cr ratios of different minerals of stony meteorites depending on their
Mn/Cr ratios. Shukolyukov and Lugmair (2004, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta,68(13):28752888) reported data relevant to the 53Mn/53Cr isotope systematics for several enstatite chondrites
including Indarch:

37
, (53Cr)1

Sample
Whole rock 1
Whole rock 2
Leach2 1
Leach 2
Leach 3

0.731
0.801
11.2
9.67
0.227

0.17 0.03
0.16 0.07
2.54 0.07
2.41 0.04
0.02 0.04

1.

Epsilon value of the 53Cr/52Cr ratio relative to the standard value of 0.1134507.

2.

Leached sequentially with 1 to 0.5 N acetic acid; 2 to 9 N acetic acid; and 3 to 8 HN nitric
acid.

a. Convert the ,(53Cr) value to the corresponding 53Cr/52Cr ratios given that the standard terrestrial
value of this ratio is 0.1134507. (Answer: , = 0.17 = 0.1134526, etc.).
b. Determine the slope and intercept of the isochron in coordinates of 53Cr/52Cr (y) and 55Mn/52Cr
(x). (Answer: slope = 2.6993 10-6; intercept = 0.1134505).
c. Interpret these results.
6.

The 53Mn/55Mn ratio of the enstatite chondrite Khairpur is 1.21 10-6, whereas that of Abee is
3.0 10-6. (Shukolyukov and Lugmair, 2004, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 68(13):2875-2888).
Calculate the length of the time interval between the separation of Mn from the solar nebula into
Abee and into Khairpur. (Answer: )t = 4.8 106 y).
Chapter 25
Thermonuclear Radionuclides

1.

Examine Figure 25.1 on p. 669 and focus on 237Np. Construct a reaction path by means of
which this isotope can form in the fuel rods of an active nuclear reactor starting with 238U.
Note that the product of alpha-decay of 241Pu is 237U rather than 237Np as indicated in the text on
p. 669, column, 2, line 11 from the top.

2.

The rate of decay of high-level radwaste decreases with time from 612.9 103 Ci to 143.0 103
Ci after 100 days, and to 6.46 103 Ci after 5.0 years. Use these data to estimate the effective
halflife of the decay fo radwaste. (Roxburgh, 1987. Geology of high-level nuclear waste
disposal. Chapman and Hall, London).

38
Note that radwaste includes a large number of radionuclides each of which has a characteristic
halflife. In addition, the abundances of some radionuclides increase with time because they are
decay products of transuranium elements and of the primary fission products. Therefore, the
halflife calculated above is not a reliable estimate and should not be used to predict the activity
of radwaste.
3.

Calculate the weight in grams of 238Pu (T = 87.74 y) that produces a decay rate of 17 kCi.
(Atom.wt. 238Pu = 238.049554 amu). (Answer: 994.5 g).

4.

Calculate the concentration of Pu in seawater in parts per million by weight, given that the
concentration of its two naturally occurring isotopes 239Pu and 240Pb is 0.4 fCi/L (1 fCi = 10-15
Ci). Assume that the density of water is 1.03 g/cm3 and that the atomic ratio 240Pu/239Pu is 0.18.
(Answer: 4.47 10-12 g/g of seawater).
Chapter 26
Hydrogen and Oxygen
Part A: The Hydrologic Cycle

1.

The fractionation factor for 18O between liquid water and water vapor at 10C is
1.010.

(18O) =

Calculate the *18O value of vapor in isotopic equilibrium with water whose *18Ol value is
- 0.80 . (Use equation 26.12 p.696). (Answer: *18Ov = - 10.79 ).
2.

Calculate *D of water vapor in isotopic equilibrium with water whose *D value is - 65 ,

assuming that
(D) = 1.090. (Answer: *D = - 142 ).

3.

Calculate *18O value of rain drops forming in an air mass whose initial *18Ov value was - 9.2 ,
assuming that only 20% of the original water vapor remains and that
(18O) = 1.0092.
(Answer: *18Ol = - 14.78 ).

4.

Calculate the *18Ov value of water vapor remaining in an air mass whose initial *18Ov value was
- 92 , when only 20 % of the original vapor remains. Assume that
(D) = 1.0092.
18
(Answer: * Ov = -23.76 ).

5.

Calculate the isotope fractionation factor for 18O of vapor and liquid water in isotope
18
equilibrium, given that *18Ov = 23.76 (Problem 4) and *18Ol = - 14.78 %. (Answer:
O
= 1.0092).

39
6.

Use the Rayleigh equations to model the isotopic evolution of water vapor in an air mass as a
result of progressive condensation of meteoric precipitation given that
= - 8.00 and
that

= 1.0092. Calculate the *18O values of vapor and liquid water at decreasing values of

f from 1.0 to 0.01 and plot the results.

