Principles of Navigation

Principles of Navigation
Great Circles The centre

of a great circle cuts
through the sphere.
Small Circles The centre of

a small circle does not cut
through the sphere.
A circle drawn on the sphere such thats its plane passes through
the centre of the sphere is called a Great Circle. The radius of a
great circle is the same as the radius of the sphere.
The pole of a great circle is the point on the sphere 900 from any
point on that great circle. Every great circle has two poles, one at
either end of the axis perpendicular to the centre of the plane of the
great circle.
Page 1 of 58
Any two points on the sphere can be joined by a great circle, and
the smallest arc of a great circle is the shortest distance between
the two points.
The arc of a great circle is measured in degrees by the angle it
subtends at the centre of the sphere. Thus distance may be
expressed as an angular measure.
Circle = 3600
10 = 60 (of arc)
1 = 60 (of arc)
100 24 36can be 100 24.6

100 24
can be 10.40
Spherical Angle:
A spherical angle is formed by the intersection of two great circles

on the surface of the sphere, and is equivalent to the plane angle
between the tangents of the great circle at the point of intersection.
Spherical Triangle:
A
c
A spherical triangle
may only be formed by
the intersection of
three great circles.
a
A spherical triangle is formed by the intersection of three great
circles on the surface of a sphere.
Small Circle:
A circle drawn on a sphere such that its plane does not pass through
the centre of the sphere is called a small circle. A small circle
cannot form part of a spherical triangle.
Page 2 of 58
The Terrestrial Sphere

(The Earth)
The Poles:
The Earth spins on its axis once per day, and the point where the
axis meets the surface of the earth are called the North & South
Geographical Poles.
North Pole
Meridians
Equator
Parallel of Latitude
South Pole
The Equator:
Midway between the poles lies a great circle called the equator. It
divides the earth into two equal hemispheres, North & South, and all
points on it are 900 from the poles.
Parallels of Latitude:
Small Circles lying parallel to the equator and diminishing in size
with increasing distance from it are known as parallels of latitude.
The equator and the parallels run east west and cut all meridians at
900.
Meridians:
Page 3 of 58
Lines of longitude or meridians are semi great circles joining the
poles. Meridians run due North / South. The one passing through
the meridian instrument at the site of the Greenwich Observatory in
London is taken as the Prime Meridian for the purpose of measuring
longitude.
Latitude:
The latitude of a point on the earths surface is the arc of a meridian
measured North or South from the equator to the parallel of latitude
through the point. Its
Value ranges from 00 at the equator to 900 at the poles.
Longitude:
The longitude of a point is the arc of the equator or the angle at the
poles between the Greenwich Meridian and the meridian passing
through the point measured 1800 East and West from Greenwich.
N.B. Assuming the earth to be a perfect sphere, the arc of the great
circle defining latitude and longitude are equal to the angles
subtended by them at the centre of the earth.
750
750
500
500
Greenwich Meridian
Distance Over The Earth:
Page 4 of 58
The earth is commonly regarded as a sphere, but is in fact slightly
flattened at the poles and bulged at the equator. It is an oblate
spheroid or ellipsoid.
Equatorial diameter
Polar diameter
7927 miles
9700 miles
Equatorial circumference
Polar circumference
24902 miles
24860 miles
The Statute Mile:

Measures 5280 feet (1609 metres), Not used in Navigation (except
Canada).
The Geographical Mile:
The length of arc of the equator subtending at the centre of the
earth an angle of 1 minute of arc (1/60 degrees).
The Nautical Mile:
The length of arc of the meridian subtending at its centre of
curvature an angle of 1 minute. If the earth were a perfect sphere,
the Nautical Mile would equal the Geographical Mile. However
because of the earths oblateness the length of the Nautical Mile is
not the same in all latitudes, being greater at the poles than at the
equator. The unit used in Navigation is the International Nautical
Mile (1852 metres), which is the average length of 1 minute of arc of
a meridian in latitude 450. The unit of speed is the knot, which is 1
Nautical Mile Per Hour.
Rhumb Line:
If a curve is drawn on a sphere so that it cuts all the meridians at
the same angle, it is called a rhumb line. A rhumb line is a curve
spiralling upwards towards the poles but never quite reaching them.
When a ship follows a rhumb line between any two points, the true
course remains constant. The rhumb line distance is not the shortest
distance between two points except where the rhumb line coincides
with the great circle. As on the equator or meridian.
The Solar System:
The solar system consists of the Sun and many smaller bodies which
revolve around it. These include:
1. The Major Planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.
Page 5 of 58
2. The Minor Planets or Asteroids which consist of thousands of
small rocky objects orbiting mainly between Mars and Jupiter.
3. Comets & Meteors.
Of all these bodies the following are useful in Navigation:
Sun, Moon, Venus, Jupiter, Mars & Saturn. Data for these are
tabulated in the Nautical Almanac.
Mercury & Venus, whose orbits are inside that of the Earths, are
called inferior planets. Those with orbits outside that of the Earths
are called superior planets.
The orbits of the planets are in the form of ellipses, in general not
greatly departing from the circles.
With the exception of Pluto, the orbits of the planets are very nearly
in the same plane.
The planets rotate on their axes from west to east, except for Venus
which is thought to be retrograde.
All the planets revolve around the Sun from west to east.
Keplers Laws of Planetry Motion
1. All Planets revolve in elliptical orbits with the sun as a focal
point of the ellipse.
Perihelion
Aphelion
2. Each planet revolves so that the line joining it to the Sun

sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3. The square of the time taken from a planet to complete one
revolution is proportional to the cube of its mean distance
from the Sun.
The Earths Orbit:
Page 6 of 58
(Real motion of the Earth around the Sun).
Perihelion & Aphelion refer to
any body in orbit around the
Sun.
Aphelion
Perihelion
92.900.000 miles mean distance
Early July
Slower orbital
speed.
Early January
Faster orbital
speed.
An ellipse of small eccentricity with the Sun at the focus of the

ellipse.
The Seasons:
Spring / Vernal Equinox
March 21st
Summer Solstice
June 22nd
Winter
Spring
Aphelion
Perihelion
Winter Solstice
December 22nd
Autumn
Summer
Autumnal Equinox
September 23rd
The Earths axis is inclined at 23 0 to the perpendicular to the
plane of its orbit, and it points in the same fixed direction is space.
Thus each pole is tipped alternately towards and away from the Sun
for half the year to give rise to the changing seasons. The inclination
of the axis determines the boundaries of the climatic zones.
North Pole
Frigid
Arctic Circle
66 North
Page 7 of 58
Temperate
Tropic of Cancer
23 North
Torrid Zone
23 South
Tropic of Capricorn
Temperate
66 South
Arctic Circle
Frigid
South Pole
Variation in the Length of Day & Night:

Continuous Daylight
Continuous Darkness
Summer Solstice
Winter Solstice
S
U
N
L
I
G
H
T
Continuous
Darkness
Continuous Daylight
The only time of the year that there is an equal day and night in
each hemisphere, is at the time of the equinoxes. This occurs at all
latitudes.
There is equal day and night at all times of the year at the equator.
Page 8 of 58
The Celestial Sphere:
North Celestial Pole
Zenith
Parallel of
Declination
NP
Observer
Q
Celestial Equator
SP
Terrestial
Equator
Nadir
qq Terrestrial Equator
NqS Observers Meridian
Meridian
Celestial / Rational
Horizon
QQ Celestial Equator
S.C.P.NQS Observers Celestial
Celestial Poles:
The Earths axis of rotation extended in both directions meets the
celestial sphere at two points called the celestial poles. The pole
above the observers horizon is called the elevated pole. Since the
Earth rotates from west to east, the celestial and all the bodies on it
are apparently moving from east to west at an hourly rate of 150.
Celestial Equator:
A great circle corresponding to the Earths equator expanded
outwards onto the celestial sphere. All points on it Are ninety
degrees from the celestial poles.
Hour Circle:
A semi-great circle joining the celestial poles, and cutting the
celestial equator at right angles.
Parallel of Declination:
A small circle on the celestial sphere whose plane is parallel to the
plane of the celestial equator.
Declination:
Page 9 of 58
The declination of a celestial body is the arc of the hour circle
passing through the body measured north or south from the
celestial equator. Its value ranges from 00 at the celestial equator to
900 at the celestial poles.
Polar Distance:
The arc of the hour circle passing through a body measured from the
elevated celestial pole to the parallel of declination through the
body.
POLAR DISTANCE = 90 DECLINATION
Apparent Annual Path of the Sun [The Ecliptic]:
The Earths equator is inclined at 23 27 to the plane of its orbit.
The Earth really revolves around the Sun, but to an observer on the
Earth, the Sun traces out an annual path in the form of a great circle
around the celestial sphere, inclined at 23 27 to the celestial
equator.
Path of the Sun:
Sept 23rd
Obliquity of the ecliptic

2327
Celestial Equator
Dec 22nd
June 22nd
Ecliptic
March 21st
Page 10 of 58
First point of Libra

Cancer
First point of Capricorn
First point of
First point of
Aries
First point of Aries
The point where the Sun crosses the celestial equator from North to
South, on or about March 21st is called the first point of Aries and is
a most important point in Navigation or Astronomy.
Sidereal Hour Angle:
Is the angle at the celestial pole or arc of the celestial equator
measured westwards from the first point of Aries to the hour circle
passing through the body starting at 00 at through 3600, back to
again.
Right Ascension:
Is the angle at the celestial pole or arc of the celestial equator
measured eastwards from the first point of Aries to the hour circle
passing through the body starting at 00 at through 3600, back to
again. Astronomers use Right Ascension.
SHA + RA = 3600
Coordinate system without reference to the Observer:

SHA & Declination
Algol
CNP
SHA 3140
Dec 410N
Declination
1800
2700
900
00
SHA
Page 11 of 58
NCP
Sirius
SHA 2510
Dec 170S
Coordinates with reference to the Observer:

Zenith
Zenith Distance
Altitude
Rational or Celestial Horizon
North point of
the horizon
Page 12 of 58
Azimuth
E
Prime
Vertical Circle
Amplitude
Nadar
Zenith:
Is the point on the celestial sphere directly overhead the observer.
Nadar:
Is the point on the celestial sphere directly below the observer.
Rational (Celestial) Horizon:
A great circle midway between the zenith and the nadar is the
Rational or Celestial Horizon. All points on it are 900 from the zenith.
Vertical Circle:
Semi-great circles joining the zenith and the nadar are called
vertical circles. They cut the rational horizon at 900. The one that
runs North / South through the zenith coincides with the observers
celestial meridian. The one running east / west through the zenith is
called the Prime Vertical Circle.
Amplitude:
Is the angle contained at the zenith, or arc of the rational horizon,
between the prime vertical circle and the vertical circle passing
through a body rising and setting.
------------The position of a body on the celestial sphere may be indicated by
two co-ordinates having reference to the observer. These are
altitude and azimuth.
Page 13 of 58
Altitude:
The true altitude of a body is the angular distance along the vertical
circle from the rational horizon to the body. Its value ranges from 00
at the rational horizon to 900 at the zenith.
Zenith Distance:
This is the angular distance from the zenith to the body measured
along a vertical circle from the zenith to the body. Its value ranges
from 00 at the zenith to 900 at the rational horizon.
Zenith Distance = 900 - True Altitude.
Azimuth:
Is the arc of the rational horizon from the north point clockwise to
the vertical circle passing through the body, from 00 at the north
point through 3600 .
Superior Meridian:
The semi-great circle joining the north & south celestial poles
through the Observers zenith is called the Observers Superior
Meridian. An object on the observers superior meridian is said to
be at upper meridian passage or upper transit and its azimuth is
either 0000 or 1800. The altitude of any body is greatest at upper
transit. The reverse applies to the inferior meridian.
Circumpolar Stars:
A star becomes circumpolar whenever the polar distance is less
than the observers latitude (Px < Pn). A circumpolar body is visible
at upper transit (x) and also when it is on the meridian below the
pole, i.e. lower transit.
Zenith
Circumpolar Never Sets
Observers Superior
Meridian
x
NCP
x
Setting
Setting
Setting
Page 14 of 58
North point of
the horizon
Rising
Rising
Rising
SCP
Observers Inferior Meridian
The latitude of an observer is the altitude of the elevated celestial

pole.
Measurement of Movement of Celestial Bodies
Greenwich Hour Angle:
Is the angle at the elevated celestial pole, or arc of the celestial
equator measured westward from the Greenwich Celestial Meridian
to the hour circle passing through the body. Its value is 0000 when
the body is on the Greenwich celestial meridian and 1800 when the
body is on the inferior Greenwich celestial meridian.
PN
Celestial Equator
Celestial Equator
SHA
GHA
SHA
Page 15 of 58
GHA
GHA
GHA
PS
GHA = SHA + GHA
Local Hour Angle:

LHA is the angle at the elevated celestial pole or arc of the celestial
equator measured westwards from the observers celestial meridian
to the hour circle through the body.
PN
PN
Observer
Greenwich
LHA
SHA
Long W
Long E
Greenwich
Observer
PN
Greenwich Celestial Meridian
Celestial Equator
Observer
Long E
GHA
LHA
Page 16 of 58
LHA = GHA
E
W
LHA of Aries:
The angle at the elevated pole or arc of the celestial equator
measured westward from the observers celestial meridian to the
hour circle passing through the first point of Aries.
LHA = SHA +
LHA
Example: Find the GHA of Spice on the 20th May 1968 @ 06h 45m
05s GMT
GHA @ 06h
Incr. (45m 05s)
SHA
GHA
3270 57.4
110 18.1
1590 07.0
1380 22.5
Declination 100 59.9S
Example: Find the LHA of Betelgeuse on the 12th January 1968 @

16h 22m 34s GMT for an observer in longitude 330 12.0E. State
whether east or west of the observers meridian.
GHA @ 16h
Incr. (22m 34s)
SHA
GHA
Long E
LHA
3510 13.1
50 39.4
2710 38.2
0
268 30.7
Declination 70 24.2N
330 12.0E
3010 42.7
Body East of the Meridian.
Page 17 of 58
Bodies on the Meridian
Consider the Sun on the 20th May 1968 at 06hrs GMT seen by an
observer on his meridian at a true altitude of 600 and azimuth 1800.
Latitude
Zenith
X
Sunset
Zenith Distance
Dec.
PN
Q
Diurnal path of the Sun.
Altitude
Latitude
N
Rational
Horizon
Celestial Equator
Sunrise
GHA @ 06h
GHA @ 06h
SHA
QZ (Lat)
Latitude
Latitude
2700 53.6
Declination 200 N
3270 57.4
3020 56.2
= QX + ZX
= 200 + 300
= 50N
LHA =
LHA - SHA
3600 3020 54.2
LHA =
570 03.8
Consider the Sun on the 5th August 1968 at 02hrs GMT seen by an
Zenith
Latitude
Q
Dec.
PS
X
Sunset
Latitude
Altitude
Page 18 of 58
W
S
Celestial Equator
Diurnal
path of the Sunrise
Sun.
E
N
Rational
Horizon
QZ (Latitude)
LHA
SHA
LHA =
= ZX - QX
= 45 - 170
= 280S
0
=
3600
=
2240 49.6
1350 10.4
Consider the Sun on the 10th January 1968 at 21hrs GMT seen by an
Latitude
Zenith
Q
Dec.
Page 19 of 58
S
N
Rational
Horizon
PN
Sunset
Altitude
Latitude
Sunrise
Celestial Equator
=
1330 08.2
0
64 27.2
=
680 41.0
GHA
GHA
SHA
LHA
SHA
LHA =
=
3600
=
680 41.0
2910 19.0
QZ (Latitude)
Declination 220N
= ZX - QX
= 50 - 220
= 280 N
0
Consider the Star Regulus on the 21st May 1968 seen by an observer
on his meridian at a true altitude of 200 and azimuth 0000.
Zenith
Latitude
PS
Q
Page 20 of 58
S
N
Rational
Horizon
Latitude
Setting
Dec.
X
Altitude
Celestial Equator
E
Rising
Diurnal path of the Star
SHA Regulus
120 07.5S
LHA
LHA
=
QZ (Latitude)
2080 19.7
Declination
=
3600
1510 40.3
= ZX - QX
= 70 - 120 07.5S
= 570 52.5S
0
Consider the Star Achemar on the 14th July 1968 seen by an

Dec.
X
Zenith
Altitude
Latitude
Q
PS
Page 21 of 58
S
N
Rational
Horizon
Latitude
Celestial Equator
Setting
Rising
SHA Achemar
570 23.4S
LHA
LHA
=
QZ (Latitude)
3350 51.7
Declination
=
3600
240 08.3
= QX - ZX
= 57 23.4S - 250
= 320 23.4S
0
Consider the Star Dubhe on the 5th November 1968 seen by an

Latitude
Zenith
Q
X
Dec.
Altitude
Diurnal path of the Star
PN
Page 22 of 58
S
N
Rational
Horizon
Setting
Latitude
Rising
Celestial Equator
1940 32.9
=
3600
1650 27.1
SHA Dubhe
LHA
LHA
=
QZ (Latitude)
= QX - ZX
= 610 55 N - 400
= 210 55 S
Altitudes:
Declination 160 55 N
Zenith
Apparent Altitude
Sensible Horizon
Visible Horizon
V
S1
Observed Altitude
V1
Page 23 of 58
Dip
True Altitude
Rational Horizon
R
R1
Visible Horizon:
Range of vision is limited by the curvature of the earth. To an
observer at O the small circle VV1 represents this and is called the
Visible Horizon.
Sensible Horizon:
This is a plane through the observers eye (S O S1) at right angles to
he Earths radius.
Rational Horizon:
A plane (R C R1) parallel to the sensible horizon passing through the
earths centre. On the celestial sphere the rational horizon is a great
circle.
Sextant Altitude:
The altitude measured by the sextant.
Observed Altitude:
The altitude of he body above the visible horizon, i.e. the sextant
angle corrected for index error, if any.
Apparent Altitude:
The observed altitude corrected for the dip of the seas horizon or
altitude above the sensible horizon.
Page 24 of 58
True Altitude:
The altitude of a bodys centre measured at the earths centre, i.e.
the altitude of the bodys centre above the rational horizon.
Corrections to Altitude:
1. Dip Reduces the altitude from the visible horizon to the
sensible horizon. It is the angle at the observers eye between
the sensible horizon and the line tangential to the visible
horizon. It is tabulated against height of eye. (Always
subtracted).
2. Index Error An instrument error applied directly to the
sextant altitude. (On the Arc (-), Off the Arc (+)).
3. Refraction The ray of light passing through the earths
atmosphere is refracted towards the normal causing the
apparent altitude of the body to be too large. Maximum
refraction occurs at low altitude where the angle of incidence
of incoming light is greatest. Refraction decreases with
increasing altitude and is zero at the zenith.
Zenith
False Position
True Position
Nautical Almanac corrections are based on standard

