Non-Governmental Organization - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

8/15/2016
NongovernmentalorganizationWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Nongovernmentalorganization
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Anongovernmentalorganization(NGO)isanotforprofit
organizationthatisindependentfromstatesandinternational
governmentalorganisations.Theyareusuallyfundedbydonationsbut
someavoidformalfundingaltogetherandarerunprimarilyby
volunteers.NGOsarehighlydiversegroupsoforganizationsengagedin
awiderangeofactivities,andtakedifferentformsindifferentpartsof
theworld.Somemayhavecharitablestatus,whileothersmaybe
registeredfortaxexemptionbasedonrecognitionofsocialpurposes.
Othersmaybefrontsforpolitical,religious,orotherinterests.
ThenumberofNGOsintheUnitedStatesisestimatedat1.5million.[1]
Russiahas277,000NGOs.[2]Indiaisestimatedtohavehadaround2
millionNGOsin2009,justoveroneNGOper600Indians,andmany
timesthenumberofprimaryschoolsandprimaryhealthcentresin
India.[3][4]
ValdisDombrovskis(right),then
PrimeMinisterofLatvia,meetinga
representativeofanongovernmental
organisation.
NGOsaredifficulttodefine,andtheterm'NGO'isnotalwaysusedconsistently.Insomecountriestheterm
NGOisappliedtoanorganizationthatinanothercountrywouldbecalledanNPO(nonprofitorganization),
andviceversa.TherearemanydifferentclassificationsofNGOinuse.Themostcommonfocusison
"orientation"and"levelofoperation".AnNGO'sorientationreferstothetypeofactivitiesittakeson.These
activitiesmightincludehumanrights,environmental,improvinghealth,ordevelopmentwork.AnNGO'slevel
ofoperationindicatesthescaleatwhichanorganizationworks,suchaslocal,regional,national,or
international.[5]
Theterm"nongovernmentalorganization"wasfirstcoinedin1945,whentheUnitedNations(UN)was
created.[6]TheUN,itselfanintergovernmentalorganization,madeitpossibleforcertainapprovedspecialized
internationalnonstateagenciesi.e.,nongovernmentalorganizationstobeawardedobserverstatusatits
assembliesandsomeofitsmeetings.Laterthetermbecameusedmorewidely.Today,accordingtotheUN,any
kindofprivateorganizationthatisindependentfromgovernmentcontrolcanbetermedan"NGO",providedit
isnotforprofit,nonprevention,andnotsimplyanoppositionpoliticalparty.
Onecharacteristicthesediverseorganizationsshareisthattheirnonprofitstatusmeanstheyarenothindered
byshorttermfinancialobjectives.Accordingly,theyareabletodevotethemselvestoissueswhichoccuracross
longertimehorizons,suchasclimatechange,malariaprevention,oraglobalbanonlandmines.Publicsurveys
revealthatNGOsoftenenjoyahighdegreeofpublictrust,whichcanmakethemausefulbutnotalways
sufficientproxyfortheconcernsofsocietyandstakeholders.[7]
Contents
1 Types
1.1 Byorientation
1.2 Bylevelofoperation
1.3 TrackIIdiplomacy
2 Activities
2.1 Operational
2.2 Campaigning
2.3 Bothoperationalandcampaigning
2.4 Publicrelations
2.5 Projectmanagement
3 Corporatestructure
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nongovernmental_organization
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3 Corporatestructure
3.1 Staffing
3.2 Funding
3.3 Overheadcosts
3.4 Monitoringandcontrol
4 History
5 Legalstatus
6 InfluenceofNGOsuponworldaffairs
7 Critiques
7.1 Challengestolegitimacy
8 Seealso
9 References
10 Furtherreading
11 Externallinks
Types
NGO/GRO(governmentalrelatedorganisations)typescanbeunderstoodbytheirorientationandlevelofhow
theyoperate.
Byorientation
Charitableorientationofteninvolvesatopdownpaternalisticeffortwithlittleparticipationbythe
"beneficiaries".ItincludesNGOswithactivitiesdirectedtowardmeetingtheneedsofthepoorpeoples.
ServiceorientationincludesNGOswithactivitiessuchastheprovisionofhealth,familyplanningor
educationservicesinwhichtheprogrammeisdesignedbytheNGOandpeopleareexpectedto
participateinitsimplementationandinreceivingtheservice.
Participatoryorientationischaracterizedbyselfhelpprojectswherelocalpeopleareinvolved
particularlyintheimplementationofaprojectbycontributingcash,tools,land,materials,labouretc.In
theclassicalcommunitydevelopmentproject,participationbeginswiththeneeddefinitionandcontinues
intotheplanningandimplementationstages.
Empoweringorientationaimstohelppoorpeopledevelopaclearerunderstandingofthesocial,political
andeconomicfactorsaffectingtheirlives,andtostrengthentheirawarenessoftheirownpotentialpower
tocontroltheirlives.ThereismaximuminvolvementofthebeneficiarieswithNGOsactingas
facilitators.[8]
Bylevelofoperation
Communitybasedorganizations(CBOs)ariseoutofpeople'sowninitiatives.Theycanberesponsiblefor
raisingtheconsciousnessoftheurbanpoor,helpingthemtounderstandtheirrightsinaccessingneeded
services,andprovidingsuchservices.
Citywideorganizationsincludeorganizationssuchaschambersofcommerceandindustry,coalitionsof
business,ethnicoreducationalgroups,andassociationsofcommunityorganizations.
