Journal 17

ISSN 1757-5834
PROFESSIONAL
strength & conditioning
The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association
No. 17 SPRING 2010

EDITOR
Ian Jeffreys MSc, ASCC, CSCS*D
EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Daniel Cleather MA, ASCC, CSCS
Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair BSc (Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC
COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS
Stuart Yule BSc (Physio), ASCC
INSIDE
NEWS
page 2
AUGMENTED ECCENTRIC LOADING

page 3
6th ANNUAL CONFERENCE

page 12
NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY AND
RESISTANCE TRAINING IN ADULT
MALES
page 15
PERFORMANCE NUTRITION
page 25
EXERCISE OF THE MONTH

page 30
THE FIVE PEOPLE YOU MEET IN

HEAVEN
page 33
1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,

Lancashire FY8 5QB.
t: 0845 300 8078
f: 0845 300 8079
e: info@uksca.org.uk
n this, the first issue of Professional Strength and Conditioning for 2010,
it is encouraging to report an already busy year for the Association. One
of the major tasks at present is the training of new assessors for the
accreditation process. Coaches undertaking assessments this year, will
have already seen a number of new assessors shadowing current assessors.
This process will continue throughout the year, providing the Association with
a much larger pool of assessors and paving the way for the facilitation of the
newly increased assessment programme over the coming years.
Additionally, new tutors have been selected and are undergoing their
training. Involving an initial three day training course, followed by shadowing
of experienced tutors, this will again provide a greater pool of tutors to allow
the Association to meet the increasing demand for workshops. A glance at
the web site and the news section of the Journal, will demonstrate the great
growth in the workshop programme for 2010, and the training of new tutors
will allow this to expand even further in 2011.
Another key role is the organising of the annual conference. A massive task
that is constantly ongoing and requires a huge amount of work. Dr Duncan
French along with Sarah Kilroy and the administrative team, are well down
the line of putting together another excellent event. With the venue
confirmed, Duncan is currently finalising the already impressive line-up of
speakers from around the world. Updated details will be posted on the
website as they become available. The Association is indebted to Duncan
and his team for the work they are putting in unseen work, which reflects
the dedication required to move aspects of the Association forward.
In this issue, we have excellent articles on a range of topics that affect the
work of strength and conditioning coaches. These vary from in depth
reviews, to applied exercise techniques.
As coaches, we are always looking for methods to enhance our practice and
to provide a variety of stimuli for our athletes. Phil Watkins , a senior
lecturer at the University of Derby and accomplished powerlifter, has
produced an excellent article, Augmented Eccentric Loading. Utilising the
greater force producing capacity of eccentric actions, Augmented Eccentric
Loading can provide a method by which coaches can provide a stimulus over
and above maximal concentric force, thus providing potential overload for
athletes.
Endocrinology, has the capacity to affect both strength performance and also adaptations to training. Anthony
Turner of Middlesex University and colleagues, have produced an excellent overview of the endocrine system and
its application to strength and conditioning practice. Covering the major hormones affecting performance, the
article gives advice on how to maximise the adaptive effects of these mechanisms.
As usual, Dr Graeme Close, in his Performance Nutrition column, has addressed an important issue for athletes
and coaches that of anti-doping regulations. Written by Dr Neil Chester of Liverpool John Moores University, it
gives clear and concise information about the current status of many over the counter stimulants. Its concluding
recommendations are an excellent summary of how best to tackle this potentially confusing and dangerous topic.
In the Exercise of the Month column, Stuart Yule has commissioned an article on an increasingly popular exercise
the barbell rollout. Written by Gordon Rennie, who works for the Sport Scotland Institute of Sport, and as an
intern with the Glasgow Warriors, it outlines how this exercise can be incorporated into strength and conditioning
programmes.
Nick Ward, in his Five People you Meet in Heaven column, has this month produced a great insight into work
carried out immediately prior to a major championships. His interview is with Stuart McMillan, who was an
instrumental coach in the Olympic preparations of many of Canadas successful winter Olympic teams. In the
interview, Stuart outlines his approach to the final preparation of athletes prior to the winter games, and gives a
great insight into the multidimensional approach required to achieve maximal performance at the elite level.
Ian Jeffreys
Editor
UKSCA NEWS
UKSCA BOOK PROGRESS
One of the major developments planned by the UKSCA has been the creation of its own textbook. We are pleased
to report that this process has taken a major step forward over the last few months. A publication deal has been
signed with Routledge, a well respected publisher in the sport and exercise sciences field. Editors for the text
have been appointed Jeremy Moody and Ian Jeffreys, and they have put together a list of authors for each
planned chapter, that represent world class practice in that field. The chapters have been planned to cover all of
the UKSCA competencies required for accreditation, but also to reflect the importance of applied coaching, which
lies at the heart of the UKSCAs philosophy. Contracts are currently being finalised between the chapter authors
and Routledge. Planned publication is for late summer 2011.
MEMBERSHIP
UPDATE
The membership of the
UKSCA continues to grow
and we now have over 230
active Accredited members
and nearly 1100 Associate
members. To date, over
550 members have
attended a UKSCA
assessment day. For each
element of the assessment
day, the rate of coaches
'demonstrating full
competence' on their first
assessment day is:
- Multi-choice paper - 81%
- Weight Lifting - 59%
- Plyometric, Agility,
Speed - 70%
- Case study - 73%
Overall, members
demonstrating competence
in all elements on their first
assessment day is 33%.
UKSCA'S PLANNING EFFECTIVE PROGRAMMES

WORKSHOP - LAUNCH 10/11 APRIL 2010
The latest 2-day workshop developed by the UKSCA, will be launched on
10/11 April 2010 at Leeds Met University. It has been designed to support
those working towards their UKSCA Accreditation, as well as coaches
looking to enhance their skills and knowledge in this area. The content is
based on best practice supported by scientific evidence and covers:
-
Principles of training and planning

Principles of needs analysis and monitoring
Physiology and periodisation scientific principles
Planning content and design
Evaluation and monitoring
Training variation - Peaking and Tapering; Team Sports and Individual
Sports
The full schedule of workshops for 2010 can be found on our website
(www.uksca.org.uk) or by contacting the office.
PRIVATE WORKSHOPS - MANCHESTER UNITED AND

BORDERS ATHLETE SUPPORT PROGRAMME ARE
THE LATEST TO WORK WITH THE UKSCA
The UKSCA continues to work with other bodies to run private strength and
conditioning workshops. Most recently, we have developed agreements with
Manchester United and Borders Athlete Support Programme.
Starting with the content of our existing workshop programmes, we can
tailor the outcomes, where required, for a specific sport or to meet the
needs of a particular cross-professional group. If you have group of more
than 8 people and would be interested in working with the UKSCA, then
please contact Sarah Kilroy on sarah@uksca.org.uk.
More news on Page 35
UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

2
UKSCA | Issue 17 | Spring 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk
Augmented eccentric
loading: theoretical and
practical applications for
the strength and
conditioning professional
Phil Watkins, BA (Hons), MSc (SES), MSc (S&C), PGCE (Phys. Ed), CSCS, ASCC, PGDipHRMan
Summary
The practice of incorporating augmented eccentric loading (AEL) into
resistance exercise is still relatively new. Although limited, there is
evidence supporting the contention that AEL may lead to both superior
acute and chronic adaptations over more traditional methods. AEL
involves coupled concentric and overloaded eccentric muscle actions,
and attempts to optimise the muscular adaptations associated with
stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) activities. Cluster set configurations
may be used as a means for implementing AEL into periodised training
plans, and may improve the quality of each AEL repetition when
compared with more traditional set structures by offsetting the affects
of fatigue. More research into concentric and eccentric relative loading,
as well as the rate of eccentric loading is necessary to further define
its role within the strength and conditioning community. However, it is
possible that enhanced training effects may be achieved if increased
eccentric loads are implemented into periodised strength-training
programmes.
Introduction
Phil Watkins is a senior lecturer in strength
and conditioning and academic lead for
postgraduate development at the University
of Derby. He is also the Performance Director
for Sports Performance Consultancy (SPC) in
Derby, UK. These positions followed previous
careers as a police officer, teacher of
physical education and lecturer in further and
higher education both in the UK and
overseas. He has a double masters degree
in sport and exercise science and strength
and conditioning (with distinction), is a
BASES Accredited Sport and Exercise
Scientist (Interdisciplinary/Biomechanics:
Scientific Support), a UKSCA Accredited
Strength and Conditioning Coach and an
NSCA Certified Strength and Conditioning
Specialist. Phil is also a current GB
international power lifter with over 12 years
international experience, has represented
both Wales and Great Britain at IPF World,
European and Commonwealth
championships and is a former
commonwealth record holder and medallist.
Human movement is made possible through the relative contributions

of eccentric, isometric and concentric muscle actions.30 Muscle forces
produced during maximal eccentric actions are greater than during
maximal concentric or isometric actions.10,19 The combined effect of
these actions is termed a stretch-shortening cycle (SSC), where
performance may be enhanced by a prior countermovement.7 The
elastic properties of muscles and tendons have been shown to improve
performance in SSC movements,42 (e.g. sprinting and jumping
activities),27 which are characterised by a fast eccentric muscular
stretch, immediately followed by a powerful, concentric muscular
contraction. A stretch immediately prior to a concentric action, results
in increased force production and power output in the concentric
phase25,39 and a shift in the force-velocity curve.24 The majority of
strength and power programmes however, focus on developing
concentric one-repetition maximum (1-RM) strength, and often
overlook the benefits of using increased eccentric loads.7 Additionally,
40- 50% greater force can be produced during the eccentric phase
when compared with the concentric phase,8 indicating that the
eccentric muscle actions are underloaded during traditional isoinertial
weight training.43 An alternative form of strength training, termed
augmented eccentric loading (AEL), involves coupled concentric and
overloaded eccentric muscle actions, and attempts to optimise the
muscular adaptations associated with resistance training.22 This paper
attempts to examine the efficacy of using AEL as an alternative
training approach, and provides practical examples for its
implementation into a periodised training programme.
Underlying physiological
mechanisms of AEL
The underlying muscular adaptations following AEL
training have not been fully determined.43 However, five
physiological mechanisms have been hypothesised as
being potential contributors to enhanced concentric
performance following AEL.1,6,18
1. Increased Neural Stimulation

Muscles are forcibly stretched during AEL and their
tension rises sharply, resulting in more motor units
being recruited.30 Quick and forceful eccentric actions
cause increases in the excitability of proprioceptors
for an optimal reaction by the neuromuscular system,
resulting in a more forceful concentric action. These
changes are controlled and counterbalanced, in part,
by two proprioceptors most relevant in SSC
movements, namely muscle spindles and golgi tendon
organs (GTOs).41 Located in the intrafusal fibres and
innervated by gamma-motor neurons, muscle spindles
are facilitatory mechanoreceptors that react to
changes in muscle length to protect the muscletendon complex.12 The inevitable unloading of the
muscle spindle during muscle shortening is
counteracted by a concomitant shortening of the
intrafusal muscle fibres. This stretch reflex occurs
during the yielding phase, and compensates for
muscle exposed to forcible stretches.41 Located in the
extrafusal fibres and innervated by alpha motor
neurons,34 GTOs act as a protective mechanism that
respond to changes in tension, rather than length,
inhibiting agonist muscles and facilitating the
antagonist muscles.3 When muscle contractile forces
reach a point where damage to the muscle-tendon
complex may occur, GTOs increase afferent activity
through inhibition of the motor neurons that innervate
the stretched muscles, whilst simultaneously exciting
the motor neurons of the antagonist muscles.3,34 AEL
can upregulate the stretch reflex, as well as reduce
the inhibitory reflexes.20,41
2. Stretching of the Parallel and Series

Musculotendinous Complex
Elastic energy stored in the series elastic elements
(SEEs) during the eccentric phase is re-used in the
concentric phase.41 An increase in the rate of eccentric
loading may result in a brief storage of additional
elastic energy, which may be used during the
concentric phase. At the on-set of muscle shortening,
elastic recoil of these elements adds to the work output
of the muscle-tendon complexes involved in these
actions.40 Tendon recoil speeds are much greater than
muscle shortening speeds, and exercises with
increasing stretching loads result in a reduction in
muscle activation and surface EMG,9,37 indicating an
increased reliance on the elastic properties of the
musculotendinous unit (MTU) during ballistic actions.
3. The Elastic Nature of Tendons

Force production increases during the eccentric phase
of SSC movements, resulting in the time availability
for force development being greater45 than in
concentric only movements. There is very little
lengthening of the muscles in this eccentric phase, and
at the moment of transition (reversibility) from
lengthening to shortening, the force is developed
under isometric conditions, so the influence of high
velocity is avoided.42 A continuation of tendon
lengthening enables a body to continue to drop

downward.45 MTU stiffness has been shown to play an
important role in making full use of the benefits of
SSC movements.28 When no external forces are
present, these systems maintain a constant shape,
however, when acted upon by external forces, they
generate elastic force to oppose the external force and
store and return elastic energy.29 A stiffer spring-like
action in the legs allows humans to run with higher
stride frequencies than otherwise possible,11 however,
the stiffness of muscle is variable and depends upon
the forces exerted. Such tendons work as springs, and
allow for storing and recoiling large amounts of
mechanical energy.45 Harrison et. al.,14 demonstrated
that sprinters used a stiffer leg spring at any given
velocity when compared with high calibre endurance
athletes, but suggested that endurance athletes may
benefit from the inclusion of SSC related activities in
their training. Superior athletes can develop high
forces, and the stiffness of their active muscles
exceeds the stiffness of their tendons. It has been
proposed that the influence of the facilitatory reflex,
which originates from the muscle spindles can be
enhanced through training and can improve muscle
stiffness.41 The role of the inhibitory force feedback
component (from the GTOs), can be simultaneously
decreased.23
4. Preloading
Developing pre-tension prior to muscle shortening has
been reported in the literature.17,19 AEL may allow a
portion of the cross-bridges to be attached before the
onset of the concentric action, thereby increasing
joint movements early in the concentric phase.1
Concentric movements immediately preceded by
isometric or eccentric actions lead to greater
concentric torque when compared with purely
concentric actions.20,40 According to the force-velocity
relationship, force must be developed when velocity is
slow in order to achieve very high forces. High levels
of muscle activation early in the movement, enable
muscles to produce greater forces over a range of
joint angles.1,4 In most high speed movements,
muscle forces are developed in isometric conditions45
throughout much of the movement, with the
magnitude of lengthening and shortening of muscles
depending upon the amplitude of the eccentric and
concentric phases, and the muscle involved. This near
isometric or quasi-isometric action of the muscles,
enables high forces to be generated in accordance
with the force-velocity relationship, as well as
allowing them to operate near their optimal length.
5. Postactivation Potentiation (PAP)

Fatiguing muscle contractions impair muscle
performance, whereas non-fatigued muscle
contractions, usually at high loads and short duration,
may enhance muscle performance.21 Therefore,
postactivation potentiation (PAP) may be defined as an
increased twitch contraction force following a maximal
voluntary contraction.18 Proposed mechanisms include
the phosphorylation of myosin regulatory light chains,
rendering actin-myosin more sensitive to Ca2+ released
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum during subsequent
muscle contractions,21 together with adaptations of
reflex activity in the spinal cord.5,18 Theoretically, PAP
increases the rate of force development (RFD), leading
to increases in velocity and acceleration,36 and may be
achieved when eccentric loads are augmented18 during
such activities as drop jumping or squatting.