atmospheric conditions of 100 and 1010mb. There is a table
for non standard corrections at low altitudes.
In practice bodies of altitudes less than 100 should be avoided
for the purposes of position taking unless there is nothing else
available.
Page 25 of 58
4. Semi Diameter The Sun and the Moon are bodies that
present a finite diameter. The Navigator should measure the
altitude of the upper or lower limits. To obtain the altitude of
the bodys centre a correction for semi-diameter must be
applied (Upper Limb (-), Lower Limb (+)). The Suns apparent
diameter is greatest when the earth is at perihelion in early
January, and smallest when at aphelion in early July.
5. Augmentation of the Moons Semi-Diameter
Extra Distance
Moon
As the moon rises the distance from the observer decreases

and hence the semi-diameter increases. This only applies to
the moon due to its relative proximity (240,000 miles) It is
always positive, but is only needed for greater accuracy.
Maximum value is 0.3,
6. Parallax
Parallax
Horizontal Parallax
O
Sensible Horizon
Page 26 of 58
Rational Horizon
Caused by the body being observed above the sensible

horizon instead of the rational horizon. It is only effective on
bodies relatively close and therefore only applies to bodies
within the solar system.
Horizontal Parallax: The angle subtended at the bodys centre
by the earths radius when the bodys centre is on the
observers sensible horizon. Maximum value of parallax.
Parallax in Altitude: The angle subtended at the bodys centre
between the observer and the earths centre. The shape of the
earth causes a reduction in parallax due to polar compression.
The amount of reduction is measurable for the moon only and
is given in Norries Tables, but its maximum value is o.2. It is
hardly large enough to of any particular importance.
Sine Parallax = Sine HP x Sine (900 + Altitude)
Sine Parallax = Sine HP x Cosine Apparent Altitude
As Parallax and Horizontal Parallax are small, therefore Sine P
& Sine HP and P & HP are also small,
Parallax = HP Cos Apparent Altitude.
Summary:
Sextant Altitude 1. Index Error
2. - Dip
3. - Refraction
Page 27 of 58
4. + Parallax
5. Semi-Diameter
6. + Augmentation of Moons S.D.
Corrections
Corrections
Corrections
Corrections
to
to
to
to
the
the
the
the
Moon
Sun Planets
Stars -
16
15
14
13
Back Angles:
When the horizon below the body is obscured, it may be necessary
to measure the altitude to the opposite point of the horizon. To
correct a back angle:
1.
Apply IE, Dip and SD.
2.
Subtract from 1800
3.
Apply parallax and refraction.
Examples:
The sextant angle of Deneb is 150 22.6, Index Error 1.1 on the arc.
Height of eye 52 feet.
Deneb
Norries Tables
Almanac
Sextant Altitude
15 22.6
Index Error
15 22.6
-1.1
0
Observed
Nautical
-1.1
0
15 21.5
15 21.5
Altitude
Dip
Apparent
-7.08
15 14.42
-7.0
15 14.5
Altitude
Refraction
-3.45
0
True Altitude
15 10.97
-3.5
0
15 11.0
Page 28 of 58
The sextant angle of the Suns lower limb is 340 26.2, Index Error
1.5 off the arc. Height of eye 78 feet on January 3rd 1968.
Sun
Norries Tables
Nautical
Almanac
Sextant Altitude
34 26.2
Index Error
34 26.2
-1.5
-1.5
Observed
34 24.7
34 24.7
Altitude
Dip
Apparent
-8.66
34 26.2
-8.66
34 26.1
Altitude
Refraction
-1.39
Semi Diameter
+16.29
Parallax
+14.8
+0.12
0
True Altitude
15 31.06
34 30.9
The sextant angle of the Mons lower limb is 720 21.5, Index Error
1.2 on the arc. Height of eye 82 feet on October 27th 1968 @ 18h
2m 57s. DR Lat 270S
Moon
Norries Tables
Nautical
720 21.5
Almanac
720 21.5
Sextant Altitude
Page 29 of 58
Index Error
+1.2
+1.2
Observed
72 20.3
72 20.3
Altitude
Dip
Apparent
-8.87
-8.87
72 11.43
72 11.43
Altitude
Refraction
-0.3
Semi Diameter
+16.36
Parallax in
+18.03
+28.0
+ 5.0
Altitude
0
True Altitude
72 45.52
SD
Augmentation
Corrected SD
16.1
0.26
72 45.3
HP
Reduction
16.36
59.0
-0.04
Corrected HP 58.96
Parallax in Altitude = HP Cos Apparent Altitude = 18.03
Pro Forma Meridian

Altitude:
Date
DR Latitude
LHA 3600 / 0000

Long
GHA
Next Less
Remainder
s
GMT
m
s
Declination
h
m
h
DR Longitude
Body
Sextant Altitude
Index Error
Observed Altitude
Dip
Apparent Altitude
Total Correction
True Altitude
0900 00.0
Zenith Distance
Page 30 of 58
D( )
Declination
Declination
Latitude
Answer P/L 0900 / 2700 through Latitude
Longitude
Time of Meridian Passage