'NationalNGOsincludenationalorganizationssuchastheYMCAs/YWCAs,professionalassociations
andsimilargroups.SomehavestateandcitybranchesandassistlocalNGOs.
InternationalNGOsrangefromsecularagenciessuchasDucereFoundationandSavetheChildren
organizations,OXFAM,CARE,FordFoundation,andRockefellerFoundationtoreligiouslymotivated
groups.TheycanberesponsibleforfundinglocalNGOs,institutionsandprojectsandimplementing
projects.[8]
Apartfrom"NGO",therearealternativeoroverlappingtermsinuse,including:thirdsectororganization
(TSO),nonprofitorganization(NPO),voluntaryorganization(VO),civilsocietyorganization(CSO),
grassrootsorganization(GO),socialmovementorganization(SMO),privatevoluntaryorganization(PVO),
selfhelporganization(SHO)andnonstateactors(NSAs).
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InSpanish,French,ItalianandotherRomancelanguages,the'mirrored'abbreviation"ONG"isinuse,which
hasthesamemeaningas"NGO"(forexampleOrganizacinnogubernamentalinSpanishorOrganizzazione
nongovernativainItalian).
Governmentalrelatedorganizations/nongovernmentalorganizationsareaheterogeneousgroup.Asaresult,a
longlistofadditionalacronymshasdeveloped,including:
BINGO:'BusinessfriendlyinternationalNGO'or'BiginternationalNGO'
SBO:'SocialBenefitOrganization,'apositive,goalorienteddesignationasansubstituteforthenegative,
"Non"designations
TANGO:'TechnicalassistanceNGO'
TSO:'Thirdsectororganization'
GONGO:'governmentorganizednongovernmentalorganization'or'governmentoperatedNGOs'(setup
bygovernmentstolooklikeNGOsinordertoqualifyforoutsideaidorpromotetheinterestsof
government)
DONGO:'DonororganizedNGO'
INGO:'InternationalNGO'
QUANGO:'QuasiautonomousNGO,'suchastheInternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO).
(TheISOisactuallynotpurelyanNGO,sinceitsmembershipisbynation,andeachnationis
representedbywhattheISOCouncildeterminestobethe'mostbroadlyrepresentative'standardization
bodyofanation.Thatbodymightitselfbeanongovernmentalorganizationforexample,theUnited
StatesisrepresentedinISObytheAmericanNationalStandardsInstitute,whichisindependentofthe
federalgovernment.However,othercountriescanberepresentedbynationalgovernmentalagenciesthis
isthetrendinEurope.)
NationalNGO:Anongovernmentalorganizationthatexistsonlyinonecountry.Thistermisraredueto
theglobalizationofnongovernmentalorganizations,whichcausesanNGOtoexistinmorethanone
country.[9]
CSO:'CivilSocietyOrganization'
ENGO:'EnvironmentalNGO,'suchasGreenpeaceandWWF
NNGO:'NorthernNGO'
PANGO:'PartyNGO,'setupbypartiesanddisguisedasNGOstoservetheirpoliticalmatters.
SNGO:'SouthernNGO'
SCO:'Socialchangeorganization'
TNGO:'TransnationalNGO.'Thetermemergedduringthe1970sduetotheincreaseofenvironmental
andeconomicissuesintheglobalcommunity.TNGOincludesnongovernmentalorganizationsthatare
notconfinedtoonlyonecountry,butexistintwoormorecountries.
GSO:GrassrootsSupportOrganization
MANGO:'MarketadvocacyNGO'
NGDO:'Nongovernmentaldevelopmentorganization'
USAIDreferstoNGOsasprivatevoluntaryorganizations.However,manyscholarshavearguedthatthis
definitionishighlyproblematicasmanyNGOsareinfactstateorcorporatefundedandmanagedprojectsand
haveprofessionalstaff.
GRO/NGOsexistforavarietyofreasons,usuallytofurtherthepoliticalorsocialgoalsoftheirmembersor
founders.Examplesincludeimprovingthestateofthenaturalenvironment,encouragingtheobservanceof
humanrights,improvingthewelfareofthedisadvantaged,orrepresentingacorporateagenda.However,there
areahugenumberofsuchorganizationsandtheirgoalscoverabroadrangeofpoliticalandphilosophical
positions.Thiscanalsoeasilybeappliedtoprivateschoolsandathleticorganizations.
TrackIIdiplomacy
TrackIIdialogue,orTrackIIdiplomacy,istransnationalcoordinationthatinvolvesnonofficialmembersofthe
governmentincludingepistemiccommunitiesaswellasformerpolicymakersoranalysts.TrackIIdiplomacy
aimstogetpolicymakersandpolicyanalyststocometoacommonsolutionthroughdiscussionsbyunofficial
means.UnliketheTrackIdiplomacywheregovernmentofficials,diplomatsandelectedleadersgathertotalk
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aboutcertainissues,TrackIIdiplomacyconsistsofexperts,scientists,professorsandotherfiguresthatarenot
involvedingovernmentaffairs.ThemembersofTrackIIdiplomacyusuallyhavemorefreedomtoexchange
ideasandcomeupwithcompromisesontheirown.