4
A Brief Literature Review

Augmented Eccentric Loading (AEL) has been defined
as the application of a heavy eccentric force
immediately prior to a relatively lighter concentric
force.30 Augmented eccentric loads may be provided
by: i) increasing the rate of muscle lengthening,
ii) increasing the relative load or iii) through a
combination of the two.
Implications for influencing the rate of eccentric
loading: Early AEL studies1,6 found that performing
depth jumps from incrementally higher displacements
were more effective at acutely increasing vertical
jump height when compared with countermovement
jumps.1 These findings are subject to an athletes
ability to absorb force upon landing, since the AEL
during depth jumping increases accelerative force,
impulse (i.e. the product of force (F), and the change
in time (t) during the application of that force), and
the rate of muscle lengthening upon landing.30 Toumi
et. al.38 reported similar findings following a study into
the effects of eccentric phase velocity of plyometric
training on vertical jump performance. Subjects
performed tests for maximal isometric and concentric
squat force, as well as squat and countermovement
jump displacement, before and after an 8 week
experimental speed squat training protocol, with
eccentric speeds of 0.2 m/s and 0.4 m/s. Both
groups squatting and jumping performances
improved significantly following the intervention,
however, a reduction in the amortisation rate of the
speed squat was also reported in the 0.4 m/s group.
The superior adaptations of the group using the faster
eccentric action, was attributed to the increased
eccentric loading via the rapid stretch imposed on the
muscle.
Hilfiker et. al.,18 evaluated the immediate influence of
eccentric muscle action on vertical jump performance
in thirteen elite Swiss athletes, (i.e. ski jump, ski
alpine, snowboard freestyle and alpine, ski freestyle
and gymnastics), with a mean age of 22 years (range
20-28). The athletes were randomised into 2 groups,
and following a semi-standardised warm-up, group 1
performed five modified drop jumps (i.e. landing with
active stabilisation in 90 knee flexion) from a height
of 60cm. After a one minute rest, each athlete
performed three single squat jumps (SJ) and three
single countermovement jumps (CMJ) on a force
platform. The procedure was repeated after one hour
without the modified drop jumps, and in a cross over
manner. Group 2 did the first warm-up without and the
second warm-up with the modified drop jumps.
Significant increases were found between peak power
output during the CMJ, when adding the five modified
drop jumps to the warm-up. However, no other
significant differences were reported, although large
inter-individual variability of the effects were observed,
indicating practical significance (i.e. 1cm jump height
or a change of 0.5W/kg peak power) in elite athletic
populations. Although generalisations to other
populations should be treated with caution, the findings
are in agreement with other studies,1,6,44 examining the
effects of maximal voluntary contractions on vertical
jump performance. The authors concluded that athletes
performing sports with single actions (e.g. long
jumping, ski jumping) requiring a PAP effect, may
benefit from the inclusion of modified drop jumps
approximately 1 to 5 minutes before the onset of the
competition.
Conversely, Moore et. al.,30 investigated the acute

effects of AEL on squat jump performance. Thirteen
resistance-trained men, (age = 22.8 2.9 years),
were assessed performing squat jumps under 4
experimental conditions, (condition 1, 30% 1-RM back
squat; conditions 2, 3 and 4, squat jumps with a 30%
1-RM subsequent to the application of AEL conditions
of 20, 50 and 80% of 1-RM back squat respectively).
Results indicated that peak velocity, force and power
values obtained during the squat jumps were similar
(p>0.05) across all loading conditions. However, the
eccentric portion of the jump squat in this study was
executed at a relatively slow velocity,30 serving to
reduce any additional accelerative force. Therefore, the
rate of eccentric action may be more significant than
absolute load, possibly explaining why the loading
parameters were ineffective in this study.
Implications for increasing the

relative eccentric load
Acute Studies: Doan et. al.,7 measured the acute
effects of AEL on subsequent concentric 1- repetition
maximum (RM) strength in the bench press exercise.
Eight moderately trained men, (mean age, 23.9 yrs),
performed maximal attempts in the bench press using
detaching hooks (i.e., weight releasers), which allowed
them to lower 105% of their concentric 1-RM and raise
100%. All subjects significantly (p = 0.008) increased
their 1-RMs by 5 to 15 pounds with the mean bench
press score increasing from 97.44kg for the normal
eccentric condition, to 100.57kg for the AEL condition.
Although limited by a lack of sensitive measures, such
as force, power and rate of force development (RFD),
the results demonstrated that additional eccentric
loading may be beneficial in producing acute increases
in 1-RM bench press, and may also offer a potentiation
effect as part of a warm-up. The loadings used in this
study were of particular interest, maximal concentric
barbell loads were coupled with a small AEL of 105% of
concentric 1-RM, whereas the concentric barbell
loadings used by Moore et. al.30 were significantly
smaller (30% 1-RM), with AEL ranging from 20 to 80%
1-RM. The authors of this study,30 suggested the
possibility of the existence of a concentric load
threshold, below which, AEL may be ineffective at
improving performance.
More recent studies have monitored the acute effects
of varying dynamic accentuated external resistance,
(DAER), on neuromuscular responses, growth
hormone and blood lactate concentrations,32 and force
and power responses33 during the bench press
exercise in eleven healthy, physically active resistance
trained males, (32 4.3 years; 86.3 8.8kg). Four
hypertrophic DAER protocols (i.e. condition 1-70%
eccentric and concentric loads (70/70%); condition 280/70%; condition 3-90/70% and condition 4100/70%), and volume (4 sets of 10 repetitions with
2 minutes recovery) were performed.32 The results
indicated that the greatest metabolic and hormonal
responses occurred with the 90/70% loading
condition, with the optimal eccentric load being 20%
larger than the concentric load. These findings may
be applied to the programme designs of athletes
attempting to optimise gains in muscle hypertrophy
and suggest the importance of individualising load
selection for DAER exercises. Similarly, protocols with
varying DAER loads of 100, 105, 110 and 120% of 1RM for the eccentric phase, (100% of 1-RM was used

for all concentric phases), and an additional explosive

strength session involving repetitions with 50, 60, 70,
80 and 90% of 1-RM loads for the eccentric phase,
(50% of 1-RM was used for the concentric phases)
were performed33 with varying heavy DAER. The data
showed that the selected loads did not enhance
maximum concentric force production. However,
during the explosive actions, although no significant
differences were observed between the loading
conditions in peak concentric power, the highest peak
power was observed during the 70/50% loading
condition. Individually, the 77.3 3.2/50% condition
produced the highest power output values, and
differed significantly (p<0.001) from the control
condition of 50/50%. This maybe explained by
individuals who possess highly trained elastic
elements having a larger recovery of stored elastic
energy, thereby producing more power with the
higher DAER loads, compared to individuals with a
lower training status. The authors suggest that
individualising DAER loading thresholds is an effective
strategy to adopt when optimal concentric power
production is required in the bench press. More
research using multiple concentric loads across
populations is required to confirm if such thresholds
exist.
(p<0.05). However, the DAER group produced

significantly greater development in elbow extensor
strength compared with DCER training. The authors
attributed these differences within the DAER group to
the pennate muscle fibre design of the elbow
extensors, (i.e. conducive to high force production),
compared with the parallel fibre design of the elbow
flexors.
Yarrow et. al.,42 evaluated neuroendocrine responses
and strength adaptations to five weeks of traditional
(TRAD) and eccentric-enhanced (AEL) progressive
resistance training. Twenty-two previously untrained
men, (22 0.8 years), completed 1 familiarisation and
2 baseline bouts, 15 exercise bouts (i.e., 3 times per
week for 5 weeks) and 2 post-intervention testing
bouts. Participants were randomised into TRAD, (4 sets
of 6 repetitions at 52.5% 1-RM), or AEL (3 sets of 6
repetitions at 40% 1-RM concentric and 100% 1-RM
eccentric) groups. Both groups experienced similar
increases in bench press (~10%) and squat (~22%)
strength during the intervention. At the conclusion of
training, post-exercise total testosterone (TT) and
bioavailable testosterone (BT) concentrations increased
(~13% and 21 % respectively, p<0.05) and growth
hormone (GH) concentrations increased (~750-1200%,
p<0.05) acutely following exercise in both protocols.
Post-exercise alterations in testosterone or growth
hormone may influence skeletal muscle hypertrophy,
although the degree to which these anabolic hormones
influence increases in muscle hypertrophy remains
unknown.26 Post-exercise lactate accumulation was
similar between both groups, however blood lactate
concentrations for the AEL group were significantly
lower 30 t-60 minutes into recovery. This study
concluded that TRAD and AEL training appeared to
result in similar muscular strength adaptations and
neuroendocrine responses, whilst post-exercise lactate
clearance was enhanced following AEL training. The
current findings are inconsistent, with a variety of
studies that have reported increases in strength
following one to nine weeks of AEL training.2,13,19
However, AEL maybe a suitable alternative to TRAD
and may have population-specific benefits. The lower
Chronic Studies: Brandenburg & Docherty2 compared

the effects of 2 strength training programmes on
maximal strength of the elbow flexors in twenty three
resistance trained males over a nine week period.
Subjects were randomly assigned to either a dynamic
constant external resistance (DCER), (performing 4
sets of 10 repetitions at 75% of concentric 1-RM), or a
dynamic accentuated external resistance (DAER),
(performing 3 sets of 10 repetitions at 75% of
concentric 1-RM with eccentric actions performed at a
load of approximately 110-120% of concentric 1-RM)
group. Resistances were adjusted to match concentric
and eccentric strength. Subjects in both groups trained
twice a week for the first two weeks and then three
times per week for the remainder of the nine week
training period. Both groups reported improvements in
elbow flexor strength and elbow extensor strength
Table 1: Example cluster set structure for the box squat (i.e. with a load related AEL) during a basic strength
phase of a periodised training plan - adapted from Haff.15
Type of Cluster
Exercise
Sets x
Repetitions
Cluster set repetition loading

structure
Inter-repetition
rest interval (s)
(i.e. % eccentric/concentric
1-RM/repetition)
Standard
Notes:
Box Squat with AEL

(e.g. use manual or
weight releasers)
4-6 x 6/1
105/80/1 105/80/1 105/80/1
20
105/80/1 105/80/1 105/80/1

4-6 x 6/2
105/80/2 105/80/2 105/80/2
30
4-6 x 6/3
105/80/3 105/80/3
40
6/1 = 6 total repetitions broken down into 6 clusters of 1; 6/2 = 6 repetitions broken down
into 3 clusters of 2; 6/3 = 6 total repetitions broken into 2 clusters of 3. In the above
example, each set has an average eccentric intensity of 105% of concentric 1-RM and a
concentric intensity of 80% of 1-RM for the box squat. These can be periodised over the
phase of training. Inter-repetition rest intervals can be shortened or lengthened up to 45
seconds depending upon the training goals and the athletes level of development.
During a basic strength phase (Table 1), greater strength gains have been acquired when prescribed eccentric
loads have been in excess of the concentric 1-RM (i.e. ~105-120% of the concentric 1-RM). Prescribed concentric
loads should be high, (80% of the athletes 1-RM), if the appropriate type II fibres are to be targeted.
6
training volume and time commitment

undertaken by the AEL group, suggests that AEL
training maybe more efficient in enhancing
anabolic stimuli and strength adaptations
relative to total training volume; and so
strength trainers with limited training time may
also benefit. Additionally, the increased rate of
lactate clearance may favour athletes competing
above their lactate threshold, (e.g. rowers and
wrestlers), as greater delayed lactate
accumulation may occur.
Summary of the Literature
Figure 1.0: The initial box squat set-up when performed with
a load related AEL.
Figure 1.1: Augmented loads are removed simultaneously

from each end of the bar.
Figure 1.2: Finishing position for the box squat with

concentric only resistance.
There is growing evidence to support the

hypothesis that AEL may produce superior
strength gains, both acutely and chronically,
over more traditional methods in untrained and
resistance trained populations. However, there is
also evidence suggesting that AEL is no more
effective than traditional training methods for
increasing strength and power across
populations. Much of the conflict within the
literature may be due to methodological
differences, for example, inconsistencies in
training volumes/intensities, length of studies,
modes of assessment and in particular subject
populations. It is likely that AEL adaptations are
dependent upon training history, genetics (e.g.
fibre type distribution) and trainability. Although
no conclusive statement can be made with
regards to eccentric-concentric optimal load
selection, and concentric performance
enhancement, superior gains in strength, power
and hypertrophy may be achieved when
eccentric loads are in excess of the concentric
1-RM, (i.e. strength ~105-120%; power ~7080%; hypertrophy ~90%), and when the
optimal eccentric load is approximately 20%
greater than the concentric load. Faster
eccentric actions also contribute, (i.e. rate
dependent interactions), to increases in
eccentric loading through accentuation of the
SSC and the underlying physiological
mechanisms, and may enhance concentric
performance following AEL. Athletes
participating in sports with single, explosive
actions (e.g. long jumping, ski jumping or shot
putting), and requiring a PAP effect, may benefit
the most from the inclusion of high velocity
augmented eccentric actions, approximately one
to five minutes before the onset of the
competition.
More research into the role of concentric and
eccentric loading as well as the rate of eccentric
loading is necessary. In particular, longitudinal
training studies investigating individually based
eccentric-concentric loading thresholds across
populations. Manipulations to AEL protocols may
yield favourable training adaptations with
increases in training volume and duration across
the training cycle. Coaches and athletes with
limited time to participate in resistance exercise
may also benefit from AEL, as similar
improvements in muscular strength have
occurred at lower training volumes and time
commitment when compared with more
traditional methods. Additionally, AEL may
benefit specific muscle groups over others, and
may aid recovery in some populations.