1. The LHA of a body on the meridian is 0000, but when the
longitude is east it is more convenient to call it 3600.
2. Use altitude corrections from the Nautical Almanac.
3. Zenith Distance is named opposite to the azimuth of the body.
4. When the ZX & Declination have the same names, add for
latitude.
5. When the ZX & Declination have opposite names, subtract for
latitude.
6. All azimuths, courses & position lines must be three figure
notation.
7. Information regarding the stars for every month of the year is
located at the back of the Nautical Almanac.
Example:
On the 4th January in longitude 960 30W the sextant angle of the
Suns lower limb when on the meridian was 540 39. IE +2.5 HE
30ft.
Date
04.01.68
LHA
Long
DR Latitude
0000
960 30W
DR Longitude 960 30W

Sextant Altitude
Index Error
Body Sun
540 39
+ 2.5
Page 31 of 58
GHA
Next Less
18h
Remainder
48s
960 30
880 48
70 42
GMT
48s
4d 18h 30m
Declination
D( )
Declination
4d
Observed Altitude
Dip
540 41.5
- 5.3
30m
Apparent Altitude
540 36.2
220 46
0.2
0
22 45.8
Total Correction
True Altitude
+ 15.5
540 51.7
Zenith Distance
Declination
Latitude
0900 00.0
350 08.3
220 45.8
120 22.6 N
Answer P/L 0900 / 2700 through Latitude 120 22.6 N

Time of Meridian Passage
Longitude 960 30W
4d 18h 30m 48s GMT
Pro Forma Pole

Star:
Page 32 of 58
Date
DR
Latitude
Local Time
Longitude
Approximate GMT
DR Longitude
Sextant Altitude
Index Error
Observed
Altitude
Dip
Apparent
Altitude
Total Correction
True Altitude
Chronometer
Error
GMT
GHA
incr
GHA
Longitude
LHA
- 10
A0
A1
A2
Latitude N
Azimuth
P/L
Through
Latitude
Longitud
e
1. If the chronometer time is given, then apply the correction to

obtain GMT.
2. It must always be borne in mind that the date at Greenwich
may differ from the date at the ship. The date at Greenwich
must be obtained. Local time longitude = Approximate GMT.
3. The direction of the position line is always 900 either side of
the bodies azimuth.
Page 33 of 58
Example:
On the 13th September at about 0500LMT at the ship in DR position
490 32N 420 50W, the sextant angle of Polaris was 500 17.3 IE 1.3.
HE 49ft.
GMT 07:51:27.
Date
13/09/6
8
490 32N
DR
Latitude
Local Time
Longitude
Approximate GMT
DR Longitude
13d 05h 00m

02h 51m
13d 07h 51m
Chronometer
Error
GMT
13d 07h 51m 27s
GHA
incr
GHA
Longitude
LHA
970
120
1100
420
670
Sextant Altitude
Index Error
Observed
Altitude
Dip
Apparent
Altitude
Total Correction
True Altitude
20.0
53.9
13.9
50W
23.9
A0
A1
A2
Latitude N
420 50W
500 17.3
-1.3
0
50 16.0
-6.8
500 09.2
-0.8
50 08.4
- 10
16.9
0.6
0.2
0
49 26.1 N
0
Azimuth
P/L
089.2
0
269.2
0
Through
Latitude
490 26.1 N
Longitud
e
420 50W
Page 34 of 58
Pro Forma
Azimuth:
Date
DR
Latitude
Local Time
Longitude
Approximate GMT
Chronometer
Error
GMT
Declination
D()
Declination
DR Longitude
GHA
incr
GHA
Longitude
LHA
A
B
C
True Azimuth
Compass
Azimuth
Error
Variation
Deviation
1. If the LHA exceeds 3600, subtract 3600.

2. When the LHA is between 0000 & 1800, the body is west of the
observer.
3. When the LHA is between 0180 & 3600, the body is east of the
observer.
4. GHA = GHA + SHA
5. When a body is rising or setting it is an amplitude.
6. Name the compass error by: Compass Best Error West or
CADET: Compass to True Add East.
Page 35 of 58
Example:
July 10th at approximately 08:00 LMT in DR 230 15N 310 36W.
Variation 100W. Sun bearing 0930C. Chronometer 10h02m04s, slow
by 5m 20s.
Date
10/07/6
8
DR
Latitude
230 15N
Local Time
Longitude
Approximate GMT
08h 00m
02h 06m
10h 06m
Chronometer
Error
GMT
10h 02m 04s

05m 20s
10h 07m 24s
Declination
D()
Declination
220 12.6 N
0
220 12.6 N
DR Longitude
310 36W
GHA
incr
GHA
Longitude
LHA
3280 41.0
10 51.0
3300 32.0
310 36W
2980 56.0
A
B
C
True Azimuth
Compass
Azimuth
Error
Variation
Deviation
0.24 S
0.47 N
0.23 N
078.10
093.00
14.9 W
10 W
4.9 W
Page 36 of 58
Pro Forma
Amplitude:
Sine Amplitude = Sine Declination Secant
Date
DR
Latitude
DR Longitude
Local Time
Longitude
Approximate GMT
Log Sin Dec

Log Sec Lat
Log Sin
Amplitude
Chronometer
Error
True Azimuth
Compass
Azimuth
Error
Variation
Deviation
GMT
Declination
D()
Declination
Amplitude
Amplitudes are named east at sunrise, west at sunset and the same
as declination.
Example:
Page 37 of 58
December 30th 1968 at 07h 06m LMT. DR 330 24 N 200 31 E.
Sunrise 1260C Variation 10 W.
Local Time
Longitude
Approximate GMT
30d 07h 06m

1h 22m
30d 05h 44m
230 10.1 S
0.1
230 10.0 S
Declination
D()
Declination
Log Sin Dec

Log Sec Lat
Log Sin
Amplitude
1.59484
0.07839
1.67323
True Azimuth
Compass
Azimuth
Error
Variation
Deviation
118.10
126.00
Amplitude
E 28.10 S
7.90 W
10 W
6.90 W
Bodies Out of the Meridian