Activities
TherearealsonumerousclassificationsofNGOs.ThetypologytheWorldBankusesdividestheminto
OperationalandAdvocacy:[10]
NGOsdovaryintheirmethods.Someactprimarilyaslobbyists,whileothersprimarilyconductprogramsand
activities.Forinstance,anNGOsuchasOxfam,concernedwithpovertyalleviation,mightprovideneedy
peoplewiththeequipmentandskillstofindfoodandcleandrinkingwater,whereasanNGOliketheFFDA
helpsthroughinvestigationanddocumentationofhumanrightsviolationsandprovideslegalassistanceto
victimsofhumanrightsabuses.Others,suchasAfghanistanInformationManagementServices,provide
specializedtechnicalproductsandservicestosupportdevelopmentactivitiesimplementedonthegroundby
otherorganizations.
Operational
OperationalNGOsseekto"achievesmallscalechangedirectlythroughprojects."[9]Theymobilizefinancial
resources,materials,andvolunteerstocreatelocalizedprograms.Theyholdlargescalefundraisingeventsand
mayapplytogovernmentsandorganizationsforgrantsorcontractstoraisemoneyforprojects.Theyoften
operateinahierarchicalstructureamainheadquartersbeingstaffedbyprofessionalswhoplanprojects,create
budgets,keepaccounts,andreportandcommunicatewithoperationalfieldworkerswhoworkdirectlyon
projects.[9]OperationalNGOsdealwithawiderangeofissues,butaremostoftenassociatedwiththedelivery
ofservicesorenvironmentalissues,emergencyrelief,andpublicwelfare.OperationalNGOscanbefurther
categorizedbythedivisionintorelieforientedversusdevelopmentorientedorganizationsaccordingto
whethertheystressservicedeliveryorparticipationwhethertheyarereligiousorsecularandwhethertheyare
morepublicorprivateoriented.AlthoughoperationalNGOscanbecommunitybased,manyarenationalor
international.ThedefiningactivityofoperationalNGOsistheimplementationofprojects.[9]
Campaigning
CampaigningNGOsseekto"achievelargescalechangepromotedindirectlythroughinfluenceofthepolitical
system."[9]CampaigningNGOsneedanefficientandeffectivegroupofprofessionalmemberswhoareableto
keepsupportersinformed,andmotivated.Theymustplanandhostdemonstrationsandeventsthatwillkeep
theircauseinthemedia.Theymustmaintainalargeinformednetworkofsupporterswhocanbemobilizedfor
eventstogarnermediaattentionandinfluencepolicychanges.ThedefiningactivityofcampaigningNGOsis
holdingdemonstrations.[9]CampaigningNGOsoftendealwiththisissuesrelatingtohumanrights,women's
rights,children'srights.TheprimarypurposeofanAdvocacyNGOistodefendorpromoteaspecificcause.As
opposedtooperationalprojectmanagement,theseorganizationstypicallytrytoraiseawareness,acceptance
andknowledgebylobbying,pressworkandactivistevent.
Bothoperationalandcampaigning
ItisnotuncommonforNGOstomakeuseofbothactivities.Manytimes,operationalNGOswilluse
campaigningtechniquesiftheycontinuallyfacethesameissuesinthefieldthatcouldberemediedthrough
policychanges.Atthesametime,CampaigningNGOs,likehumanrightsorganizationsoftenhaveprograms
thatassisttheindividualvictimstheyaretryingtohelpthroughtheiradvocacywork.[9]
Publicrelations
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Nongovernmentalorganizationsneedhealthyrelationshipswiththepublictomeettheirgoals.Foundations
andcharitiesusesophisticatedpublicrelationscampaignstoraisefundsandemploystandardlobbying
techniqueswithgovernments.Interestgroupsmaybeofpoliticalimportancebecauseoftheirabilityto
influencesocialandpoliticaloutcomes.Acodeofethicswasestablishedin2002byTheWorldAssociationof
NonGovernmentalOrganizations.
Projectmanagement
Thereisanincreasingawarenessthatmanagementtechniquesarecrucialtoprojectsuccessinnon
governmentalorganizations.[11]Generally,nongovernmentalorganizationsthatareprivatehaveeithera
communityorenvironmentalfocus.Theyaddressvarietiesofissuessuchasreligion,emergencyaid,or
humanitarianaffairs.Theymobilizepublicsupportandvoluntarycontributionsforaidtheyoftenhavestrong
linkswithcommunitygroupsindevelopingcountries,andtheyoftenworkinareaswheregovernmentto
governmentaidisnotpossible.NGOsareacceptedasapartoftheinternationalrelationslandscape,andwhile
theyinfluencenationalandmultilateralpolicymaking,increasinglytheyaremoredirectlyinvolvedinlocal
action.
Corporatestructure
Staffing
SomeNGOsarehighlyprofessionalizedandrelymainlyonpaidstaff.Othersarebasedaroundvoluntary
labourandarelessformalized.Notallpeopleworkingfornongovernmentalorganizationsarevolunteers.
ManyNGOsareassociatedwiththeuseofinternationalstaffworkingin'developing'countries,butthereare
manyNGOsinbothNorthandSouthwhorelyonlocalemployeesorvolunteers.Thereissomedisputeasto
whetherexpatriatesshouldbesenttodevelopingcountries.Frequentlythistypeofpersonnelisemployedto
satisfyadonorwhowantstoseethesupportedprojectmanagedbysomeonefromanindustrializedcountry.
However,theexpertiseoftheseemployeesorvolunteersmaybecounterbalancedbyanumberoffactors:the
costofforeignersistypicallyhigher,theyhavenograssrootconnectionsinthecountrytheyaresentto,and
localexpertiseisoftenundervalued.[10]
TheNGOsectorisanessentialemployerintermsofnumbers.Forexample,bytheendof1995,CONCERN
worldwide,aninternationalNorthernNGOworkingagainstpoverty,employed174expatriatesandjustover
5,000nationalstaffworkingintendevelopingcountriesinAfricaandAsia,andinHaiti.