Table 2: Example cluster set structure for plyometric drop jumps (i.e. with a velocity related AEL) during a basic
power phase of a periodised training plan.
Type of Cluster
Exercise
Sets x
Cluster set repetition loading
Repetitions structure
Inter-repetition
rest interval (s)
(i.e. % eccentric/concentric
1-RM/repetition )
Standard 1: As part Plyometric Drop
of a periodised
Jump with AEL
programme
(e.g., using viper
belt with bands)
1-3 x 10/1
30/1 30/1 30/1 30/1

1-3 x 10/2
30/2 30/2 30/2 30/2 30/2
10
1-3 x 10/3
30/5 30/5
15
60/1 60/1 60/1 60/1 60/1
No rest
Standard 2: As part
Modified Drop Jump 1 x 5/1
of a warm-up
(i.e. landing only)
(adapted from
Hilfiker et al. 2007)
Notes:
30/1 30/1 30/1 30/1 30/1 30/1
Standard: 10/1 = 10 total repetitions broken down into 10 clusters of 1; 10/2 = 10

repetitions broken down into 5 clusters of 2; 10/5 = 10 total repetitions broken into 2
clusters of 5. During the eccentric phase, intensity can be altered by changing the height
of the box (e.g., 30cm in the above example), or increasing/decreasing the number of
bands attached to the belt. The bands are released immediately prior to the concentric
phase of the jump. Rest intervals can be lengthened up to 45 seconds depending upon
the training goals and training status of the athlete.
Warm-Up: 5/1 = 5 repetitions broken down into 5 clusters of 1. The athlete drops from a
box height of 60cm (landing only) with no rest between each cluster set. Maybe
incorporated into a warm-up 1 to 5 minutes before the onset of competition or training to
achieve a PAP effect.
During a basic power phase (Table 2), velocity related AEL activities, (figures 2.0, 2.1 and 2.2), such as drop
jumps use rapid powerful movements that are preceded by a pre-loading countermovement. Strength and
conditioning coaches should encourage rapid, powerful movements that reduce the eccentric/concentric transition
times from their athletes, as well as emphasising the importance of minimising ground contact times.
The implementation of AEL into

athlete training
AEL training requires the athlete to perform coupled
concentric and overloaded eccentric muscle actions,43
and the efficacy of using AEL in athlete training
appears promising2,7,19,43 and may be used across
populations. Athletes should include a practice phase
(e.g. 1-3 sessions), to ensure optimal familiarisation
and jumping proficiency, which may assist in
overcoming technical flaws and less-than-optimal
volition due to the AEL. Examples of exercises that
maybe adapted for AEL include: squats, drop jumps,
jumps in place, squat jumps, lunges, bench press and
bench throws. Load related AEL exercises such as the
box squat, (in figures 1.0, 1.1 and 1.2), may be
implemented without the use of weight releasers.
However, this is an advanced resistance training
method, with communication between spotters and
athletes being the key to safe execution of this
exercise. Only advanced resistance trained athletes
with appropriate supervision should implement this
mode of AEL training into their programmes.
Due to the stop-start nature that is often inevitable
when performing AEL exercises, (resulting from the
inter-repetition set-up of bands, dumbbells, weight
releasers etc), cluster set configurations may be used
as a more structured approach to implementing AEL
into a periodised training plan (Tables 1 and 2).
Traditionally, a training set is comprised of a series of
repetitions performed in a continuous fashion. A cluster

set however, may employ a 15-45 second rest period
between each repetition, the main manipulation
involving modifications to the inter-repetition rest
interval, (e.g. 10/1 = 10 total repetitions in the set with
the selected inter-repetition rest between each
repetition; or 10/2 = 10 total repetitions in the set with
the selected inter-repetition rest after each series of 2
repetitions) (Table 2). Other modifications may include
variations to individual loading patterns contained in the
set, or alternating the number of repetitions employed.
The inclusion of inter-repetition rest intervals could
improve the quality of individual repetitions when
compared with traditional set structures, and offset the
affects of fatigue on performance by enabling the
athlete to partially recover between each repetition.15
Manipulations to the cluster repetition scheme, interrepetition rest interval length and the loading sequence
should be matched to the phase of training, training
goals, and the performance characteristics of the
sport.16 Exercise selection and progression must be
guided by training status as untrained subjects have
been reported to respond to the eccentric phase of a
high stretch load with a period of inhibition.35
General conclusions and

recommendations
There is evidence supporting the hypothesis that AEL
may produce superior strength gains, both acutely and
chronically, over more traditional methods in untrained

8
and resistance trained populations. Conflict

within the literature may be due to
methodological differences such as modes of
assessment, subject populations and
exercise prescriptions. Exercises that
demand variation in movement velocities,
coupled concentric and overloaded eccentric
muscle actions (AEL), and the targeting of
different phases of the SSC, may provide
superior performance results in athletes.
The efficient use of elastic energy being the
key mechanism behind, increases in
movement speed, power and efficiency
observed in SSC movements. However, the
velocity of eccentric loading may be more
important than the absolute load based on
current research findings.
Figure 2.0: Start position for a drop jump when performed

with a velocity related AEL.
Figure 2.1: Landing position for a drop jump, bands are

released immediately prior to the concentric phase of the jump.
Figure 2.2: Flight phase for a drop jump with velocity related
AEL.
To assist strength and conditioning coaches

with the implementation of AEL into athlete
training, superior strength gains have been
achieved when eccentric loads have been in
excess of the concentric 1-RM (i.e. strength
~105-120%; power ~70-80%; hypertrophy
~90%; and the optimal eccentric load is
approximately 20% greater than the
concentric load), or when faster eccentric
actions attribute to an augmentation in
eccentric loading, via the underlying
physiological mechanisms that contribute to
enhanced concentric performance. Examples
of exercises that can be adapted to provide
an augmented eccentric load include:
plyometric drop jumps, jumps in place,
squats, squat jumps, lunges, bench press
and bench throws. The inter-repetition rest
interval may improve the quality of each
AEL repetition, when compared with more
traditional set structures by offsetting the
affects of fatigue.
More research into concentric and eccentric
relative loading as well as the rate of
eccentric loading is necessary to further
confirm its role within the strength and
conditioning community. AEL maybe a
suitable occasional alternative to traditional
training with athletes during a training or
macro cycle, and may have populationspecific benefits. It is possible that
enhanced training effects could be achieved
if increased eccentric loads are implemented
into periodised strength-training
programmes. Manipulations of AEL protocols
may also yield favourable training
adaptations as a consequence of increased
training volumes implemented within the
periodised programme. Athletes and
strength trainers with limited time to
participate in resistance exercise may also
benefit from AEL, as similar improvements
in muscular strength have occurred at lower
training volumes and time commitment
when compared with more traditional
methods. It may also aid recovery in some
populations. Consideration should be given
to exercise selection, variation, training
intensity and volumes throughout the
programme, as well as the training status of
the athlete.

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UKSCA | Issue 17 | Spring 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk 11
nce again in 2010, the UKSCA has

managed to secure some of the best
sports scientists and coaching
practitioners from around the world, to
present at this years annual conference.
Each of the presenters is recognised as a
world leader in their respective fields, and as
a delegate at the meeting, you will be given
the opportunity to learn from, and network
with, these experts. Presentations will cover
a wide range and diverse number of topic
areas, all of which are essential to the
strength and conditioning practitioner. The
3-day event will include both lectures and
practical workshops, in order to maximise
the learning opportunities for all who attend.
Final arrangements are being made with the
remaining speakers, however, at the time of
print, the confirmed speakers for 2010
include the following experts:
Vladimir Issurin (ISR) Block Periodisation

Dr. Vladimir Issurin serves as a scientific and
professional coordinator in the Elite Sport department
of the Israeli Olympic Committee at the Wingate
Institute. As a member of the national Olympic
delegations, he took part in six Olympic Games, twice
as a team leader of the Israeli kayak and swimming
national teams (2000 and 2008). Previously, he served
as a scientific adviser and head of the complex
scientific group for the USSR Olympic canoe/kayak
team during three quadrennial cycles (19781991). He
has written over 150 scientific articles in national and
international journals; he has authored and coauthored nine books.
Harvey Newton (USA) Developing the coaches
eye: optimising performance during Olympic-style
weightlifting"
Coaching weightlifting has taken Harvey Newton to all
corners of the globe and culminated with his Head
Coach position for the USA Olympic Weightlifting Team
in 1984. He was USA Weightliftings first national coach
(1981-84), and served as that groups executive
director (1982-88). For the past 30 years, Coach
Newton has influenced countless individuals and teams
with his knowledge of weightlifting and strength
training. Coach Newton authored the popular Explosive
Lifting for Sports book and DVD.
Dan Baker (AUS) Power Training Research and its
Practical Application in the Training of the Brisbane
Broncos
Dan Baker is one of the worlds leading authorities on
strength and power training for sports athletes. With a
PhD in sports science, specialising in the testing and
training of strength and power, he has the scientific
knowledge and practical know how to implement
effective strength and power training for sports
athletes. Dan has been the Strength and Power
training coach of the Brisbane Broncos Rugby league
team since 1995. A former champion powerlifter and
powerlifting coach, he is Strength and Conditioning
Coach to elite international and national level athletes
in the following sports rugby league, rugby union,
powerlifting, diving, soccer, track & field, netball,
mixed martial arts. Dan is the National President of the
Australian Strength & Conditioning Association (ASCA).
6th ANNUAL
CONFERENCE
46 JUNE, 2010
Mike Favre (USA) Planning and Programming of
Physical Preparation for Combat Sports
Mike Favre is the current Director of Olympic Strength
and Conditioning at Michigan University. He is the former
strength and conditioning coordinator at the US Olympic
Training Centre in Colorado Springs, where he was the
head strength and conditioning coach for the Grecoroman wrestling and track cycling teams. Mike was
previously employed by the Scottish Institute of Sport
and was in charge of strength training for the Scottish
national judo and badminton teams, as well as developing
the Scottish Rugby Union Academy strength programme
in the West of Scotland.
Darcy Norman (USA) Bullet-Proofing Athletes for
Performance - Injury Prevention and Rehabilitation
Strategies for the S&C Coach
Darcy Norman has worked side by side with some of the
most famous professionals in the industry, and with some
of the biggest names in sport. The CEO of Norman
Kinetics, Darcy has been the strength and conditioning
coach to FC Bayern Munich, has been a long-time coach
at Athletes Performance in Tempe, Arizona, and is the
current Performance Advisor to Columbia-HTC
Professional Cycling Team.
Mike McGuigan (NZ) Assessment and Monitoring of
Strength and Power in High Performance Athletes
Mike is the Power Scientist at the New Zealand Academy
of Sport. Prior to gaining this position, Mike was an
Assistant Professor in Exercise Science at the University
of Wisconsin-La Crosse in the US, and then a Senior
Lecturer in Strength and Conditioning at Edith Cowan
University in Australia. Mike has worked as a
Strength/Power consultant for a number of national level
sports including: Australian rules football, cricket, rugby
league and soccer. He has conducted a large number of
applied research studies in the areas of power
development and monitoring.
Nikos Apostolopoulos (CAN) Microstretching and
Inflammation with Regards to Recovery and
Regeneration
Nikos is the founder of Stretch Therapy and
microStretching. He is the Director of the Serapis Stretch
Therapy and microStretching Clinic in Vancouver, British
Columbia, Canada. This Clinic was the first to pioneer the
development of therapeutic and performance enhancing
microStretching. This recovery regeneration technique,
based on functional clinical anatomy, has been used to
treat many professional, elite and amateur athletes. He is
a research fellow with the International Collaboration On
Repair Discoveries (ICORD), the International Association
for the Study of Pain (IASP) and the International Society
of Exercise and Immunology (ISEI). Nikos has worked
internationally as a consultant and therapist with various
sports organisations
Kents Hill Park, Milton Keynes
Nick Allen (UK) Strength and Conditioning