Consider the star Deneb, seen by an observer in Latitude 300N
Longitude 300W at 21h 54m 11.5s GMT on the 2nd August 1968. To
Find: True Altitude & Azimuth.
Zenith
PN
X
W
Rational Horizon
Hour Circle
E
Vertical Circle
Celestial Equator
Page 38 of 58
GHA
2660 30.7
PZ = Co Lat (900 Lat)
130 35.1
Incr
GHA
Long
W
LHA
PZ = Polar Distance
2800 05.8
ZX = Zenith Distance (900 True Alt)
300 00.0W
2500 05.8
SHA
490 54.2
LHA
3000 00.0
Body E of
Meridian
P = 3600 - LHA
Body West of Meridian
Z = Azimuth
Z = 3600 - Azimuth
P = LHA
True Altitude:
Hav ZX = Hav P * Sin PX * Sin PZ + Hav (PZ ~ PX)
Log
Log
Log
Log
Hav 600
Sin 440 50
Sin 600
Hav
1.39794
1.84822
1.93753
1.18369
Nat Hav
Nat Hav (~)
Nat Hav ZX
0.15265
0.01742
0.17007
Zenith Distance = 480 42.6

Altitude = 900 ZX = 410 17.4
Azimuth:
Hav Z = (Hav P Hav (PZ~ZX))Cosec PZ * Cosec ZX
Nat Hav 440 50 0.14542
Nat Hav 110
0.00968
17.4
Nat Hav
0.13574
Log Hav
Log Cosec 600
Log Cosec 480 42.6
1.13273
0.06247
0.12414
1.31934
Page 39 of 58
Azimuth = 0540 21.3 (T)
Consider the star Alpheratz, seen by an observer in Latitude 220N on

the 1st July 1968. LHA 410 41.2 To Find: True Altitude & Azimuth.
Zenith
PN
E
Hour Circle
Rational Horizon
W
Vertical Circle
Celestial Equator
Page 40 of 58
LHA
410 41.2
SHA
3580 18.8
LHA
400 00.0
Declination 280 54.8
True Altitude:
Log
Log
Log
Log
Hav
Sin
Sin
Hav
1.06810
1.96717
1.44218
2.97745
Nat Hav
Nat Hav (~)
Nat Hav ZX
0.09495
0.00364
0.09859
Zenith Distance = 360 36

Altitude = 900 ZX = 540 24
Azimuth:
Nat Hav
Nat Hav
Nat Hav
0.25826
0.07322
0.18504
Log Hav
Log Cosec
Log Cosec
1.26726
0.03283
0.22459
1.52468
Page 41 of 58
Azimuth = 2890 18.2 (T)
Consider the Sun, seen by an observer in Latitude 420N at an instant

when the LHA was 2040 32.5. Suns SHA 1200 27.5 Declination 200
30S Find: True Altitude & Azimuth.
Zenith
Co Lat
Q
Zenith
Zenith Distance
PN
Polar Distance
Rational Horizon
E
Hour Circle
Celestial Equator
Vertical Circle
Page 42 of 58
LHA
2040 32.5
SHA
1200 27.5
LHA
Declination 200 30.0
3250 00.0
True Altitude:
Log
Log
Log
Log
Hav
Sin
Sin
Hav
2.95628
1.97159
1.87107
2.79894
Nat Hav
Nat Hav (~)
Nat Hav ZX
0.26913
0.06294
0.33207
Zenith Distance = 700 22.6

Altitude = 900 ZX = 190 37.4
Azimuth:
Nat Hav
Nat Hav
Nat Hav
0.67510
0.03765
0.63745
Log Hav
Log Cosec
1.80443
0.02598
Page 43 of 58
Log Cosec
0.12893
1.95934
Azimuth = 1450 13.4 (T)
In Latitude 200S a star bore 0700. True Altitude 200 30. To Find:
Declination.
Zenith
Zenith
Q
Q
Zenith
Zenith Distance
Co Lat
Polar Distance
X
W
Hour Circle
Rational Horizon
PN
Celestial Equator
Vertical Circle
Page 44 of 58
True Altitude:
Hav PX = Hav Z * Sin PZ * Sin ZX + Hav (PZ ~ ZX)
Log
Log
Log
Log
Hav
Sin
Sin
Hav
1.82673
1.97299
1.97159
1.77131
Nat Hav
Nat Hav (~)
Nat Hav PX
0.59062
0.00002
0.59064
Polar Distance = 1000 26.6

Declination = 100 26.6 N
Pro Forma
Intercept
Marc St. Hillaire:
Date
DR Lat
DR
Body
Long
LMT
Dec
S. A.
Long
D()
I.E.
GMT
Dec
O. A.
Dip
Chro
A. A.
n
Page 45 of 58
Error
Corr
GMT
T. A.
T Azimuth
ZX
GHA
Hav ZX = Hav LHA * Cos Lat * Cos Dec + Hav (L ~ D)
Incr
Log Hav
LHA
GHA
Log Cos Lat
Long
Log Cos Dec
LHA
Log Hav
Nat Hav
Nat Hav ~
Nat Hav
ZX
C ZX
T ZX
Intercept
T/A
1. Latitude & Declination Same Names Subtract.

2. Latitude & Declination Different Names Add.
3. Longitude West GHA Best & Visa Versa. If Longitude is
greater than 1800, subtract from 3600 and change the sign.
4. Correction for Intercept Azimuth as course, and intercept as
distance. Named the same as azimuth when towards and
opposite when away.
5. Calculated ZX best Towards. Calculated ZX least Away.
Page 46 of 58
Pro Forma Intercept