Funding
WhethertheNGOsaresmallorlarge,variousNGOsneedbudgetstooperate.NGOsarelitleorganization.The
amountofbudgetthattheyneedwoulddifferfromNGOstoNGOs.UnlikesmallNGOs,largeNGOsmayhave
annualbudgetsinthehundredsofmillionsorbillionsofdollars.Forinstance,thebudgetoftheAmerican
AssociationofRetiredPersons(AARP)wasoverUS$540millionin1999.[12]Fundingsuchlargebudgets
demandssignificantfundraisingeffortsonthepartofmostNGOs.MajorsourcesofNGOfundingare
membershipdues,thesaleofgoodsandservices,grantsfrominternationalinstitutionsornationalgovernments,
andprivatedonations.SeveralEUgrantsprovidefundsaccessibletoNGOs.
Eventhoughtheterm"nongovernmentalorganization"impliesindependencefromgovernments,manyNGOs
dependheavilyongovernmentsfortheirfunding.[13]AquarteroftheUS$162millionincomein1998ofthe
faminerelieforganizationOxfamwasdonatedbytheBritishgovernmentandtheEU.TheChristianreliefand
developmentorganizationWorldVisionUnitedStatescollectedUS$55millionworthofgoodsin1998fromthe
Americangovernment.
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GovernmentfundingofNGOsiscontroversial,since,accordingtoDavidRieff,writinginTheNewRepublic,
"thewholepointofhumanitarianinterventionwaspreciselythatNGOsandcivilsocietyhadbotharightandan
obligationtorespondwithactsofaidandsolidaritytopeopleinneedorbeingsubjectedtorepressionorwant
bytheforcesthatcontrolledthem,whateverthegovernmentsconcernedmightthinkaboutthematter."[14]
SomeNGOs,suchasGreenpeacedonotacceptfundingfromgovernmentsorintergovernmental
organizations.[15][16]
Overheadcosts
OverheadistheamountofmoneythatisspentonrunninganNGOratherthanonprojects.[17]Thisincludes
officeexpenses,[17]salaries,bankingandbookkeepingcosts.Whatpercentageofoverallbudgetisspenton
overheadisoftenusedtojudgeanNGOwithlessthan4%beingviewedasgood.[17]TheWorldAssociationof
NonGovernmentalOrganizationsstatesthatideallymorethan86%shouldbespentonprograms(lessthan
20%onoverhead).[18]TheGlobalFundtoFightAIDS,TuberculosisandMalariahasspecificguidelineson
howhighoverheadcanbetoreceivefundingbasedonhowthemoneyistobespentwithoverheadoften
needingtobelessthan57%.[19]WhiletheWorldBanktypicallyallows37%.[20]Ahighpercentageof
overheadtototalexpenditurescanmakeitmoredifficulttogeneratefunds.[21]Highoverheadcostsmayalso
generatecriticismwithsomeclaimingthecertainNGOswithhighoverheadarebeingrunsimplytobenefitthe
peopleworkingforthem.[22]
Whileoverheadcostscanbealegitimateconcern,asolefocusonthemcanbecounterproductive.[23]Research
publishedbytheUrbanInstitute(http://www.urban.org/publications/311055.html)andtheCenterforSocial
Innovation(http://www.ssireview.org/articles/entry/the_ratings_game/)atStanfordUniversityhaveshownhow
ratingagenciescreateincentivesfornonprofitstolowerandhideoverheadcosts,whichmayactuallyreduce
organizationaleffectivenessbystarvingorganizationsoftheinfrastructuretheyneedtoeffectivelydeliver
services.Amoremeaningfulratingsystemwouldprovide,inadditiontofinancialdata,aqualitativeevaluation
ofanorganizationstransparencyandgovernance:(1)anassessmentofprogrameffectiveness(2)andan
evaluationoffeedbackmechanismsdesignedfordonorsandbeneficiariesand(3)sucharatingsystemwould
alsoallowratedorganizationstorespondtoanevaluationdonebyaratingagency.[24]Moregenerally,the
populardiscourseofnonprofitevaluationshouldmoveawayfromfinancialnotionsoforganizational
effectivenessandtowardmoresubstantialunderstandingsofprogrammaticimpact.
Monitoringandcontrol
IntheMarch2000reportonUnitedNationsReformpriorities,formerU.N.SecretaryGeneralKofiAnnan
wroteinfavorofinternationalhumanitarianintervention,arguingthattheinternationalcommunityhasa"right
toprotect"[25]citizensoftheworldagainstethniccleansing,genocide,andcrimesagainsthumanity.Onthe
heelsofthereport,theCanadiangovernmentlaunchedtheResponsibilitytoProtectR2P[26]project,outlining
theissueofhumanitarianintervention.WhiletheR2Pdoctrinehaswideapplications,amongthemore
controversialhasbeentheCanadiangovernment'suseofR2Ptojustifyitsinterventionandsupportofthecoup
(http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=55&ItemID=9238)inHaiti.[27]YearsafterR2P,the
WorldFederalistMovement,anorganizationwhichsupports"thecreationofdemocraticglobalstructures
accountabletothecitizensoftheworldandcallforthedivisionofinternationalauthorityamongseparate
agencies",haslaunchedResponsibilitytoProtectEngagingCivilSociety(R2PCS).Acollaborationbetween
theWFMandtheCanadiangovernment,thisprojectaimstobringNGOsintolockstepwiththeprinciples
outlinedundertheoriginalR2Pproject.