Men in Tights! Lessons to Be Learnt from Training
the Performing Arts
Nick is the Clinical Director of Birmingham Royal
Ballets Jerwood Centre for the Prevention and
Treatment of Dance Injuries a centre of
excellence specifically designed to pioneer the
treatment and research into the cause and effect
of dance injury. Before joining the ballet company,
Nick was Head of Medical Services for Gloucester
Rugby Club and he has also been a national squad
therapist for the England Hockey Team.
Danny Holdcroft (UK) S&C for Bob Skeleton
Performance Preparations for Amy Williams,
Winter Olympic Gold Medallist, Vancouver 2010
Danny is the strength and conditioning coach for
British Skeleton. Danny joined British Skeleton in
2005 through partnership with the English
Institute of Sport, having previously been the
strength and conditioning coach for the Lawn
Tennis Association academies where he had been
since 2002. Prior to that, he spent 3 years as the
Conditioning Coach to Shrewsbury Town Football
Club. He is currently the strength and conditioning
coach for British Skeleton and was strength and
conditioning coach to Winter Olympic Gold
medallist, Amy Williams.
Awaiting confirmation from two further speakers
at the time of print.
Booking forms for the conference can be found on
the UKSCA home page www.uksca.org.uk
- ANNOUNCEMENT Pre-Conference Practical

Workshop Confirmed with
Coach Harvey Newton
Advance Weightlifting
Techniques for
Explosive Sports
Performance
As part of the 2010 UKSCA annual conference, it
has just been confirmed that Coach Harvey
Newton, former USA Olympic Weightlifting Head
Coach and Executive Director, will be giving a
3hr pre-conference practical workshop examining
Advanced Weightlifting Techniques for Explosive
Sports Performance. This workshop can be
looked upon as a fantastic opportunity to get up
close and personal with one of the worlds best
weightlifting coaches, and to learn the
techniques and skills that he has adopted
throughout his illustrious career.
Details and supplementary costs of this pre-con
workshop will be posted soon on the UKSCA web
site, so watch this space in order to avoid
disappointment and to ensure you do not miss
this great opportunity.
Please note that further Pre-Con events are also
due to be scheduled, including the opportunity
for members to work with a world-leading
expert on programme design and planning.
More information to follow shortly on
www.uksca.org.uk
2010 Call for

Scientific/Applied Case
Abstracts
The 6th UKSCA Annual Meeting to be held at
Kents Hill Park Training and Conference
Centre in Milton Keynes, once again promises
to be the leading Strength and Conditioning
event in the United Kingdom in 2010. For
another year running, the association has
managed to secure some of the worlds top
scientists and coach practitioners to
disseminate their knowledge, experiences
and skills to all those who attend this
informative and enjoyable event. Do not,
however, miss your chance to contribute to
this exciting conference. Once again in 2010,
we hope that the Scientific/Applied-Case
poster section will draw upon the growing
success of previous years; the outstanding
work of our members; and continue to be a
valuable opportunity for individuals to
present their work to colleagues and peers.
The UKSCA are now accepting submissions
for Scientific and Applied Case Abstracts for
the poster section at the 2010 meeting. We
strongly encourage members, (beginning
investigators and established investigators
alike), to submit poster abstracts which they
feel will add value and be of interest to all
those who attend the conference. Posters will
be displayed throughout the conference
proceedings, with awards offered to the most
outstanding submissions.
Submit you abstracts electronically to
Duncan.french@eis2win.co.uk. The deadline
for abstract submissions is May 21st, 2010.
Abstracts should not exceed 400 words in
length. Abstracts are considered from all
scientific and research fields, in addition to
practical applied case study examples from
the field.
The first author of the poster is considered the
primary author, and must make every effort to
present the abstract at the meeting. One
person may be the primary author on a
maximum of two abstracts. Only in exceptional
circumstances will posters be accepted without
the lead author present at the conference.
Those who submit abstracts will be notified
regarding acceptance/rejection in advance of
the UKSCA meeting. Abstracts accepted will
be informed of appropriate formatting and
size requirements. For questions concerning
any aspects of the abstract submission,
please email Duncan.french@eis2win.co.uk.
Neuroendocrinology
and resistance training
in adult males
Anthony Turner, MSc, ASCC1, Paul Comfort, MSc, ASCC2, Jeremy Moody, PhD, ASCC3
and Ian Jeffreys, MSc, ASCC, FNSCA4
1 London Sports Institute, The University of Middlesex; 2 University of Salford,

3 University of Wales Institute Cardiff, 4 University of Glamorgan
Key words: Hormone; Anabolic; Catabolic; Testosterone; Growth hormone;
Cortisol; Catecholamine; Hypertrophy; Strength
Lead Summary
An understanding of the neuroendocrine system will assist the Strength
and Conditioning coach in the design of progressive strength training
programmes by allowing them to manipulate acute training variables
according to hormone release profiles. For muscle hypertrophy, training
programmes should utilise 3 sets of 10 repetitions at 10RM loads, with
short rest periods of no longer than 1 minute. This will ensure the
accumulation and maintenance of lactate and hydrogen ions, to which
anabolic hormone release is correlated. For strength adaptations without
concomitant muscle hypertrophy, the training load and the length of rest
periods should be increased, (>85% 1RM and >2mins respectively), and
body parts should be rotated (e.g. upper body to lower body or agonist to
antagonist). Finally, catabolic hormones and neurohormones significantly
affect training adaptations. Therefore the strength and conditioning coach
should be cognisant of the specific exercise programming and psychological
interventions that manipulate their release.
Anthony Turner is a Strength
& Conditioning Coach and a Senior
Lecturer and Programme Leader
for the MSc in Strength &
Conditioning at Middlesex
University, London, England.
Neuroendocrinology
Neuroendocrinology describes the partnership between the endocrine
system and the nervous system and their collaboration to maintain
homeostasis via hormonal regulation.63,65 The nervous system functions
quickly, but actions are short-lived and localised. In contrast, the endocrine
system functions slowly, but actions are longer lasting and more general.
The endocrine system includes all tissues and glands that secrete
hormones into the circulatory system. Hormonal signals can also be
secreted via paracrine and autocrine mechanisms.23 The former describes a
hormonal interaction between adjacent cells without transport from the
circulatory system, whilst the latter describes releasing hormones within
the cell itself for interaction with that cell. Similar to endocrine glands,
neurons synthesize, store and secrete chemical messengers, namely
neurotransmitters (e.g. acetylcholine) and neurohormones (i.e.
catecholamines).65
The neuroendocrine system is directly affected by the following strength
training variables: exercise modality (involved musculature), exercise
sequence, intensity/load, sets and repetitions (volume) and rest
period.34,48,49,63,74 These variables must be skilfully manipulated within a
periodised strength and conditioning (S&C) programme if increases in
strength and/or hypertrophy are to be optimised. If however, significant
miscalculations are made, the result may be regressive, catabolic and in
time could lead to overtraining.19,54 An understanding of

the neuroendocrine system will therefore assist the
S&C coach in the design of progressive strength
training programmes by allowing them to manipulate
the aforementioned variables according to hormone
release profiles, thereby optimising the hormonal
environment required for specific goals. The purpose of
this article therefore, is to discuss the hormones
pertaining to resistance training programmes, and
identify the optimal manipulation of acute training
variables to optimise hormonal release. This article will
review: (1) the main anabolic hormones (those that
promote tissue building), testosterone, growth
hormone, and insulin-like growth factor, (2) the
catecholamines (stress hormones released in response
to the fight or flight phenomenon), principally
adrenaline and noradrenalin, and (3) the catabolic
hormones (those that promote tissue degradation),
namely cortisol.
Before examining each hormone in turn however, this
article will first describe the fundamental role of
receptors and the significance of muscle remodelling.
Hormone-Receptor Complex
Hormones can be defined as chemical messengers that
are transported to specific target cells, which possess
specific hormone receptors. The specificity of a
hormone and its receptor is often explained using the
lock and key theory, whereby the receptor is the lock
and the hormone is the key. It is important to note
that the concentration of hormones may not be as
important as the number of receptors available, as this
ultimately determines the possibility of interactions.23
For example, when a cell has reached its genetic ceiling
for adaptation (e.g. through protein accretion),
receptors may become non responsive and downregulate, thus reducing the probability of hormonal
binding.65 Alternatively, receptors can up-regulate and
increase the probability of interactions. For example,
Kadi et al.,47 reported that power lifters had a greater
number of androgen receptors in response to continued
resistance training and thus, an enhanced ability to use
testosterone. In addition, Ratamess et al.,80 have
shown significant correlations between baseline
androgen receptor content in the vastus lateralis and
1RM squat, further suggesting that androgen receptor
content may assist in mediating strength changes
during resistance training. Moreover, resistance training
results in up-regulation of androgen receptors in fast
twitch muscle fibres, which rely on protein accretion for
hypertrophy, and down-regulation in slow twitch fibres,
which instead resist protein degradation as hypertrophy
may be disadvantageous.19,70
Muscle Remodelling
Muscle remodelling involves the disruption of muscle
fibres, (stimulus/load dependent), in response to
mechanical loading, resulting in the inflammatory
process (immune cells and catabolic hormones), and
subsequent release of anabolic hormones.4,12 In
addition, mechanical loading increases receptor and
membrane permeability to hormones and nutrients,
therefore tissue activation may be considered a
precursor to anabolism.64 Consequently, only the
recruited muscle fibres can be remodelled,65
emphasising the need to exercise muscle groups in a
sport specific manner (including range of motion,
muscle action, velocity of movement, force generation
and relative intensity), and the need to utilise

progressive overload. The latter will increase motor
unit recruitment,82 thereby exposing a greater number
of muscle fibres to hormone-tissue interactions.64
Testosterone
Testosterone (TST) is responsible for the development
of male secondary sex characteristics, spermatogenesis
and the male skeletal system. Pertinent to this
discussion, TST is involved in the muscle growth and
protein retention observed during strength training
through its direct (i.e. muscle growth), and indirect
(stimulation of growth hormone and neuron receptors)
affects on muscle tissue.23,65 Moreover, due to its potent
anabolic effects, the levels of circulating TST have been
proposed as a physiological marker to evaluate the
anabolic status of the body.39 Further, Staron et al.,85
linked muscle fibre transformations (IIx to IIa) and
concomitant enhancement in strength, to increased
serum TST concentrations. TST is also related to the
inhibition of muscle glycogen breakdown and the
displacement of glucocortcoids (e.g. cortisol).70 The
response of TST to offset protein metabolism may be
vital for maintaining muscle size and function.70
TST is a steroid hormone derived from cholesterol (lipid
soluble), and is therefore able to diffuse through the
cell membrane (sarcolemma of muscle cells) and bind
with its androgen receptors in the cytoplasm
(sarcoplasm in muscle cells). This hormone-receptor
complex then enters the nucleus and binds with the
cells DNA in a process referred to as direct gene
activation. This stimulates the formation of mRNA
(messenger ribonucleic acid), which enters the
cytoplasm and promotes protein synthesis.19,70,79 The
synthesised protein may be an enzyme, which can have
numerous effects, or a structural protein used for
tissues growth and repair. Examples of structural
proteins include titin, actin, myosin and myosin isoform
changes (such as IIx to IIa). Following stimulation from
Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH), TST is released from the Leydig cells of
the testes in men and the ovaries and adrenal glands in
women.16 Women consequently have TST concentrations
15-20 times lower than males,65 which affects their
capacity for muscle hypertrophy and strength.
Transport Proteins
After secretion, the vast majority of testosterone
becomes either, tightly bound with a beta globulin
called sex hormone binding globulin, or loosely bound
with albumin. It is delivered to its target tissue via
these methods (SHBG; 44-60% of total
transportation), and albumin (38%), with the
remainder remaining in its free biological state (0.22%).16,92 The free-hormone hypothesis suggests that it
is only the free hormones that interact with the target
tissue receptors16,64,70 with SHBG effectively inhibiting
TSTs action.92 It may be no surprise therefore, that the
ratio of SHBG to TST has been reported to correlate
with isometric leg strength,37,40,41,42 closely mirror
strength changes,38 and relate to actual competitive
weightlifting performances.41 Transport proteins
however, are ultimately responsible for the rate of
delivery of the hormone70 and act much like a
chaperone, protecting TST from degradation.30
Moreover, albumin is considered to have only a loose
connection with TST and therefore, although to a lesser
extent than free TST, is considered biologically
active.16,92

16
TST-Nervous Interactions
As well as cellular interactions, TST can also bind with
receptors on neurons and therefore increase
instantaneous muscle strength and recruited muscle
mass.63,64,65 This is achieved through an increase in
neurotransmitter release and structural adaptations of
the neuromuscular junction.11,23,75 Moreover, TSTnervous interactions can regenerate nerves and
increase the cell body size and dendrite length and
diameter.75 These neural adaptations may demonstrate
an advanced strategy to increase force capability in
subjects who have little potential for change in muscle
hypertrophy.23 Furthermore, initial pre-competition
levels of TST have been correlated to average power
output8,9 and jumping height.8 In addition, both power
and work performed during 60s continuous jumping
protocols were positively related to changes in TST
levels.8 These correlations are thought to be due to
TSTs significant effects on motor neurons,91 and serves
to highlight the importance of increased TST
concentrations and the significance of TST-nervous
interactions within sports performance.
Resting concentrations of TST (and concomitant
increases in FSH and LH) have been reported to
increase only after >2 years resistance training
experience.43,45,54 As previously discussed, this may
represent an advanced strategy for force production,45
and may augment the neural adaptations that are
required for additional strength gains in highly trained
power athletes when protein accretion is no longer
possible or desirable.
Manipulating Training Variables