7.

Calculate the *18O and *D values of meteoric precipitation that forms by progressive
condensation of water in an air mass whose initial isotope composition is:
= - 11.68
and

= - 84.00 .

Let the fraction of vapor remaining (f) decrease from 1.0 to 0.8, 0.6, 0.4, and 0.1. Assume that
(18O) = 1.0098 and

(D) = 1.084 corresponding to a temperature of 20C.

Plot the results in coordinates of *D (y) and *18O (x) and fit a straight line to the data points by
least squares regression. (Answer: *D = 7.84 *18O + 6.76).
8.

The fractionation factor between illite and water is 1.0234 at 22C. Calculate the *18O value
of illite in equilibrium with water having *18Ol = - 9.00 . (Answer: *18O (illite) = + 14.2 ).
Part B: Mixing of Water

1.

Icebergs break away from the outlet glaciers of East Greenland and then melt as they drift in the
North Atlantic Ocean. The resulting glacial meltwater changes the isotopic composition of H
and O of the local surface-seawater.
Calculate the *18O and *D values of mixtures of glacial meltwater and seawater in different
proportions. Plot the results in coordinates of *18O(x) and *D (y) and fit a straight line to the
data points. Assume that the concentrations of O and D of seawater and glacial meltwater are
identical.
*18O

Glacial -24.0
Seawater 0.0
Water

2.

*D

-182.0
0.0

Mixtures of two components of water (A and B ) having different isotopic compositions of H

and O form straight lines in coordinates of *DM (y) and *18OM (x).
Derive the mixing equation for such mixtures and demonstrate that the equation has the form:
*DM = m *18OM + b

40
where m =

b=

Part C: Geothermometry of Silicates and Oxides

1.

Calculate the value of the anorthite (An)-diopside (Di) fractionation factor for 18O at a
temperature of 850C. Use equation 26.38 and the data in Table 26.6 both of which are on p.
712 (Chiba et al., 1989). (Answer:
= 1.0006026).

2.

Calculate the value of A for plagioclase in equation 26.38 for the plagioclase-magnetite pair
given that the concentration of anorthite in the plagioclase is 60% . (Answer: A = 4.72).

3.

Calculate the *18O value of plagioclase in isotopic equilibrium with diopside whose *18O value
is + 5.74 , given that the temperature is 1200C and that the concentration of anorthite in the
plagioclase is 35 % (Answer: *18OPl = + 6.41 ).

4.

Lunar basalt 10044 contains plagioclase and magnetite having different *18O value:
Plagioclase: *18OPl = + 6.06 , 90 % anorthite
Magnetite: *18OMt = + 3.65
Calculate the isotope fractionation factor for O in plagioclase and magnetite and then use it to
determine the equilibration temperature of these two minerals in this lunar basalt. (Answer:
= 1.002401, T = 1082.2C).

5.

Quartz and magnetite in a rhyolite from Arizona (Table 26.7) have the following isotope
compositions of oxygen:
Quartz: *18OQ = + 9.8
Magnetite: *18OMt = + 3.6
Calculate the quartz-magnetite fractionation factor and use it to determine the oxygen isotopeequilibration temperature (Answer:

6.

= 1.006177, T = 737.5C).

Quartz and magnetite in a granite from the Adirondack Mountains of New York have *18OQ =
+ 11.0 and *18OMt = + 4.3 . Calculate the corresponding oxygen isotope - equilibration
temperature. (Answer:

= 1.00671, T = 699.5C).

41
Chapter 27
Carbon
1.

The carbon isotope fractionation factor at 200C between CO2 and diamond (d) is 1.0115 and
that between diamond and graphite (g) is 1.0029.

a. Calculate the value of the isotope fractionation factor of C between CO2 and graphite at 200C.
(Answer:
= 1.0144).
b. Calculate the value of *13C for CO2 in equilibrium with graphite if the *13C value of graphite
is - 15.00 (PDB). (Answer:
= - 0.816 ).
2.

The C isotope-fractionation factor between CO2 and CH4 at 600C is 1.012 and at 300C is
1.025 (Bottinga, 1969, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 33:49-64). Derive the CO2-CH4 isotope
thermometry equation in the form:
103 ln

+B

where T is on the Kelvin scale. Plot the equation in coordinates of 103 ln " (y) and 1/T2 (x).
(Answer: A = 7.37 106, B = 2.26).
3.

The isotopic compositions of carbon of gases emitted by the Seven Dwarfs fumarole on White
Island, New Zealand, are:
= - 4.5 (PDB),

= - 23.3

(Hulston and McCabe, 1962, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 26:399-410).