ThegovernmentsofthecountriesanNGOworksorisregisteredinmayrequirereportingorothermonitoring
andoversight.Fundersgenerallyrequirereportingandassessment,suchinformationisnotnecessarilypublicly
available.Theremayalsobeassociationsandwatchdogorganizationsthatresearchandpublishdetailsonthe
actionsofNGOsworkinginparticulargeographicorprogramareas.
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Inrecentyears,manylargecorporationshaveincreasedtheircorporatesocialresponsibilitydepartmentsinan
attempttopreemptNGOcampaignsagainstcertaincorporatepractices.Asthelogicgoes,ifcorporationswork
withNGOs,NGOswillnotworkagainstcorporations.GreatercollaborationbetweencorporationsandNGOs
createsinherentrisksofcooptationfortheweakerpartner,typicallythenonprofitinvolved.[28]
InDecember2007,TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofDefenseAssistantSecretaryofDefense(HealthAffairs)
S.WardCasscellsestablishedanInternationalHealthDivisionunderForceHealthProtection&Readiness.[29]
PartofInternationalHealth'smissionistocommunicatewithNGOsinareasofmutualinterest.Departmentof
DefenseDirective3000.05,[30]in2005,requiresDoDtoregardstabilityenhancingactivitiesasamissionof
importanceequaltocombat.Incompliancewithinternationallaw,DoDhasnecessarilybuiltacapacityto
improveessentialservicesinareasofconflictsuchasIraq,wherethecustomaryleadagencies(State
DepartmentandUSAID)finditdifficulttooperate.Unlikethe"cooption"strategydescribedforcorporations,
theOASD(HA)recognizestheneutralityofhealthasanessentialservice.InternationalHealthcultivates
collaborativerelationshipswithNGOs,albeitatarmslength,recognizingtheirtraditionalindependence,
expertiseandhonestbrokerstatus.WhilethegoalsofDoDandNGOsmayseemincongruent,theDoD's
emphasisonstabilityandsecuritytoreduceandpreventconflictsuggests,oncarefulanalysis,importantmutual
interests.
History
Internationalnongovernmentalorganizationshaveahistorydatingbacktoatleastthelateeighteenth
century.[31]Ithasbeenestimatedthatby1914,therewere1083NGOs.[32]InternationalNGOswereimportant
intheantislaverymovementandthemovementforwomen'ssuffrage,andreachedapeakatthetimeofthe
WorldDisarmamentConference.[33]However,thephrase"nongovernmentalorganization"onlycameinto
popularusewiththeestablishmentoftheUnitedNationsOrganizationin1945withprovisionsinArticle71of
Chapter10oftheUnitedNationsCharter[34]foraconsultativerolefororganizationswhichareneither
governmentsnormemberstatesseeConsultativeStatus.Thedefinitionof"internationalNGO"(INGO)is
firstgiveninresolution288(X)ofECOSOConFebruary27,1950:itisdefinedas"anyinternational
organizationthatisnotfoundedbyaninternationaltreaty".ThevitalroleofNGOsandother"majorgroups"in
sustainabledevelopmentwasrecognizedinChapter27[35]ofAgenda21,leadingtointensearrangementsfora
consultativerelationshipbetweentheUnitedNationsandnongovernmentalorganizations.[36]Ithasbeen
observedthatthenumberofINGOfoundedordissolvedmatchesthegeneral"stateoftheworld",risingin
periodsofgrowthanddeclininginperiodsofcrisis.[37]
Rapiddevelopmentofthenongovernmentalsectoroccurredinwesterncountriesasaresultoftheprocessesof
restructuringofthewelfarestate.Furtherglobalizationofthatprocessoccurredafterthefallofthecommunist
systemandwasanimportantpartoftheWashingtonconsensus.[13]
Globalizationduringthe20thcenturygaverisetotheimportanceofNGOs.Manyproblemscouldnotbe
solvedwithinanation.InternationaltreatiesandinternationalorganizationssuchastheWorldTrade
Organizationwerecenteredmainlyontheinterestsofcapitalistenterprises.Inanattempttocounterbalancethis
trend,NGOshavedevelopedtoemphasizehumanitarianissues,developmentalaidandsustainable
development.AprominentexampleofthisistheWorldSocialForum,whichisarivalconventiontotheWorld
EconomicForumheldannuallyinJanuaryinDavos,Switzerland.ThefifthWorldSocialForuminPorto
Alegre,Brazil,inJanuary2005wasattendedbyrepresentativesfrommorethan1,000NGOs.[38]Intermsof
environmentalissuesandsustainabledevelopment,theEarthSummitinRioin1992wasthefirsttoshowthe
powerofinternationalNGOs,whenabout2,400representativesofNGOscametoplayacentralrolein
deliberations.Somehavearguedthatinforumslikethese,NGOstaketheplaceofwhatshouldbelongto
popularmovementsofthepoor.Whateverthecase,NGOtransnationalnetworkingisnowextensive.[39]
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AnotherissuewhichhasbroughtNGOstodevelopfurtheristheinefficiencyofsometopheavy,global
structures.Forinstance,in1994,formerUNenvoytoSomaliaMohamedSahnounpublishedabookentitled
"Somalia:TheMissedOpportunities",[40]inwhichheclearlyshowsthatwhentheUnitedNationstriedto
providehumanitarianassistance,theyweretotallyoutperformedbyNGOs,whosecompetenceanddedication
sharplycontrastedwiththeUnitedNations'excessivecautionandbureaucraticinefficiencies,theirmain
SomaliaenvoysoperatingfromthesafetyoftheirdesksinNairobi.TherefusalofBoutrosBoutrosGhali,then
UNSecretaryGeneraltoacceptthiscriticismledtotheearlyendofMohamedSahnoun'smissionin
Somalia.[41]
Legalstatus
ThelegalformofNGOsisdiverseanddependsuponhomegrownvariationsineachcountry'slawsand
practices.However,fourmainfamilygroupsofNGOscanbefoundworldwide:[42]
Unincorporatedandvoluntaryassociation
Trusts,charitiesandfoundations
Companiesnotjustforprofit
EntitiesformedorregisteredunderspecialNGOornonprofitlaws
TheCouncilofEuropeinStrasbourgdraftedtheEuropeanConventionontheRecognitionoftheLegal
PersonalityofInternationalNonGovernmentalOrganizationsin1986,whichsetsacommonlegalbasisforthe
existenceandworkofNGOsinEurope.Article11oftheEuropeanConventiononHumanRightsprotectsthe
righttofreedomofassociation,whichisalsoafundamentalnormforNGOs.