Large muscle group exercises such as squats,
deadlifts,22 Olympic lifts54 and jump squats,93
significantly increase TST concentrations, whereas little
or no change has been reported with bench presses
and exercises involving smaller musculature.23,65 It may
be concluded therefore, that within a training session,
large muscle group exercises are performed before
small muscle group exercises in order to expose the
smaller musculature to the increased concentrations of
TST.61,64 This is supported by research from Hansen et
al.,46 who measured strength changes in elbow flexors
following 9 weeks of strength training. Two groups
performed elbow flexion exercises, however, one group
preceded these with lower body exercise. Only this
group significantly increased acute TST concentrations
with concomitant increases in the strength of the elbow
flexors.
The optimised training strategy for the release of TST
has been reported as 35 sets of 510 repetitions
performed close to repetition-maximum loads.51,53,70 For
example, significant elevations were observed following
8 exercises using 5RM and 3min rest periods as well as
10RM and 1min rest periods between sets and
exercises.53 This is in agreement with Hakkinen and
Pakarinen,44 who reported increases following 10 sets
of 10 repetitions at 70% 1RM but no significant
changes following 20 sets of 1RM. Further, Bosco et
al.,10 reported no change following 10 sets of 2 to 3
repetitions, but when the volume increased to 20 sets
of 2 to 4 repetitions, increases in TST were noted.
Finally, Volek et al.,93 noted increased TST levels
following 15 sets of 10 repetitions at 30% 1RM, using
jump squats and following 5 sets to failure with a
10RM protocol using the bench press. To the contrary
however, Guezennec et al.,35 reported no change
following 6 sets of bench press at 70% 1RM, which is a

finding in agreement with Kraemer et al.65 The subtle
and oftentimes contradictory results reported within
the subject of neuroendocrinology and resistance
training can often be explained by limitations in
research design, as discussed later in this text.
A moderate to high volume of exercise, achieved with
multiple sets, repetitions or exercises may be
required as the release of TST may be correlated with
lactate accumulation.68,69,71 This was corroborated by
Gotshalk et al.,34 who reported greater increases in 3set heavy resistance protocols, when compared with
single-set heavy resistance protocols and by
investigators who note the significance of short rest
periods.23,65 Kraemer et al.,.51,53 and Beaven et al.,7
summarise that bodybuilding (hypertrophy)
programmes, utilising moderate load, high volume
training, with short rest periods, are most effective
for stimulating acute TST increases. Research
examining the acute response of TST to various
exercise protocols is illustrated in Table 1.
The use of high volumes and short rest intervals likely
enhances the accumulation and maintenance of lactate
and hydrogen ions (H+), which may act to stimulate the
acute release of TST (as is the case with growth
hormone as described later in this text). When
performed in combination with large muscle group
exercises, this likely provides for the optimal
stimulation of TST release. Moreover, these findings
may also suggest that athletes should limit local
dynamic activity during the rest periods, as this is
likely to dissipate these by-products. In addition, the
valsalva manoeuvre, as well as increasing the safety of
an exercise, may also serve to create intramuscular
hypoxia and therefore further increase lactate and H+
and subsequent TST concentrations.18
Finally, acyclic high-resistance efforts are too brief to
affect TST concentrations of the same effort (91).
When repeated, the concentration of hormones
increases and may therefore affect subsequent
repetitions and sets.91 This may explain why on
occasion, the second or third attempt is better. In
addition, this delayed response may also act as a
contributing factor to the enhanced force achieved
following post activation potentiation (PAP) protocols.
For example, one of the explanations for the PAP
phenomenon is increased neuromuscular drive.1 As
explained above, increased TST release would
stimulate the nervous system leading to such a
consequence. Moreover, accelerated hormonal
responses following endocrine adaptations may further
explain why PAP enhancement may only be seen in
experienced athletes.21 Finally, following >2years
strength training, the increase in resting concentrations
of TST may facilitate the PAP phenomenon further.
These theories however, are only speculative based on
the reviewed research and require further
investigation.
TST Concentrations
TST concentrations during training sessions have been
reported to remain elevated for up to 45 60 minutes
and decrease from then on.97 Viru et al.,91 further
suggested that following training sessions of 1 hour
duration, the TST-to-cortisol ratio (discussed later in
this article), may decrease as a fatigue phenomenon. It
may be prudent therefore to limit exercise sessions to
<60 minutes, as beyond this duration, the session may
begin to progress towards catabolism, whereby more

Table 1. The effects of exercise, intensity and volume on the acute response of TST and GH (Table adapted from
Crewther et al.,16 and Kraemer and Ratamess64).
Reference
Protocol
Craig et al.,14
7 ex, 3 x 8-10 at 75% 1RM
Gotshalk et al.,34
8 ex, 1 x 10 at 10RM
TST
Sig (520 fold)
8 ex, 3 x 10 at 10RM
Sig ( 14%)
Sig ( 32%)
20 sets of 1RM SQ
NC
10 x 10 at 70% 1RM
Sig
Kraemer et al.,51,52
8 ex, 3-5 x 5RM vs. 10RM with 1 and 3 min rest
Sig : as load and

rest
Pullien et al.,77
1 ex, 10 x 6 at 50% 1RM, 4min rest
Sig 16%
1 ex, 10 x 6 at 50% 1RM, 1min rest
Sig 18%
Raastad et al.,78
3-6RM vs. 70% 3-6RM
Sig : 100% > 70%
Ratamess et al.,80
1 x 10 SQ, 80-85% 1RM
NC
6 x 10 SQ, 80-85% 1RM
Sig
Hakkinen and Pakarinen44
81
Rubin et al.,
GH
Sig ( 400%)
Sig ( 700%)
Sig (T = 13 fold,
1 ex, 6 x 10 at 10RM, T vs. UT
UT = 9 fold)
Samilios et al.,83
4 ex, 2 x 10 at 75%1RM
Sig ( 400%)
4 ex, 4 x 10 at 75%1RM
Sig (11 fold)
4 ex, 6 x 10 at 75%1RM
Sig (19 fold)
BP, 5 sets to failure at 10RM, 2min rest
Sig (7%)
Jump SQ, 5 x 10 at 30% 1RM, 2min rest
Sig (15%)
Weiss et al.,
4 ex, 3 sets to failure, 80% 1RM
Sig
Zafeiridis et al.,96
4 ex, 4 x 10 at 75% 1RM
93
Volek et al.,
94
Sig (13-fold)
NC = no change; Sig = significant; ex = exercise; SQ = squats; BP = bench press; T = trained; UT = untrained; = increase;
= decrease
receptors become responsive to cortisol interactions.

Moreover, training sessions are often defined by a
break of >30minutes as this is reported to be enough
time to restore TST levels.97
TST exhibits diurnal variations, whereby concentrations
are typically higher in the morning and drop
throughout the day. The reader should note that this is
also the case for cortisol.31,67 The question emerges of
whether it is better to exercise in the morning, when
concentrations are highest, or to exercise in the
evening, to maintain increased concentrations
throughout the day.65 This awareness may allow for
several deductions and further advocates the use of
split sessions. Split sessions essentially divide one
session into two parts to avoid neuromuscular fatigue
and concomitant loss of intensity. This may also assist
in the maintenance of anabolic hormone concentrations
as described above. Furthermore, it may be beneficial
to split the session so as the majority of larger muscle
group, i.e. lower-body exercises, are performed in the
evening when resting concentrations are lower and the
majority of the smaller muscle group, i.e. upper-body
exercises, are performed in the morning when higher
resting concentrations may compensate for the reduced
stimulus of these exercises. It should be noted
however, that all sessions should commence with large
muscle group exercises to optimally initiate the release
of TST.22,54,93 Again, the above suggestion is only
speculative and due to the mirroring changes in TST
and cortisol, it is equally likely that the same training
benefit will be experienced throughout the day.
Methodological Considerations: Measuring

the TST Response
To limit the effects of diurnal variations, TST should be
sampled immediately post exercise. After 4 hours,
these fluctuations, along with recovery mechanisms,
can affect the magnitude.20,57 Because of the high
correlation between serum and salivary measures of
TST and due to its convenience, being a low-stress and
non-invasive method,7 the latter is commonly used as a
marker of gonadial function.70 Moreover, Beaven et al.,7
found that functional strength gains in sub-elite
athletes were strongly related to resistance training
protocols that induced maximal free salivary TST
responses, and suggested this as a marker to evaluate
the efficacy of a strength training protocol. If available,
this assessment could be carried out at regular time
intervals to ensure optimum benefits, as it is unlikely
that an individual would continue to maximally respond
to one type of programme.7 This observation could
prove beneficial for periodisation strategies and
exercise prescription.
Limitations of Research
The non-standardised protocols, exhibiting variations in
volume load, population and subject resistance training
experience, have no doubt contributed to the relatively
large variation in results. For example, Bosco et al.,8
noted the most significant increases in TST in subjects
with higher jumping performance. In addition,
untrained men may require several workouts before

18
exercise-induced increases in TST are noted.58,64 For

example, Kraemer et al.,60 reported significant
elevations in serum free TST only after 10 weeks of
periodised strength training.
Growth Hormone
Growth hormone (GH), also called samotropin, is
secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and is classed
as a non-steroid/peptide hormone and as such, (unlike
TST), cannot cross the cell membrane. Consequently,
its receptors are located on the membrane. Hormonereceptor binding leads to the formation of an
intracellular second messenger known as cyclic
adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), which then
produces the hormone specific physiological response.95
Specific to resistance training, GH causes hypertrophy
through enhanced protein synthesis and amino acid
uptake in skeletal muscle.65 Further, its release
following resistance training has been correlated to
muscle fibre hypertrophy in type I and II fibres.72 In
addition to these direct effects, GH is also mediated
through the production of Insulin like Growth Factors
(discussed later in this article), at the autocrine (fat
cells), paracrine (muscle cells) and endocrine (liver
secretion where the majority of IGF is released) level
of the cell.25
GH Response to Exercise
GH release and concentration is highly correlated with
glycolytic metabolism and is reported to rise with
increased concentrations of lactate and H+.32,44
Moreover, H+ accumulation produced via lactic acidosis
may be the primary factor stimulating GH release.55 In
addition to acid base shifts, breath holding,
hyperventilation18 hypoxia87 and protein catabolism may
also influence GH release.55 This data may therefore
further support the use of the valsalva manoeuvre for
the stimulation of anabolic hormones as previously
discussed.
With respect to increasing peripheral serum
concentrations, GH and TST share similar
characteristics in acute training variables. Kraemer et
al.,51 reported highest GH values following 3 sets of 10
repetitions, at 10RM loads with short (1 min) rest
periods. Hakkinen and Pakarinen44 also reported
increases following 10 sets of 10 repetitions at 70%
1RM, but no significant changes following 20 sets of
1RM. Vanhelder et al.,89 reported a significant rise in
GH concentrations following 7 sets of 7 repetitions of
squats at 80% 1RM, but not following 7 sets of 21
repetitions of squats performed at 30% 1RM. According
to Linnamo et al.,69 the load should be near the 8-12RM
load, with each set performed towards failure.
Moreover, several studies15,34,74 report the superiority of
multiple sets versus single set programmes. Samilios
et al.,83 also noted that 4 sets induced more GH (and
cortisol) than 2 sets. However, when 6 sets were
performed, hormonal responses were not increased
further. Finally, Goto et al.,33 examined the effect of
adding a down set, (lighter set), after 5 sets of
repetitions performed to muscular fatigue at 90% 1RM.
They reported that a 50% 1RM down set, performed
for as many repetitions as possible, resulted in
significant increases in GH and concluded that athletes
may be able to magnify the anabolic response of a
training session by simply adding a down set.
Based on the significant relationship between lactate
and H+ accumulation and GH response, several points
may be deduced. Firstly, if hypertrophy is the goal of a
training programme, then resistance training sessions

should have a muscle group focus in order to
accumulate and maintain localised concentrations of
these metabolic by-products. Programmes that
alternate between body parts may allow for their
dissipation, and therefore reduce the GH response. This
may further suggest, that athletes should limit local
dynamic activity during the rest periods, as this is
further likely to dissipate lactate and H+. Moreover,
muscle group focus and performing sets towards failure
may recruit additional motor units due to motor unit
fatigue.82,97 This will therefore subject additional muscle
fibres to mechanical loading and consequently increase
those that undergo the remodelling process. Finally, a
slow-continuous method e.g. 4s concentric 4s
eccentric, would also be beneficial, as this would
increase time under tension (facilitating the
accumulation of lactate and H+), reduce local blood
circulation (with total occlusion occurring at loads
>45% 1RM84) and promote venous pooling. The
consequent promotion of blood pooling and fluid
volume shifts in order to maintain osmotic pressure
may then increase the concentration of hormones, time
available for interaction and therefore the probability of
hormone-receptor interactions.
Insulin like Growth Factors