Longitude by
Chronometer:
Date
DR Lat
DR
Body
Long
LMT
Dec
S. A.
Long
D()
I.E.
GMT
Dec
O. A.
Dip
Chro
A. A.
n
Error
Corr
GMT
T. A.
T Azimuth
ZX
GHA
Hav LHA = (Hav ZX Hav (L~D)) Sec Lat * Sec Dec
Incr
Nat Hav ZX
GHA
Nat Hav ~
Long
Nat Hav
Log Hav
Log Sec
LHA
Lat
Log Sec
Page 47 of 58
Dec
Log Hav
LHA
LHA
GHA
Long
P/L
through Latitude
E/W
Longitude
Approximate LHA indicates if the body is east / west of the

observer. If east use the bottom of the haversine tables to find
calculated LHA, if west use the top.
Example:
At 09:20 LMT on the 7th October 1973 in DR Latitude 200 16N DR
Longitude 1320 12W the sextant angle of the Suns lower limb
was 450 20.1. HE 45ft, IE 1.1 off the arc. Chronometer 6h 7m
28s slow by 1m 20s.
Marc St Hillaire:
0
Date
7/10/73
DR
20 16N
DR Long
132 12W
Body
Sun (LL)
Lat
0
LMT
9h 20m
Dec
Long
8h 49m
D()
5 38.9 S
+0.1
S. A.
I.E.
GMT
7d 18h 9m
Dec
5 39.0 S
45 20.1
+ 1.1
0
O. A.
45 21.2
Dip
Page 48 of 58
- 6.5
0
Chro
6h 7m 28s
- 0.47
A. A.
- 0.17
45 14.7
n
Error
+ 1m
20s
+ 15.0
Corr
0
GMT
7d 18m
0.64 S
T. A.
45 29.7
8m
48s
0
120.9
ZX
44 30.3
Azimuth
0
GHA
Incr
93 03.3
0
2 12.2
Hav ZX = Hav LHA * Cos Lat * Cos Dec + Hav (L ~ D)

Log Hav
1.00170
LHA
0
GHA
95 15.3
1320 12W
Long
Log Cos Lat
1.97225
Log Cos
1.99789
Dec
0
LHA
323 03.3
Log Hav
2.97184
Nat Hav
0.09372
Nat Hav ~
0.05028
Nat Hav
0.14400
ZX
0
C ZX
44 36.1
T ZX
44 30.3
Intercept
5.8 T
Page 49 of 58
Date
7/10/73
DR Lat 20 16N
DR
132 12W
Body
Sun (LL)
Long
0
LMT
9h 20m
Dec
5 38.9
S. A.
45 20.1
S
Long
8h 49m
D()
I.E.
+ 1.1
+0.1
0
GMT
7d 18h
Dec
9m
5 39.0
O. A.
45 21.2
S
Dip
- 6.5
0
Chro
6h 7m
28s
Error
+ 1m
- 0.47
A. A.
- 0.17
20s
45 14.7
+ 15.0
Corr
0
GMT
7d 18m
0.64 S
T. A.
45 29.7
8m 48s
0
T Azimuth 120.9
ZX
44 30.3
GHA
Incr
93 03.3
0
2 12.2
Hav LHA = (Hav ZX Hav (L~D)) Sec Lat * Sec Dec

Nat Hav ZX
0.14342
Page 50 of 58
0
GHA
95 15.3
Nat Hav ~
0.05028
Nat Hav
0.09313
Long
132
Log Hav
2.96908
0.00212
12W
0
323
Log Sec
LHA
03.3
Lat
Log Sec
0102776
Dec
Log Hav
2.99896
LHA
0
LHA
323 10.5
GHA
95 15.3
Long
0
P/L 030.9 / 210.9
132 03.8W
0
through Latitude 20 16N Longitude 132 03.8W
Figure Drawing on the Plain of the Observers Rational Horizon

Construct a figure on the plane of the Observers Rational
Horizon for Latitude 400N, Declination 200S. By measurement find
the Zenith Distance (ZX) of a body when the Azimuth is 1300 (T).
N
Page 51 of 58
Rational
Horizon
Polar Distance
(Hour Circle)
Prime Vertical Circle
E
Vertical Circle
Celestial Equator
Q
d
Diurnal Circle / Parallel of Declination
d1
X
D
L
Locus Line
1) Draw a circle of convenient radius which can be divided into 4

equal parts. The centre of the circle is the Observers Zenith,
and the circle is the Rational Horizon.
2) Draw NZS, the Observers Meridian, as shown, and
perpendicular to this line WZE, the Prime Vertical.
3) Make NP & QZ equal to the latitude of the observer. Northern
latitude, Q will be below Z, and visa versa for southern
latitude.
4) Using the centre of NZS, draw an arc EQW, the celestial
equator.
5) Fix point D such that QD = declination.
6) Use the latitude and declination to find the amplitude and fix
points dDd2. (d and d2 are the positions in which the body rises
and sets. With the centre on NZS, draw the arc dDd2 the
diurnal circle or parallel of declination.
7) Azimuth is measured from Z. Vertical circles appear as straight
lines from Z. The body x is at the intersection of the vertical
circle and the diurnal circle.
Page 52 of 58
8) To draw the hour circle through x, find the point on NZS
which is the radius of WPE. Label this L, and draw a locus line
through L perpendicular to NZS. All hour circles have their
radius points on the locus line.
9) Draw the hour circle PX.
10)
To measure the angle P in the triangle PZX, divide the
celestial equator into convenient equal parts and measure the
arc of the celestial equator from the meridians to the hour
circle through x.
Example:
Latitude 400 N Declination 200 N True Altitude 350 west of the
meridian.
Zenith Distance = 900 True Altitude = 550
N
Rational
Horizon
Polar Distance
(Hour Circle)
d1
Vertical Circle
D
Celestial Equator
Locus Line
An observer in latitude 460N sees the Sun theoretically rising

when its declination was 150 10N. Draw a figure on the plane of
the observers rational horizon and calculate the time difference
between theoretical sunrise and the Sun bearing 0900.
N
Page 53 of 58
Rational
Horizon
P
Polar Distance
(Hour Circle)
Z
X1
D1
Vertical Circle
D
Celestial Equator
Locus Line
S
Z
PX
PZ
Cos P = CoTan PX * Cotan PZ
Cos P = CoTan PX * Tan PZ
Log CoTan PX
Log Cotan PZ
Log Cos P
Log Tan PX
Log Cotan PZ
Log Cos P
P0 (XPZ)
0.01516
1.42805
1.44321
1060 6.5
P0 (X1PZ)
2530 53.5
LHA
1.98484
1.42805
1.41289
750 0.2
310 06.3
LHA
Time Difference 2 hrs 4.42 mins