InfluenceofNGOsuponworldaffairs
SomearguethatNGOshavegreatinfluenceandpoweringlobalaffairs.ServicedeliveryNGOsprovidepublic
goodsandservicesthatgovernmentsfromdevelopingcountriesareunabletoprovidetosociety,duetolackof
resources.ServicedeliveryNGOscanserveascontractorsorcollaboratewithdemocratizedgovernment
agenciestoreducecostassociatedwithpublicgoods.CapacitybuildingNGOsinfluenceglobalaffairs
differently,inthesensethattheincorporationofaccountabilitymeasuresinSouthernNGOsaffect"culture,
structure,projectsanddailyoperations."[43]AdvocacyandpubliceducationNGOsaffectglobalaffairsinits
abilitytomodifybehaviorthroughtheuseofideas.Communicationistheweaponofchoiceusedbyadvocacy
andpubliceducationNGOsinordertochangepeople'sactionsandbehaviors.Theystrategicallyconstruct
messagestonotonlyshapebehavior,buttoalsosociallymobilizecommunitiesinpromotingsocial,political,
orenvironmentalchanges.
Critiques
IssaG.ShivjiisoneofAfrica'sleadingexpertsonlawanddevelopmentissuesasanauthorandacademic.His
critiqueonNGOsisfoundintwoessays:"SilencesinNGOdiscourse:TheroleandfutureofNGOsinAfrica"
and"ReflectionsonNGOsinTanzania:Whatweare,whatwearenotandwhatweoughttobe".Shivjiargues
thatdespitethegoodintentionsofNGOleadersandactivists,heiscriticalofthe"objectiveeffectsofactions,
regardlessoftheirintentions".[44]ShivjiarguesalsothatthesuddenriseofNGOsarepartofaneoliberal
paradigmratherthanpurealtruisticmotivations.HeiscriticalofthecurrentmanifestationsofNGOswantingto
changetheworldwithoutunderstandingit,andthattheimperialrelationshipcontinuestodaywiththeriseof
NGOs.
JamesPfeiffer,inhiscasestudyofNGOinvolvementinMozambique,speakstothenegativeeffectsthat
NGO'shavehadonareasofhealthwithinthecountry.Hearguesthatoverthelastdecade,NGO'sin
Mozambiquehave"fragmentedthelocalhealthsystem,underminedlocalcontrolofhealthprograms,and
contributedtogrowinglocalsocialinequality".[45]
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HenotesfurtherthatNGO'scanbeuncoordinated,creatingparallelprojectsamongdifferentorganizations,that
pullhealthserviceworkersawayfromtheirroutinedutiesinordertoservetheinterestsoftheNGO's.This
ultimatelyundermineslocalprimaryhealthcareefforts,andtakesawaythegovernments'abilitytomaintain
agencyovertheirownhealthsector.[46]J.PfeiffersuggestedanewmodelofcollaborationbetweentheNGO
andtheDPS(theMozambiqueProvincialHealthDirectorate).HementionedtheNGOshouldbe'formallyheld
tostandardandadherencewithinthehostcountry',forexamplereduce'showcase'projectsandparallel
programsthatprovestobeunsustainable.[47]
JessicaMathewswroteinForeignAffairsin1997:"Foralltheirstrengths,NGOsarespecialinterests.Thebest
ofthemoftensufferfromtunnelvision,judgingeverypublicactbyhowitaffectstheirparticular
interest".[48]SinceNGOsdonothavetoworryaboutpolicytradeoffs,theoverallimpactoftheircausemight
bringmoreharmtosociety.[49]
VijayPrashadarguesthatfromthe1970s"TheWorldBank,underRobertMcNamara,championedtheNGOas
analternativetothestate,leavingintactglobalandregionalrelationsofpowerandproduction."[50]
OthersarguethatNGOsareoftenimperialist[51]innature,thattheysometimesoperateinaracializedmannerin
thirdworldcountries,andthattheyfulfillasimilarfunctiontothatoftheclergyduringthehighcolonialera.