Many of the effects of GH are mediated through Insulin
like growth factors (IGF), also called samatomedins.27,24
IGFs have been shown to increase protein synthesis in
muscles through increasing glucose and amino acid
uptake and stimulating myoblast proliferation and
differentiation.25 It has been theorised that the starting
levels of IGF will determine if an increase is observed
following exercise training, i.e. IGF will only increase if
starting levels are low, as high starting levels result in
no change.58
As well as via GH stimulation, IGF production and
release may also occur through direct factors such as
mechanical loading and stretch, and these may have
greater significance to local IGF concentration levels.2
For example, the eccentric phase of resistance training
appears to be a potent stimulus for the production and
release of local growth factors.6 This may suggest that
increases in load during the eccentric phase, or
additional negative repetitions at the end of a set may
augment IGF release and further increase the
hypertrophy seen with GH/bodybuilding type
programmes.
Finally, IGFs are structurally related to insulin and can
therefore bind with insulin receptors.64 It may be
further speculated that by increasing insulin receptors,
for example through a carbohydrate rich meal or
exercise training, IGF receptor binding probability may
be enhanced (the effect of nutrient manipulation
however, is beyond the scope of this article).
Cortisol
Cortisol, a steroid hormone, is secreted from the
adrenal cortex following stimulation from
adrenocorticotrophic hormone (released by the anterior
pituitary gland). The primary pathway for cortisol
secretion is through stimulation of the hypothalamus
by the central nervous system as a result of
hypoglycaemia, the flight or fight response, or
exercise.65 Cortisol is considered a catabolic hormone to
skeletal muscle tissue and is released in response to
low levels of glycogen, when proteins need to be

catabolised and converted into carbohydrates

(gluconeogenesis).70 TST and insulin can counter the
catabolic effects of cortisol by blocking the genetic
element in the DNA for cortisol.65 However, this can
only be achieved if they are bound to a greater number
of receptors than cortisol. After a period of training and
endocrine adaptation, the effects of cortisol may
become less dramatic, due to disinhibition of cortisol by
TST.65 Resistance training experience of >2 years has
been shown to be accompanied by increases in the
TST-to-cortisol ratio45 and may be indicative of
enhanced strength and training tolerance.30
Circulating cortisol levels reflect tissue remodelling
and concurrent inflammatory responses.56 High levels
of cortisol (>800mmol/L) may signify an overtrained
state27,29 and have been highly correlated to serum
creatine kinease concentration, which is a marker of
muscle damage.55 In addition, the ratio of TST-tocortisol may provide a gross estimation (as both
hormones have multiple functions across multiple
tissue organs) of the anabolic/catabolic state of the
body.28,30 This has been positively related to
performance,3 overreaching41 and overtraining.86
Cortisol release response is similar to GH, whereby
anaerobic metabolism acts as a potent stimulus.80
Therefore, despite chronically high levels of cortisol
reflecting adverse affects and progression towards
overtraining, acute responses may be an essential
part of the remodelling process, whereby the muscle
must first be disrupted before it can adapt.64 It is
however, suggested that these acute training
variables are varied to allow the adrenal gland to
recover, (secrete less cortisol), and prevent
overtraining. Continued stress causes delayed
recovery, due to the over release of cortisol and its
negative effects exerted through gluconeogenesis and
immune system depression.65
Finally, the rise in GH and cortisol concentrations may
contribute to the regulation of glucose and glycogen
metabolism.83 Therefore, in strength-endurance type
protocols (low load, high repetitions), the low tension
applied for an extended period of time may cause
hormonal responses in response to the activation of
the anaerobic metabolism and the need for
restoration of energy substrates.83 It should be noted
however, that although bodybuilding type
programmes evoke concurrent adaptations in both
hormones, the magnitude of GH is greater than
cortisol, which may compensate for the negative
effects.83
Catecholamines
Upon stimulation from the sympathetic nervous
system, the adrenal medulla and sympathetic neurons
produce and release adrenaline, noradrenalin and
dopamine. These catecholamines stimulate the central
motor system, enhance muscular enzyme activity,
augment the secretion of other hormones (e.g. TST,
GH, IGF), promote energy availability, act as peripheral
vascular dilators (modulating blood pressure and the
redistribution of blood), and ultimately facilitate the
contractile characteristics of skeletal muscle.52,63,88
Plasma catecholamines are therefore significant
mediators of force output and are consequently likely
the first endocrine mechanism to respond to the
psychophysiological stress associated with resistance
training programmes.26,65
Anticipatory Response
French et al.,26 reported a significant rise in
catecholamine levels before the onset of high-intensity
exercise in trained men. This is termed the
anticipatory response, which occurs via
sympathoadrenal activity and the magnitude of rise is
determined by the anticipated intensity. This
psychologically induced drive occurs at <15mins before
the start of exercise and by <10mins is significantly
higher than pre-exercise levels.26 These rapid hormonal
influences are thought to effect force expression
through their significant effects on intracellular calcium
shifts in muscle fibres or neurons,91 and are therefore
considered critical for optimal force production at the
commencement of exercise.26 This data highlights the
significance of pre-exercise psyching-up interventions
for the development of optimal force,88 and further
highlights the importance of differentiating between
training maximums and competition maximums during
exercise sessions.97 If the latter was used during
training programmes, whereby competition arousal can
increase the athletes 1RM by up to 12%,97 the
resultant may be unsuccessful lifts and therefore
reduce the effectiveness of training. Finally, French et
al.,26 also reported elevated catecholamine
concentrations 5 mins into the recovery period, and
suggested that this was a means to facilitate the
homeostatic process.
Neurohormone Effects on Power and

Power-Endurance
Repetitive muscular efforts result in decreased
membrane excitability, through a disruption of ionic
balance across the muscle membrane (sarcolemma).5
Catecholamines are able to attenuate this by
stimulating the Na+-K+ pump, which restores ionic
balance across the sarcolemma, enhancing actinmyosin interactions and muscle force generation and
maintenance.13 Moreover, this quality may be trainable.
McKenna et al., (73) reported that sprint training
increases human skeletal muscle Na+-K+ - ATPase
concentration and improves K+ regulation. Therefore,
concentrations of catecholamines are essential for
preconditioning the neuromuscular system to enable
maximal performance,91 and exhibit an essential role
for achieving the maximal rate of glycogenolysis.90 This
can be evidenced by French et al.,26 who report that
subjects who are better able to maintain force
production throughout an exercise protocol tend to
have the highest catecholamine concentrations.
Significantly, heavy resistance training increases the
ability of athletes to secret adrenaline during maximal
exercises.50
Optimal Release Strategy

To optimise the secretion of catecholamines, it is
recommended that programmes use high volume, large
muscle groups and short rest periods (similar to TST
and GH programmes).65 In addition, plasma TST
concentrations are correlated with catecholamine
concentrations,26 and can be evidenced by data
suggesting that catecholamines may enhance blood
flow to the testis and enhance secretion.27,62
Catecholamines and TST may therefore stimulate each
other, ensuring optimal force expression. French et
al.,26 and Podolin et al.,76 also reported that exercise
induced changes in catecholamine concentrations were
highly correlated with circulating lactate and glucose

20
Table 2. Example hypertrophy programme based on 3 sessions per week.

Muscle Groups
Unless otherwise stated, all exercises should be performed at 3 sets of 10 reps, at or near 10RM loads,
with <60s rest between sets and exercises. Down sets, slow continuous training, negatives and increased
eccentric loading may also be utilised but the programme should not progress beyond one hour in
duration.
Chest, Shoulders
and Triceps
Snatch or
derivative (3
sets x 5 reps,
with >2mins
rest, @ variable
loads)
Bench Press (flat

bench; progress
to dumbbell
[DB])
Back and biceps
Clean and Jerk

or derivative
(format as per
snatch)
Lat-pull down
Diagonal pull(progress to chin- down20 sets of
ups)
1RM SQ
Legs
Bench Press
(incline or
decline bench;
progress to DB)
DB Fly (flat,
incline or
decline bench)
Shoulder Press
(progress from
barbell to DB)
Bent-over row,
inverse row or
one arm row
Shoulder shrugs Bicep curls or

any variation
(not relevant to
athlete
populations)
Stiff leg deadlift
Nordic curls
10 x 10 at 70%
1RM
8 ex, 3-5 x 5RM vs. 10RM with 1

and 3 min rest
Split squat or
BB step-ups
(alternate
between the
two)
Triceps pull
down or any
variation (not
relevant to
athlete
populations)
Calf raises
Table 3. Example strength session emphasising neural development with no hypertrophy.

The following exercises are 4 sets of 4 reps, performed at 4-5RM loads, with >3 minutes rest between sets and exercises.
Athletes can progress from one exercise to the other following the completion of each exercise or at the completion of each
set (similar to a circuit format).
Back squat
Bench press
Chins
during exercise (indicative of enhanced glycogenolysis).

It may be concluded therefore, that catecholamines are
likely to respond favourably to a hypoxic environment,
which again supports the use of the valsalva
manoeuvre for maximal force generation and maximal
increases in rate of force development. In addition, and
in alignment with the general adaptation theory, it is
suggested that these acute training variables are varied
to allow the adrenal gland to recover and prevent
overtraining.
Summary and Conclusion

For muscle hypertrophy, training programmes should
utilise 3 sets of 10 repetitions at, or near, 10RM loads,
with short rest periods of no longer than 1 minute. This
also appears to optimally release all aforementioned
hormones (with the exception of IGF). To increase the
number of fibres that undergo the remodelling process
and therefore optimally increase total cross-sectional
area, each session should target specific muscle groups
ensuring that each group works through its full range
of motion and should be performed to, or near to,
failure. These suggestions, along with the valsalva
manoeuvre and relatively inactive rest periods, will
assist in the accumulation and maintenance of lactate
and H+, thus further enhancing hormonal
concentrations.
To optimally evoke TST concentrations and further
enhance hypertrophy within the smaller musculature,
that may otherwise only be under the influence of GH
and IGF, sessions should be initiated with large muscle
group exercises. These could be squats or deadlifts for
example, however these may negatively affect
subsequent sessions that target the lower-body
musculature. Alternatively, any of the Olympic lifts or
their derivatives could be used and therefore assist the
transition into the subsequent periodisation phases
such as strength and power. It is worth noting,
Stiff leg deadlift
Bent-over row or seated

row
however, that high repetitions, with no inter-repetition

rest period, result in a noticeable decrease in power
output during each set,36,66 and are therefore suboptimal if the goal of training is to maximise power or
velocity.
To further enhance the hypertrophic effect of resistance
training programmes, exercises may utilise increased
eccentric loading and negative repetitions and/or the
addition of down sets. These will increase IGF and GH
concentrations respectively. The athlete should also be
mentally ready to train, thereby increasing
concentrations of catecholamines, as they may exert
their positive effects on TST release and nervous
stimulation. A psyching-up intervention may be
achieved by motivation provided by the S&C coach or
training partner. Finally, training programmes should be
limited to one hour in duration, to prevent the negative
effects of cortisol as it progressively becomes the
dominant hormone. Split sessions are advocated when
sessions may be in excess of this and these should be
separated by at least 30 mins to restore TST levels.
Acute training variables can also be manipulated to
bring about strength adaptations without concomitant
increases in hypertrophy. This is especially important
for athletes that compete in weight regulated sports
such as martial arts. For this purpose, S&C coaches
should increase the training load and the length of rest
periods. In addition, body parts should be rotated to
further ensure the dissipation of lactate and H+ and
reduce the release of anabolic hormones (namely TST
and GH). Moreover, such adjustments will enable a
higher intensity (%1RM) to be utilised and maintained
throughout the session to further facilitate neural
adaptations and strength gains.
The above tables illustrate a hypertrophy programme
based on 3 sessions per week (Table 2) and an
example strength session (Table 3).

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muscular force production. Sport. Med. 33: 47-58.
Vanhelder, WP, Radomski, MW, and Goode, RC.
(1984) Growth hormone responses during intermittent
weight lifting exercises in men. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol.
54: 31-34.
Viru, A, and Viru, M. (2003) Hormones in short-term
exercises: Anaerobic events. Strength Cond. J. 25: 3137.
Viru, A, Viru, M, and Bosco, C. (2003) Hormones in
short-term exercises: Resistance and power exercises.
Strength Cond. J. 24: 7-15.
Vingren, JL, and Kraemer, WJ. (2006) Effect of
postexercise alcohol consumption on serum
testosterone: Brief overview of testosterone, resistance
exercise and alcohol. Strength Cond. J. 28: 84-87.
Volek, JS, Kraemer, WJ, Bush, JA, Incledon, T, and
Boetes, M. (1997) Testosterone and cortisol in
relationship to dietary nutrients and resistance
exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 82: 49-54.
Weiss, LW, Cureton, KJ and Thompson, FN. (1983)
Comparison of serum testosterone and
androstenedione responses to weightlifting in men and
women. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 50: 413-9, 1983.
Wilmore, JH, and Costill, DL. (2004) Physiology of
sport and exercise. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics,
158-183.
Zafeiridis A, Samilos, I, Considine, RV, Tokmakidis, SP.
Serum leptin responses after acute resistance exercise
protocols. J. Appl. Physiol. 94: 591-7, 2003
Zatsiorsky, VM, and Kraemer, WJ. Science and
practice of strength training. Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics, 89-108, 2006.

24
PERFORMANCE NUTRITION
Dr Neil Chester lectures in exercise

physiology at Liverpool John Moores
University and has research interests
focussing on many aspects of drug
use in sport. Recent and current
projects include the health aspects of
long-term anabolic steroid use and
WADA-funded projects examining the
use of over-the-counter drugs
amongst elite athletes and the
performance enhancing effects of 2agonists. Neil has also worked as a
consultant on anti-doping matters for
UK Sport and the FA and is a
member of the UK Anti-Doping
Research Advisory Group.
Recent changes to
anti-doping
regulations in
relation to over-thecounter stimulants
Neil Chester, PhD
Introduction
The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), has been in existence for over
ten years. It was set-up in 1999 to standardise and coordinate doping
control globally within sport. On January 1st 2004, the World AntiDoping Code was introduced, together with a set of international
standards that included a Prohibited List which superseded the List
produced by the International Olympic Committee Medical
Commission. Whilst no marked changes were made to the Prohibited
List in terms of the major drug classes, several commonly available
over-the-counter (OTC) stimulants were removed and transferred to a
Monitoring Programme. Whilst no longer prohibited, the Monitoring
Programme enabled WADA to continue to assess the use of such
substances, and determine whether athletes were misusing these
substances and whether they should be re-introduced to the
Prohibited List.
Every October the List is updated following a consultation period,
which is led by WADAs List Expert Group, (a group of scientists and
practitioners who are experts in the anti-doping field), and involves
stakeholders from the anti-doping community, including
representations from sport and national anti-doping organisations.
During this period, the List Expert Group meet to consider the
suggestions put forward by stakeholders. Decisions are made with
regard to the composition of the List in terms of specific substances,
their status and the terminology used. The introduction of the WADA
Prohibited List in 2004 saw the removal of caffeine and
pseudoephedrine, amongst others, from the List. Since this time,
however, pseudoephedrine has been re-introduced to the List in 2010
(Table 1).
Graeme Close is the column editor for

the Performance Nutrition section.
Graeme is a lecturer at The University of Liverpool in cellular and metabolic medicine.