Circumpolar Bodies
Z
X (Upper Transit)
PNQPS = Observers Superior

Meridian
PNQ1PS = Observers Inferior
Meridian
PN
Latitude
X1 (Lower Transit)
S
Rational PHorizon
Page 54 of 58
Celestial Equator
Q1 N
Parallel of Declination
Circumpolar
X1
NX1 = True Altitude (Lower Transit)
B
NP = Latitude
PNX1 = Polar Distance
AZB = 900 = Maximum Azimuth

PN
b
W
Celestial
Equator
Rational Horizon
The term circumpolar refers to celestial objects which remain

S
continuously above the observers
horizon and do not rise or set.
Such bodies have no amplitude.
A body is circumpolar when the polar distance is les then the
latitude.
PX < Latitude. Declination > CoLatitude.
Page 55 of 58
A circumpolar body has two visible transits, Upper Transit or
Upper Meridian Passage and Lower Transit or Lower Meridian
Passage.
When on the observers superior meridian at X it is then crossing
from east to west and is a maximum altitude. The LHA = 0000 (or
3600), the azimuth is 0000 or 1800.
When on the observers inferior meridian at X1 it is then crossing
from west to east. The LHA = 1800, the azimuth is 0000 or 3600 in
the Northern Hemisphere and 1800 in the Southern Hemisphere.
The latitude of a stationary observer may be found by taking the
mean of the true altitudes at upper and lower transits.
Latitude by Lower Transit Observation
NP = NX1 + PX1
Latitude = True Altitude + Polar
Distance
Maximum or Limiting Azimuth
When the declination is named opposite to the latitude the
maximum azimuth occurs when the body is rising or setting.
From the figure, the maximum azimuth occurs when the body is
at a and b, such that the vertical circles ZA and ZB are
tangential to the bodies diurnal circle.
When the declination is less than the latitude (same name) such
that the zenith lies within the circle of declination, then there is
no limiting azimuth. The conditions necessary for a body to cross
the prime vertical are:
1. The declination and Latitude must have the same name.
2. The declination must be less than the observed latitude.
Twilight
Twilight is the period of part light occurring before sunrise and
after sunset, caused by the scattering of sunlight by dust and
Page 56 of 58
moisture in the Earths atmosphere. Morning twilight lasts from
when the sun is 180 below the horizon until sunrise. Evening
twilight lasts from sunset to when the sun is 180 below the
horizon.
60
Rational Horizon
120
Civil Twilight
{ Sights
180
Nautical Twilight
Astronomical twilight Absolute
Darkness
Civil twilight
Is said to begin or end when the suns centre is 60 below the
rational horizon. At that instant the suns ZX is 960 and it is too
dark to read outside.
Nautical Twilight
Begins or ends when the suns centre is 120 below the rational
horizon. At that instant the suns ZX is 1020.
Astronomical Twilight
Begins or ends when the suns centre is 180 below the rational
horizon. At that instant the suns ZX is 1080 and the sky is
absolutely dark.
The Nautical Almanac tabulates the LMT of sunrise, sunset and
the beginning or ending of civil and nautical twilights. The
interval of time between civil and nautical twilights is the best
time for taking star sights. During the period of civil twilight very
few stars will be visible but the horizon will be clear. During
Astronomical twilight many stars will be visible but the horizon
will not be well defined. However during nautical twilight most
navigational stars will be visible together with a clear horizon,
under normal atmospheric conditions.
Page 57 of 58
Affects of Latitude on Twilight.

Z
PN
On the plane of the

Observers Meridian
High Northerly Latitude
Twilight Zone 180

X1
Q1
A
X
Diurnal Circle Parallel of
declination of the Sun
PS
Z
Q
Low Northerly Latitude
PN
Diurnal Circle Parallel of
declination of the Sun
N
S
B
X1
Twilight Zone 180
E
A
PS
X
Q1
Page 58 of 58

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Principles of Navigation

Great Circles The centre

Small Circles The centre of

100 24 36can be 100 24.6

A spherical angle is formed by the intersection of two great circles

The Terrestrial Sphere

Distance Over The Earth:

The Statute Mile:

2. Each planet revolves so that the line joining it to the Sun

92.900.000 miles mean distance

An ellipse of small eccentricity with the Sun at the focus of the

Variation in the Length of Day & Night:

North Celestial Pole

Path of the Sun:

Obliquity of the ecliptic

First point of Libra

Coordinate system without reference to the Observer:

Coordinates with reference to the Observer:

Rational or Celestial Horizon

Circumpolar Never Sets

Observers Inferior Meridian

The latitude of an observer is the altitude of the elevated celestial

GHA = SHA + GHA

Local Hour Angle:

Greenwich Celestial Meridian

Example: Find the LHA of Betelgeuse on the 12th January 1968 @

Diurnal path of the Sun.

Diurnal path of the Star

Consider the Star Achemar on the 14th July 1968 seen by an

Consider the Star Dubhe on the 5th November 1968 seen by an

Diurnal path of the Star

Nautical Almanac corrections are based on standard

As the moon rises the distance from the observer decreases

Caused by the body being observed above the sensible

Parallax = HP Cos Apparent Altitude.

Parallax in Altitude = HP Cos Apparent Altitude = 18.03

Pro Forma Meridian

LHA 3600 / 0000

Answer P/L 0900 / 2700 through Latitude

Time of Meridian Passage

DR Longitude 960 30W

Answer P/L 0900 / 2700 through Latitude 120 22.6 N

Longitude 960 30W

4d 18h 30m 48s GMT

Pro Forma Pole

1. If the chronometer time is given, then apply the correction to

13d 05h 00m

13d 07h 51m 27s

1. If the LHA exceeds 3600, subtract 3600.

10h 02m 04s

Log Sin Dec

30d 07h 06m

Log Sin Dec

Bodies Out of the Meridian

PZ = Co Lat (900 Lat)

ZX = Zenith Distance (900 True Alt)

Body West of Meridian

Zenith Distance = 480 42.6

Azimuth = 0540 21.3 (T)

Consider the star Alpheratz, seen by an observer in Latitude 220N on

Declination 280 54.8

Zenith Distance = 360 36

Azimuth = 2890 18.2 (T)