Use the thermometry equation of Bottinga (1969) in Problem 2 above to calculate the
equilibration temperature in degrees Celsius. (Answer: T = 389.2C).
4.

Another set of fractionation factors for the CO2-CH4 system was published by Craig (1953,
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 3:53-92).
T = 298.1 K,
T = 500 K,

= 1.06044
= 1.02564

Derive a thermometry equation and plot it on the same diagram with Bottingas equation in
Problem 2. (Answer: A = 4.600 106, B = 6.919).

42
5.

Use the CO2-CH4 thermometry equation based on the data of Craig (1953) to calculate the
temperature of the Seven Dwarfs fumarole, White Island, New Zealand. (Answer: T =
342.5C).

6.

Calculate the *13C values of calcite in equilibrium with atmospheric CO2 in case
changes from -7.00 to -10.00 (PDB) caused by continued combustion of fossil fuel. Assume
that
=1.0102 (20C). (Answer:
= - 7.00 , (*13O)cal = + 3.12 ;
=
- 10.00 , (*13O)cal = + 0.098 .
Chapter 28
Nitrogen

1.

Specify the valence number of N in the following compounds. Assume that O is always - 2 and
the H is always + 1.

a. N2
b.

(nitrate)

f. NO2
g. NO

c.

(nitrite)

h. N2O

d.
(ammonium)
e. NH3 (ammonia)

2.

(oxides of N)

i. N2O5
j. TiN (Ti nitride)
k. Si2N2O (Si oxynitride)

The isotope fractionation factors for the exchange reaction:

NH3 (gas)

are:

= 1.039 at 0C, 1.031 at 25C, and 1.024 at 127C. (Letolle, 1980, Handbook

(gas)

Environ. Geochem., 1:407-433, Elsevier.

a. Use these data to derive a N-isotope thermometry equation of the form:
103 ln

+B

(Answer: A = 11.540, B = - 5.761).

43
b. Plot the equation in coordinates of 103 ln

(y) and 103/T (x) where T is on the Kelvin scale.

c. Use the equation derived in part (a) to calculate the NH3 mixture of gases in isotopic equilibrium at 15C. (Answer:

fractionation factor for a

= 1.03488 at T = 15C.

3. Lunar soil analyzed by Becker and Clayton (1977, Proc. 6th Lunar Sci. Conf., Houston, 1:441458) contains varying amounts of N having specific isotope compositions that are released by
stepwise outgassing at increasing temperatures.

Temperature,
C
600
800
900
1000
1100
1325

N1
ppm
2.5
15.3
31.6
7.2
8.6
4.8

*15N2

+ 35
+ 64
+ 19
- 22
+ 2.0
+ 75

1.

Estimated from Figure 1 of Geiss and Bochsler (1982, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta,
46:529-548).

2.

Relative to N2 of the terrestrial atmosphere.

a.

Plot a histogram of the amounts of N released at increasing temperatures in units of g of

N per gram of sample (i.e. ppm).

b.

Determine the *15N value of the whole sample of lunar soil assuming that the N
concentration of the bulk sample is 70 ppm. (Answer: + 26.92 ).
Chapter 29
Sulfur

1.

The *34S value of sphalerite in the ore at Providencia, Mexico, is + 1.21 and that of cogenetic
galena is = - 1.16 relative to the S in troilite of the Canyon Diablo meteorite. (Rye, 1974,
Econ. Geol., 69:26-32).
a. Calculate the S-isotope fractionation factor for sphalerite-galena at Provdencia. (Answer:
= 1.002372).

44
b. Recalculate the thermometry equation for sphalerite-galena in Table 29.3 on p. 842 to the
standard form. (Ohmoto and Rye, 1979, Geochem. Hydrotherm. Ore Deposits, H.L. Barnes,
ed., Wiley and Sons, 509-567, New York).
103 ln

(Answer: A = 0.7225).
c. Use the thermometry equation to calculate the S isotope-equilibration temperature for the ore
at Providencia, Mexico. (Answer: T = 279C).
d. Plot the thermometry equation for S in sphalerite and galena in coordinates of

(y) and

temperature (in C) from 100 to 600C.

2.

The *36S values of sphalerite and galena as well as the filling temperatures of fluid inclusions
in sphalerite of ore deposits were reported by Rye (1974, Econ. Geol., 69:26-32).

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
a.

Locality
Flat Gap, Tennessee
Hill Mine, Illinois
Creede, Colorado
Providencia, Mexico
Providencia, Mexico
Providencia, Mexico
Casapalca, Peru
Providencia, Mexico
Providencia, Mexico

Sphalerite
*34S,
+ 28.70
+7.48
- 1.62
+ 1.08
+ 1.03
+ 0.62
+ 0.09
+ 1.02
+ 0.61

Galena Filling Temp.