His current research is focused upon investigating cellular mechanisms responsible for
muscle damage and repair. Graeme regularly presents at international conferences and
has given keynote presentations on skeletal muscle damage and repair. Graeme is a
former professional rugby league player and currently works with Munster RUFC as the
performance nutritionist. He is also an accredited UKSCA member and a BASES
accredited physiologist.
Table 1: Over-the-counter stimulants and their status in sport - WADA, 2010.28
Stimulant
Permitted
*
Prohibited
in-competition**
Sympathomimetic amines
Ephedrine
Norephedrine

Pseudoephedrine
Norpseudoephedrine***
Phenylephrine
Methylxanthines
Caffeine
Theobromine
Theophylline
* Norephedrine (phenylpropanolamine), phenylephrine and caffeine are part of the WADA Monitoring Programme.
** Ephedrine, pseudoephedrine and norpseudoepedrine (cathine) are prohibited when concentrations in urine are above 10,
150 and 5 g.ml-1 respectively.
*** Norpseudoephedrine (cathine) is not available as an OTC stimulant, but is commonly detected in urine as a metabolite of
pseudoephedrine.
The WADA Monitoring Programme

The Monitoring Programme is effectively a covert
operation, used to inform WADAs List Expert Group of
the use, amongst athletes, of substances commonly
available in OTC medications. On an annual basis,
WADA publish the substances that it intends to monitor
and laboratory results are distributed to National AntiDoping Organisations and International Federations.
From an anti-doping compliance perspective, it is
useful to provide some detail as to the motivation
behind the inclusion of particular substances on the
programme.
There are many examples where athletes have
inadvertently tested positive for substances attributed
to the use OTC medication. The most notable include
Andreea Raducan, the Romanian gymnast, who was
stripped of her gold medal at the Sydney Olympics
after testing positive for pseudoephedrine, allegedly
given to her by her team doctor as a constituent of an
OTC cold medication. In 1988, at the Seoul Olympics,
Linford Christie tested positive for pseudoephedrine.
He was exonerated, since he was believed to have
taken the drug inadvertently, as an ingredient of the
Chinese health supplement, ginseng. Whilst urinary
threshold levels were in place for common OTC
stimulants, in an attempt to differentiate between
therapeutic- and mis-use, it was clear from a number
of research studies that these were ineffective. Work
by Lefebvre et al.22 demonstrated that athletes could
typically reach urinary levels above the then IOC
threshold of 5 g.ml-1 for ephedrine, after repeated
nasal application in therapeutic doses. Furthermore,
Tseng and colleagues,26 demonstrated that a
therapeutic dose of ephedrine may result in a urinary
concentration above the current threshold (10 g.ml-1)
for up to eight hours after administration. Chester et
al.,12 found that multiple therapeutic dosing of
pseudoephedrine would put an individual at high risk
of exceeding the IOC urinary threshold (25 g.ml-1).
Recent work by Strano-Rossi et al.,24 highlighted the
high inter-individual variability of urinary drug
concentrations following the administration of
therapeutic doses of stimulants contained in OTC
medications. In an attempt to limit the number of
inadvertent doping cases and reduce the adverse
publicity that comes with such cases, it was decided
that substances available OTC and deemed not to

possess significant performance-enhancing effects
would be removed from the List. Whilst these
substances would continue to be monitored, no
sanctions would be imposed if an athlete was to test
positive for such a substance. It was not the intention
of WADA to advocate the use of such substances for
reasons other than for therapeutic purposes.
The recent re-introduction of pseudoephedrine to the
Prohibited List has demonstrated the role of the
Monitoring Programme within the World Anti-Doping
Programme. The implications of this change are
significant and have important ramifications on
athletes health care. It is essential that all those with
a role in supporting athletes are versant with the
change in status of pseudoephedrine, and are therefore
able to advise their athletes accordingly.
Pseudoephedrine as a therapeutic
agent
Pseudoephedrine is a stereoisomer of ephedrine and a
member of a group of drugs known as
sympathomimetic amines. Sympathomimetics are
drugs that stimulate the sympathetic nervous system,
acting directly or indirectly on adrenoreceptors. As a
constituent of numerous OTC preparations designed to
treat the symptoms of upper respiratory tract (URT)
conditions, pseudoephedrines primary role is as a
nasal decongestant. It acts on the 1-adrenoreceptors
of the epithelium of the nasal blood vessels, with the
resultant effect being vasoconstriction.
Upper respiratory tract conditions may include the
common cold or flu caused by viral infection or allergic
rhinitis, a condition characterised by an allergic
hypersensitivity reaction in the nasal mucosa, caused
by exposure to allergens such as pollen. Where the
trigger is pollen, this condition is known as seasonal
allergic rhinitis, commonly referred to as hay fever.
The recommended dosing regime for pseudoephedrine
in immediate release formulations is 60 mg every 4 to
6 hours, and not exceeding 240 mg per 24 hours.
Clearly, this regime is adjusted when using sustained
release formulations (e.g. 120 mg sustained release
formulation every 12 hours; not exceeding 240 mg per
24 hours).

26
Contraindications and potential

adverse side-effects
Decongestants, although widely available in OTC
preparations, are potent vasoconstrictors. In the UK,
ephedrine is licensed for the treatment of hypotension
caused by spinal or epidural anaesthesia and
phenylephrine is licensed for the treatment of acute
hypotension. Ephedrine, phenylephrine and
pseudoephedrine use is contra-indicated in
hypertensive patients.
The use of ephedrine has been linked to
cardiomyopathy25 and stroke,6 whilst pseudoephedrine
use has also been linked with stroke,10 temporal
coronary artery spasm and myocardial infarction.30 It is
clear, therefore, from clinical data that, when taken
orally, 1agonist sympathomimetic amines can evoke
profound systemic cardiovascular side effects.
Moreover, these effects are both drug-specific and
dose-dependent.
There have been numerous reports of the effects upon
cardiovascular parameters of sympathomimetic amines
contained in OTC medicines. Doses equivalent to over
three to four times the recommended therapeutic dose
of pseudoephedrine raised diastolic blood pressure
above 90 mm Hg.14 These results were in accord with
two other studies. Bye et al.,8 reported significant
increases in heart rate and systolic blood pressure
following relatively high doses of pseudoephedrine (120
mg and 180 mg). Empey et al.,16 found doses of 120
mg and 180 mg produced statistically significant
increases in both pulse and systolic blood pressure.
However, the increases were deemed to be clinically
unimportant, since they were considerably less than
might be expected to occur in response to either
emotion or mild exercise.
Whilst several studies have reported increased
cardiovascular stimulation following ingestion of OTC
sympathomimetics, it is evident that doses used were
at least twice the recommended therapeutic dose.
Reports of the effects following the ingestion of
sympathomimetics in therapeutic doses have been
conflicting. Bye et al.,8 found that a single dose of
ephedrine (25 mg), significantly elevated both heart
rate and systolic blood pressure, whilst a single
therapeutic dose of pseudoephedrine (60 mg)
significantly elevated only systolic arterial blood
pressure. Bright et al.,5 found only a non-significant
rise in resting heart rate following a single therapeutic
dose. Empey et al.,16 reported that ingestion of
pseudoephedrine in a therapeutic dose of 60 mg
provided maximal nasal decongestion, without any
cardiovascular or other side effects.
In terms of action on the CNS, most evidence suggests
that OTC sympathomimetics have no stimulatory effect
in the relatively low doses used.9,20 Bye et al.,8 found
that whilst pseudoephedrine lacked any stimulatory
effect, even at supratherapeutic doses (180 mg),
ephedrine possessed a stimulatory effect at therapeutic
doses. Over-the-counter sympathomimetic amines
exhibit less central stimulatory effects than
amphetamines, because they are less lipid soluble.
Differences in central stimulation are related to
differences of lipid solubility within the biological
membranes and hence penetration of the blood-brain
barrier determines the ease with which these
compounds gain access to central receptors.21
Danger during endurance exercise has been associated
with impaired thermoregulation as a result of the use

of sympathomimetic amines. Clearly, the use of
stimulants to mask the symptoms of fatigue may
enable an individual to continue exercising in a
hyperthermic state. Indeed, the deaths of several
cyclists during major competition, (most notably that of
Tom Simpson on Mont Ventoux in the 1967 Tour de
France), have been attributed to hyperthermia related
to the use of amphetamine.31 More recently, the death
of a Major League Baseball player, (Steve Bechler, in
2003), as a result of heatstroke, was attributed to the
use of excessive ephedrine, contained in a weight
reduction supplement.11 It is likely that hyperthermia is
a consequence of increased motor activity and
impaired thermoregulation. Although published studies
have identified increased thermogenesis15 and a
reduction in the drop in core temperature during
exposure to low temperature27 following administration
of ephedrine, no studies have assessed body
temperature at comfortable ambient temperatures
following the administration of ephedrines.
Pseudoephedrine as a potential
performance enhancer
As a constituent of orally administered medication,
pseudoephedrine has the capacity to act systemically
on adrenoreceptors, both peripherally and centrally.
Whilst it is generally considered less centrally active
than ephedrine, its potential for crossing the bloodbrain barrier, coupled with its widespread availability,
makes it a likely target for abuse. Nevertheless, limited
research has examined the effects of pseudoephedrine
on performance. Those studies that have assessed
pseudoephedrine administration and sports
performance are inconclusive.
Gillies et al.,18 found no improvement in 40-km time
trial cycling performance following administration of
double the therapeutic dose of pseudoephedrine.
Similarly, Chester et al.,13 found no improvement in 5km running performance following a multiple,
therapeutic dosing regimen of pseudoephedrine, (i.e.
six 60 mg doses over a 36 hour period). Whilst data
pertaining to endurance exercise suggests that
pseudoephedrine has limited ergogenic effect, exercise
of shorter duration has shown positive results. In a
study by Hodges et al.,19 it was concluded that
pseudoephedrine administration in greater than the
therapeutic dose, (i.e. 2.5 mg per kg body weight)
significantly improves 1500 m run performance. Using
comparable doses of pseudoephedrine (i.e. 180 mg)
Gill et al.,17 found a significant increase in peak power
output during a 30 s sprint cycle test and maximum
torque produced in an isometric knee extension
exercise. From the available data, it would appear that
pseudoephedrine administration in high doses, (i.e.
greater than the therapeutic dose), has the potential to
augment high intensity exercise performance. However,
further research in this area is necessary to confirm
this.
Recent work has found that, in combination with
caffeine, pseudoephedrine29 and ephedrine2,3
significantly improves exercise performance. There is
however a paucity of research that assesses the effect
of combining caffeine with pseudoephedrine and
therefore this requires further examination.
There has been considerable interest in the use of
sympathomimetic drugs to promote weight loss, by
increasing energy expenditure and reducing food intake

through appetite suppression. In an animal study

performed by Ramsey et al.,.23 it was reported that
energy expenditure was increased, and in some
animals, food intake was reduced following the
administration of ephedrine and caffeine. Consequently,
it was concluded that ephedrine and caffeine treatment
could promote weight loss through its action as a
thermogenic and anorectic. It appears that ephedrine is
effective in increasing thermogenesis and has the
potential for body weight loss in obese individuals,7
especially when combined with caffeine or aspirin.1
Boozer et al.,4 found significant short-term reduction in
weight amongst over-weight and obese subjects
following supplementation of natural sources of
ephedrine and caffeine (Ma Huang and Guarana).
However, there have been no studies that have focused
on sympathomimetic drug use and non-obese, athletic
populations to promote leanness.
WADA legislation regarding

pseudoephedrine
The 2010 Prohibited List states that pseudoephedrine is
prohibited in-competition where the urinary
concentration exceeds 150 g.ml-1. At concentrations
below the threshold it continues to be monitored. An
athlete who tests positive for pseudoephedrine and the
urinary concentration is above the threshold, may face
a ban from competition for up to two years (first
violation). However, it is classified as a specified
substance, which means that, as a common
therapeutic agent, any sanctions may be reduced or
nullified if an individual is able to prove that the
presence of pseudoephedrine in the urine at such high
levels was through no significant fault of their own.
Whilst this may be difficult to prove, it is clear that
further research to support the current threshold is
required. As a common therapeutic agent it is also
possible to apply for therapeutic use exemption (TUE).
This may be granted if it can be established that there
is no permitted alternative therapeutic agent.
Further issues surrounding the use

of OTC stimulants by athletes
As part of the Monitoring Programme, since 2004,
caffeine remains a unique case. Whilst it is a
constituent of numerous OTC medications, it is clearly
a socially acceptable drug, consumed in large amounts
in the diet via the intake of caffeinated beverages such
as coffee. With the recent growth in caf culture,
caffeine intake throughout the UK population would
appear to have increased significantly. Caffeine also
has renowned ergogenic properties and since its
removal from the Prohibited List has become a
common constituent of sport-specific supplements such
as sports drinks and gels etc. It would appear that
despite the clear performance enhancing properties,
caffeines relative safety and its widespread availability
makes it a difficult substance to control. Indeed, the
effects of caffeine have been demonstrated at relatively
low doses, making the possibility of differentiating
between therapeutic or acceptable social use, from its
use for performance enhancement or simply over
consumption, via urinalysis impossible. This, coupled
with the fact that caffeine is used as an acceptable
performance enhancer within many working situations
(e.g. as a cognitive enhancer during study), makes it
difficult to legislate against in sport.
weight reduction, combating drowsiness, relieving