ThephilosopherPeterHallwardarguesthattheyareanaristocraticformofpolitics.[52]Healsopointstothe
factthatNGOslikeActionAidandChristianAid"effectivelycondonedthe[2004USbacked]coup"againstan
electedgovernmentinHaitiandarguesthattheyarethe"humanitarianfaceofimperialism."[53]Popular
movementsintheglobalSouthsuchastheWesternCapeAntiEvictionCampaigninSouthAfricahave
sometimesrefusedtoworkwithNGOsarguingthatthiswillcompromisetheirautonomy.[54][55]Ithasalsobeen
arguedthatNGOsoftendisempowerpeoplebyallowingfunderstopushforstabilityoversocialjustice.[56]
AnothercriticismofNGOsisthattheyarebeingdesignedandusedasextensionsofthenormalforeignpolicy
instrumentsofcertainWesterncountriesandgroupsofcountries.[57][58]RussianPresidentVladimirPutinmade
thisaccusationatthe43rdMunichConferenceonSecurityPolicyin2007,concludingthattheseNGOs"are
formallyindependentbuttheyarepurposefullyfinancedandthereforeundercontrol."[59]Also,MichaelBond
wrote"MostlargeNGOs,suchasOxfam,theRedCross,CafodandActionAid,arestrivingtomaketheiraid
provisionmoresustainable.Butsome,mostlyintheUS,arestillexportingtheideologiesoftheirbackers."[60]
NGOshavealsobeenaccusedofusingwhiteliesormisinformedadvisetoenacttheircampaigns,i.e.,
accusationsthatNGOshavebeenignorantaboutcriticalissuesbecause,aschiefscientistatGreenpeaceDoug
Parrsaid,theseorganizationsappeartohavelosttheireffortsinbeingtrulyscientificandnowseemtobemore
selfinterested.Ratherthanoperatingthroughsciencesoastoberationallyandeffectivelypractical,NGOs
havebeenaccusedofabusingtheutilizationofsciencetogaintheirownadvantages.Inthebeginning,asParr
indicated,therewas"atendencyamongourcriticstosaythatscienceistheonlydecisionmakingtoolbut
politicalandcommercialinterestsareusingscienceasacoverforgettingtheirway."[61]Atthesametime,
NGOscanappeartonotbecooperativewithothergroups,accordingtothepreviouspolicymakerforthe
GermanbranchofFriendsoftheEarth,JensKatjek."IfNGOswantthebestfortheenvironment",hesays,
"theyhavetolearntocompromise."[62]
Challengestolegitimacy
TheissueofthelegitimacyofNGOsraisesaseriesofimportantquestions.Thisisoneofthemostimportant
assetspossessedbyanNGO,itisgainedthroughaperceptionthattheyareanindependentvoice.[63][64]Their
representationalsoemergesasanimportantquestion.WhobestowsresponsibilitiestoNGOsorINGOsand
howdotheygaintherepresentationofcitizensandcivilsocietyisstillnotscrutinizedthoroughly.Forinstance,
inthearticle,itisstated,"Toputthepointstarkly:arethecitizensofcountriesoftheSouthandtheirneeds
representedinglobalcivilsociety,orarecitizensaswellastheirneedsconstructedbypracticesof
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representation?AndwhenwerealizethatINGOshardlyevercomefacetofacewiththepeoplewhoseinterests
andproblemstheyrepresent,orthattheyarenotaccountabletothepeopletheyrepresent,mattersbecomeeven
moretroublesome."[65]
TheoriginoffundingcanhaveseriousimplicationsforthelegitimacyofNGOs.InrecentdecadesNGOshave
increasedtheirnumbersandrangeofactivitiestoalevelwheretheyhavebecomeincreasinglydependentona
limitednumberofdonors.[66]Consequently,competitionhasincreasedforfunding,ashavetheexpectationsof
thedonorsthemselves.[67]Thisrunstheriskofdonorsaddingconditionswhichcanthreatentheindependence
ofNGOsforexample,anoverdependenceonofficialaidhasthepotentialtodilutethewillingnessofNGOs
tospeakoutonissueswhichareunpopularwithgovernments.[64]InthesesituationsNGOsarebeingheld
accountablebytheirdonors,whichcaneroderatherthanenhancetheirlegitimacy,adifficultchallengeto
overcome.SomecommentatorshavealsoarguedthatthechangesinNGOfundingsourceshasultimately
alteredtheirfunctions.[64][68][69]
NGOshavealsobeenchallengedonthegroundsthattheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheneedsofthe
developingworld,throughdiminishingthesocalledSouthernVoice.SomepostulatethattheNorthSouth
divideexistsinthearenaofNGOs.[70]TheyquestiontheequalityoftherelationshipsbetweenNorthernand
SouthernpartsofthesameNGOsaswellastherelationshipsbetweenSouthernandNorthernNGOsworkingin
partnerships.Thissuggestsadivisionoflabourmaydevelop,withtheNorthtakingtheleadinadvocacyand
resourcemobilisationwhilsttheSouthengagesinservicedeliveryinthedevelopingworld.[70]Thepotential
implicationsofthismaymeantheneedsofthedevelopingworldarenotaddressedappropriatelyasNorthern
NGOsdonotproperlyconsultorparticipateinpartnerships.Therealdangerinthissituationisthatwestern
viewsmaytakethefrontseatandassignunrepresentativepriorities.[71]
ThefloodofNGOshasalsobeenaccusedofdamagingthepublicsectorinmultipledevelopingcountries,e.g.