*34S, C (sphalerite)
+ 24.89
125
+ 3.83
142
- 4.10
225
- 1.62
245
- 1.42
250
- 1.53
311
- 1.85
342
- 0. 86
330
- 1.1
345

Use these data to derive a thermometry equation of the form:

103 ln

+B

where T is on the Kelvin scale. Plot the equation in coordinates of 103 ln

(y) and 106T2

(x). (Answer: A = 0.5220; B = 0.5208).

b.

Use this equation to calculate the S isotope equilibration-temperature for an ore sample at
Providencia, Mexico, in which *34S (sphalerite) = + 1.38 and *34S (galena) = - 0.71 .
(Answer: T = 304C).

45
c.

3.

Recalculate the isotope equilibration-temperature of the ore sample in Problem 1c using

the thermometry equation derived in part 2a above. (Answer: T = 258C).

At 135C, )34S (sphalerite-galena) = + 5.8 and )34S (pyrite-sphalerite) = + 2.7 . Calculate

the isotope fractionation factor for S between pyrite and galena at that temperature. (Answer:
= 1.0085 at 135C).
Chapter 30
Boron and other Elements

1.

2.

Give brief answers to the following questions.

a.

Explain why boron has a valence number of +3.

b.

Explain why chlorine can have valence numbers of - 1 and + 7.

c.

Explain why the tetraborate ion has an electronic charge of - 5.

d.

Demonstrate that the formula for borax (Na2 [B4O5 (OH)4]) is electrically neutral.

e.

The *6Li value of seawater is - 31.5 relative to the Li standard NBS L-SVEC whose
6
Li/7Li ratio is 0.082757. Recalculate the *6Li value of seawater as its *7Li value.

f.

Calculate the average 11B/10B ratio of chondrules, analyzed by Hoppe et al. (2001, Meteorit.
Planet. Sci., 36:1131-1343) given that *11B = - 3.6 and that the 11B/10B ratio of the B
isotope standard is 4.036.

Calculate the isotope fractionation factors for B between seawater and modern species of
brachiopods assuming that *11B (seawater) = 40.26 .

Species
Ocean
Gryphus Mediterranean
Terebratula Pacific
Waltonia Pacific
Fallax
Pacific
Notosaria Pacific

*11B,
+ 19.38
+ 17.32
+ 17.55
+ 16.81
+ 17.79

Lecuyer et al. (2002, Chem. Geol., 186:45-55).

3.

The *11B values of marine calcite and seawater are related to the pH of seawater by an equation
derived by Lecuyer (2002, Chem. Geol., 186:45-55):

46
pH = - log10

+ 8.9

Calculate the pH values corresponding to *11B = + 19.38 (Gryphus, Mediterranean Sea) and
*11B = + 17.32 (Terebratula, Pacific Ocean). (Answer: Gryphus, pH = 8.21; Terebratula,
pH = 7.85).
4.

The *11B values and B concentrations of groundwater of the alpine foreland in the border region
between Switzerland and Germany reported by Barth (2000, Applied Geochem., 15:937-952)
are:
Sample *11B, B, mg/L
Fresh groundwater
1-1/89
1-2/89
2-1/86
2-1/95
3-1/86
3-1/95
4-1/85
4-1/95
5-1/83
5-1/84
6-1/95

-0.64
-1.49
-2.91
-2.44
-2.91
-2.14
-2.89
-2.21
-2.44
-2.61
-3.51

0.20
0.20
0.48
0.48
0.49
0.49
0.61
0.67
0.96
1.20
1.33

Meteoric Water
12-1/95 +12.0

0.026

Brackish Groundwater
7-1/84
8-1/86
9-1/86
8-1/95
10-1/95
11-1/84

+6.44
+17.6
+16.6
+16.8
+15.4
+14.2

9.89
0.75
3.33
3.38
6.63
13.21

*11B values are relative to 11B/10B = 4.00125 for the NIST SRM-951 boric-acid standard.

47
a.

Plot all of these data on a single diagram in coordinates of *11B(y) and 1/B(x).

b.

Fit a straight line to the data points representing fresh groundwater and meteoric water.
(Answer: slope = 0.402; intercept = - 3.26 .

c.

Contemplate the distribution of data points and observe the differences in the *11B values and
B concentrations of these water samples.

d.

Consider that all of the samples originated as meteoric water and consider how the isotope
composition and the concentration of B may have been altered by interactions with subsurface
rocks and minerals.

e.

Present your explanations of this data set in a formal scientific report.

f.

Consult the paper by S.R. Barth to see how the author explained this data set.
Congratulations

If you have worked your way through all of these problems, you are now ready to use isotopic data
in support of your own research objectives.