accusationsthatNGOmismanagementhasresultedinthebreakdownofpublichealthcaresystems.Insteadof
promotingequityandalleviatingpoverty,NGOshavebeenunderscrutinyforcontributingtosocioeconomic
inequalityanddisempoweringservicesinthepublicsectorofthirdworldcountries.[72][73]
ThescaleandvarietyofactivitiesinwhichNGOsparticipatehasgrownrapidlysincethe1980s,witnessing
particularexpansioninthe1990s.[74]ThishaspresentedNGOswithaneedtobalancethepressuresof
centralisationanddecentralisation.BycentralisingNGOs,particularlythosethatoperateataninternational
level,theycanassignacommonthemeorsetofgoals.Converselyitmayalsobeadvantageoustodecentralise
asthiscanincreasethechancesofanNGOrespondingmoreflexiblyandeffectivelytolocalisedissuesby
implementingprojectswhicharemodestinscale,easilymonitored,produceimmediatebenefitsandwhereall
involvedknowthatcorruptionwillbepunished.[73][75]
Seealso
Advocacygroup(interestgroup)
Charitableorganization
Communityfoundation
Cryoconservationofanimalgeneticresources
FairplayForAllFoundation
ListofactiveNGOsofnationalminorities
NGOisation
Category:Nongovernmentalorganizations
Nonprofitorganization
TrackIIdiplomacy
Internationalorganization
GopaliYouthWelfareSociety
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Furtherreading
SusanCottsWatkins,AnnSwidler,andThomasHannan.2012."OutsourcingSocialTransformation:Development
NGOsasOrganizations(http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurevsoc071811145516)."Annual
ReviewofSociology,Vol.38,pp.285315,PDF(http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurevsoc071811
145516)
Davies,T.2014.NGOs:ANewHistoryofTransnationalCivilSociety.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN
9780199387533.
VelusamyM.NonGovernmentalOrganisation,DominantPublishers&DistributionLtd,NewDelhi
MarkButler,withThulaniNdlazi,DavidNtseng,GrahamPhilpott,andNomusaSokhela.NGOPracticeandthe
PossibilityofFreedomChurchLand
Programme,Pietermaritzburg,SouthAfrica2007Churchland.co.za(http://web.archive.org/web/20090205081725/http://ww
w.churchland.co.za/upload/files/OccasionalPaperNo3.pdf)
OlivierBerthoud,NGOs:SomewherebetweenCompassion,ProfitabilityandSolidarityEnvio.org.ni(http://www.envi
o.org.ni/articulo/1526),PDFEdinter.net(http://www.edinter.net/docs/ONGBOLEN0102.pdf)Envio,Managua,2001
TerjeTvedt,19982/2003:AngelsofMercyorDevelopmentDiplomats.NGOs&ForeignAid,Oxford:JamesCurrey
SteveW.Witt,ed.ChangingRolesofNGOsintheCreation,Storage,andDisseminationofInformationin
DevelopingCountries(Saur,2006).ISBN3598220308
Cox,P.N.Shams,G.C.Jahn,P.EricksonandP.Hicks.2002.BuildingcollaborationbetweenNGOsandagricultural
researchiNGOsDieGewerkschafteninGuineawhrendderUnruhen2007]EPUResearchPapers:Issue03/07,
Stadtschlaining2007(German)
LyalS.Sunga,"DilemmasfacingINGOsincoalitionoccupiedIraq",inEthicsinAction:TheEthicalChallengesof
InternationalHumanRightsNongovernmentalOrganizations,editedbyDanielA.BellandJeanMarcCoicaud,
CambridgeUniv.andUnitedNationsUniv.Press,2007.
LyalS.Sunga,"NGOInvolvementinInternationalHumanRightsMonitoring,InternationalHumanRightsLawand
NonGovernmentalOrganizations"(2005)4169.
Werker&Ahmed(2008):WhatdoNonGovernmentalOrganizationsdo?
SteveCharnovitz,"TwoCenturiesofParticipation:NGOsandInternationalGovernance,"MichiganJournalof
InternationalLaw,Vol.18,Winter1997,at183286.
AbahlalibaseMjondoloRethinkingPublicParticipationfromBelow(http://antieviction.org.za/relatedwritingandres
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AkpanS.M(2010):EstablishmentofNonGovernmentalOrganizations(InPress).
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EdwardA.L.Turner(2010)WhyHastheNumberofInternationalNonGovernmentalOrganizationsExplodedsince
1960?(http://escholarship.org/uc/item/97p470sx),Cliodynamics,1,(1).
EugeneFram&VickiBrown,HowUsingtheCorporateModelMakesaNonprofitBoardMoreEffective&Efficient
ThirdEdition(2011),AmazonBooks,CreateSpaceBooks.
DavidLewisandNazneenKanji(2009):NonGovernmentalOrganizationsandDevelopment.NewYork:Routledge.
IssaG.Shivji(2007):SilenceinNGODiscourse:TheRoleandFutureofNGOsinAfrica.Nairobi:Fahamu.
JensSteffekandKristinaHahn(2010):EvaluatingTransnationalNGOs:Legitimacy,Accountability,Representation.
NewYork:Palgrave,Macmillan.
ThedefactoreferenceresourceforinformationandstatisticsonInternationalNGOs(INGOs)andothertransnational
organisationalformsistheYearbookofInternationalOrganizations,producedbytheUnionofInternationalAssociations.
Externallinks
"WhatisaNonGovernmentalOrganization?".CityUniversity,London.
"NonGovernmentalOrganisation(NGO)".
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Non
governmental_organization&oldid=731945647"
Categories: Civilaffairs Nongovernmentalorganizations Politicalscienceterms Typesoforganization
Wordscoinedinthe1940s
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TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
apply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisaregistered
trademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.
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