fatigue and enhancing sports performance, all
containing a variety of herbal stimulants. Herbal
stimulants are those from plants or plant extracts that
may be categorised according to the agents that they
contain. Typically, herbal stimulants contain caffeine
and related methylxanthines, of which the most
common are coffee and tea. Herbal stimulants may
also contain ephedrine and related sympathomimetics.
Herbs may however, contain many active ingredients
and the exact quantities and contents are seldom
labelled. Whilst herbal products contain active
ingredients, they are classified as food supplements
rather than drugs and they undergo less stringent
quality control procedures prior to their sale. Most
herbal supplements have not been subject to extensive
scientific scrutiny and rigorous clinical trials. This poses
a significant problem in terms of the safety of herbal
supplement use. The major risks of taking herbal
supplements include the purity of the ingredients and
the possibility of contamination, via possible
interactions between the ingredients and other
supplements consumed simultaneously. Athletes should
therefore exercise extreme caution when contemplating
the use of natural/herbal supplements.
Summary
Sympathomimetic amines contained in OTC medication
have clear therapeutic roles in alleviating the
symptoms of URT conditions. In therapeutic doses,
these sympathomimetics are typically devoid of
adverse side effects and performance enhancing
properties. Even in supratherapeutic doses, research
has found it difficult to elucidate the performance
enhancement properties of these drugs. However,
pseudoephedrine and ephedrine, both commonly
available OTC stimulants, are prohibited in competition.
As a consequence of the principle of strict liability,
there is a huge responsibility of ensuring that athletes
are aware of these stimulants and the products that
they are contained in.
Recommendations
Where possible, try to practice non-drug therapy for the
treatment of URT conditions i.e. increased fluid intake and
steam inhalations.
Increase the awareness of pseudoephedrine amongst
athletes in terms of its availability in OTC medication and its
status in sport with regards to anti-doping regulations.
Identify safe, (i.e. non-prohibited), alternative medication
for the treatment of URT conditions (refer to table 1).
Where possible, ensure that all medication is prescribed
by a team doctor, and that any doubts regarding the status
of particular drugs contained in any medication is checked
thoroughly via the national anti-doping organisation (i.e. UK
Anti-Doping).
In cases where OTC medication containing
pseudoephedrine is used, ensure that the athlete is not
competing (i.e. likely to be selected for an in-competition
drug test) within at least 48 hours of the final dose.
Do not be tempted to take greater than the recommended
therapeutic dose (refer to details on the packaging).
Be extremely wary of supplements termed natural or
herbal remedies. Neither of these terms guarantees
safety, nor exemption from anti-doping regulations.
There are a large number of products available for

28
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EXERCISE OF THE MONTH
Barbell Rollout
Gordon Rennie, BSc (Hons)
Introduction
The Barbell Rollout is commonly used in the strength training
and conditioning programmes of athletes from a variety of
sports. The exercise is included in these programmes primarily
to develop core strength; however, as with all prescribed
exercises, this is only achieved if proper technique is
maintained throughout the entire movement.
The aim of this article is to describe sound technical
progressions and variations for the barbell rollout; to identify
common faults when athletes perform this exercise; and to
explain how to correct these faults.
Importance of Core Strength

Gordon is currently employed by the SportScotland
Institute of Sport as a strength and conditioning
coach (WSIS). He is also a strength and conditioning
intern with the Glasgow Warriors. Gordon has a
background in powerlifting, where he competed
internationally for the BDFPA. He has worked with a
variety of sports including Badminton, Curling and
Hockey and is responsible for strength and
conditioning support for Rugby, Sailing and Triathlon
athletes in the WSIS.
Detailed description of the muscular physiology of the core is

beyond the scope of this article. Willardson5 identifies that a
core exercise is one which channels motor patterns to ensure
a stable spine through repetition. Core strength is of the
utmost importance when training athletes, as the trunk of the
body is the connection between the upper and lower
extremities. The aim of a trunk strengthening programme is
twofold. Firstly, to reduce the injury potential and secondly, to
improve the ability of the athlete to transfer forces through
the kinetic chain.
The trunk has to brace when under heavy load and as a result
of a stronger and more efficient trunk, there is the suggestion
that lower back injuries could be prevented.1,6 Improved
function and coordination of the trunk is an important factor in
injury prevention. The muscles of the trunk control the pelvis,
and poor control in this area can contribute to lumbar injury.
Furthermore, fatigue incurred during repetitive exercise can
lead to the break down of trunk kinematics and therefore,
further increase the potential for injury.3
In addition, a well conditioned trunk may result in improved
muscular power production.5 Provided that the athlete has a
well conditioned trunk, the dissipation of energy through the
core is minimized during movement, allowing for an improved
power potential.
Abdominal Musculature
Stuart is the current English Institute of Sport
Strength and Conditioning coach for Judo. He is
responsible for delivering National S&C services to
world class funded players across the UK.
Stuart previously worked for the Scottish Institute of
Sport, where he had the role of leading the S&C
service to athletes in the West of Scotland as well
as leading and coordinating S&C nationally for the
Judo and Badminton programmes.
Stuart is a physiotherapy graduate and his sporting
background lies in Olympic Weightlifting, where he
represented Scotland at two Commonwealth Games.
The muscles of the core are generally considered those of the

lower back and abdominals.4 The table below shows the
function of these muscles.
MUSCLE
FUNCTION
Rectus abdominus
Trunk flexion
External oblique
Lateral trunk flexion
Internal oblique
Lateral trunk flexion
Transverse abdominus
Abdomen compression
Erector Spinae
Trunk extension
Stuart Yule is the column editor for the

Exercise of the Month section.

30
Exercise Technique
Ready Position
It is recommended that the athlete begin the
rollout in a press-up position with the hands
slightly wider than shoulder width apart on the
barbell (Figure 1A). The head should remain in a
neutral position, with the shoulders relaxed and
the scapula set (retraction of the shoulder
blades). Thoracic extension should be maintained
at this point and throughout the entire exercise.
It is vitally important that the gluteus maximus
is activated, as characterised by a neutral pelvic
tilt. There should be a straight line running from
the ankle to shoulder (Figure 1B). This is the
ready position.
Figure 1A.
Execution
From the ready position, the athlete should allow
the barbell to roll out under control in the
sagittal plane (Figure 2A). As the barbell
continues to roll, it is important that the athlete
maintains thoracic extension. It is also vital that
the pelvis maintains a neutral position. As the
bar progressively moves away, the athlete will
eventually be parallel with the floor.2 (Figure 2B).
This is the end of the eccentric component of the
exercise. The concentric element should mirror
the eccentric path. The repetition is complete
when the athlete has returned to the ready
position.
Figure 1B.
Common Faults and Corrections

Figure 3A highlights poor thoracic spine and
scapula position. This rounding can be corrected
through time by increasing the athletes
awareness of their posture, and with scapula and
sub scapula exercises. Figure 3B shows
hyperextension of the lumbar spine. Tightening
the abdominals and contracting the gluteus
should ensure neutral alignment.
Learning
The Barbell Rollout is a very difficult exercise.
Very few athletes will ever complete a repetition
on their first attempt; and most would need to
undertake simpler variants initially. The most
common method of completing the rollout is
from the knee. However, it is the opinion of this
author that performing the rollout from the
knees should be avoided if possible, as
progressions from knees to feet are unlikely. As
it is a bodyweight exercise, a more productive
method of achieving a full rollout is with the use
of resistance bands as an assistance tool (Figure
4A). The band should be placed on the
waistband of the athlete and the rollout
performed as described earlier. The assistance
can be progressively reduced to the point where
a bodyweight rollout is executed.
Figure 2A.
Progression
To progress the bodyweight rollout, weight can
be externally applied. This may be done with a
weightlifting disc, however, a more comfortable
method is the use of a lifting belt and power bag
as shown in Figure 4B.
Figure 2B.

Example Programme
Training weeks (1 year)
1-6
7-12
13-18 19-24
25-30
31-36
37-42
43-48
49-52
Resistance Band
Thick
Thick
Thick
Medium
Medium
Thin
Thin
Thin
Sets x Reps
3x6
3x8
3 x 10 3 x 6
3x8
3 x 10
3x6
3x8
3 x 10
Medium
Application
As has been described, the barbell rollout is commonly
integrated into training programmes to develop core
strength. Successful execution of the exercise has
many benefits including abdominal strengthening whilst
in complete extension. This has greater benefits than
many conventional abdominal exercises, as most
sporting movements require the athlete to possess
strength in hip extension (for example, rugby lineout
lift, and swimming entry into the water). For the
strength and conditioning coach, the three basic
principles which must be considered in any training
programme are variation, overload and specificity. The
table above identifies an example programme, which
takes these principles into consideration.
Figure 3A.
Conclusion
This article has given an overview of the barbell
rollout. The progressions shown are intended as a
guide and should be modified based on the individual
strengths or weaknesses of the athlete.
Acknowledgments
Thank you to Paul Coyle and Stephanie McInally for
their assistance in the photography for this article.
Figure 3B.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Cissik, J. M. (2002) Programming Abdominal

Training, Part I. Strength and Conditioning
Journal 24 (1); 9-15.
Johnson, B. (2005) Bodyweight Exercises for
Extraordinary Strength. Nevada City, California:
IronMind Enterprises Inc.
Sparto, P. J., Parnianpour, M., Reinsel, T. E. and
Simon, S. (1997) The effect of fatigue on
multijoint kinematics and load sharing during a
repetitive lifting test. Spine 22 (22); 2647- 2654.
Stephenson, J. and Swank, A. M. (2004) Core
Training: Designing a Program for Anyone.
Strength and Conditioning Journal 26 (6); 34-37.
Willardson, J. M. (2008) Core Stability for
Athletes. NSCA Hot Topic Series. Available at:
http://www.nscalift.org/HotTopic/download/Core%20Stability.pdf
Wilson, J. D., Dougherty, C. P., Ireland, M. L.
and Davis, I. M. (2005) Core Stability and Its
Relationship to Lower Extremity Function and
Injury. Journal of the American Academy of
Orthopaedic Surgeons 13 (5); 316-325

32
Figure 4A.
Figure 4B.
The Five People

you Meet in
Heaven
Nick Ward is the series Editor for The
Five People you Meet in Heaven
Significant stops on a journey to becoming an

S&C coach
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS
Overview
Mitch Alboms book, The Five People you Meet in Heaven,
inspires the theme for this short series of articles. Based on
interesting, inspiring and challenging people we meet on our
journey, the purpose is to share experiences that people have had
along the way, and which hold some significance for their own
development.
Nick Ward interviews Stuart McMillan

Stuart McMillan and I go back to 1995, when we met during my
time studying at the University of Calgary. He was born and raised
in the UK, emmigrating to Canada when he was 12. He is a fervent
Manchester City fan , curry lover, and reggae music dj. In 1991,
Stu began a friendship with Donavan Bailey, and this provided him
with his introduction to high performance, which in turn led to the
1996 games and Baileys Gold medal and world record for the 100.
This period tested and shifted his training paradigms by seismic
proportions.
We quickly developed a rapport and shared a common
understanding of how and why we wanted to develop athletes. Stu
was completing his undergraduate degree as I was starting my
masters. We became the first 'official' University of Calgary Dino
Athletics S&C coaches, and we also set up our own training group.
Stu and I coached a group of track and field, football and bobsleigh
athletes as well as running S&C development camps and
programmes at the U of C. When my visa expired and I had to
return to England, Stu continued his hard work and established a
group of professional, national and international athletes.
Coaching high performance power and speed athletes for 18 years,
he has coached 45 athletes to 5 Olympic Games, winning a total of
23 medals. He has coached National Team athletes from Canada,
Great Britain, Ireland, Norway and New Zealand in the sports of
athletics, bobsleigh, skeleton, BMX, track cycling, and speedskating,
as well as professional athletes from the CFL, NFL, NHL, CSL, and
EPL. Stu is most definitely one of the 5 people I want to meet in
S&C heaven....here I am sharing a recent conversation I had with
Stu, prior to the Vancouver Winter Olympics.

NW: So Stu, you are only a couple of weeks away from your third winter
games. You have experienced the highs and lows before, so what are
your hopes for your athletes this time around?
SM: My hopes are that they perform to the best of their abilities; if their
best puts them on the podium, then thats great - but as we cannot
control the performances of any of their competitors, then we do not set
placing goals.
The thing is, many of his athletes at these games are Canadian and have
added home nation pressures, especially as they have finished at or near
top of their respective World Cup Standings....so, like it or not, his
athletes are expected to medal as Canada wants to 'Own the Podium'! So
I pressed again
SM: "...ok, at least half a dozen of my athletes can medal at the Games."
NW: So close to the start of the games, what are your key priorities for
the athletes programmes?
Stuart McMillan
SM: "Our first priority is to maintain health. The added stress of

participation in an Olympic Games, (and for my Canadian athletes, the
added pressure of participation in a home Olympic Games), can often
manifest itself in general health deterioration, mechanical dysfunction
and, critically, increased incidence of injury."
It is interesting to get a feel for how much influence he seems to have in
his role as he described to me the integration of pre-hab, aggressive
regenerative measures and effective nutritional strategies. It definitely
indicates how he was part of a very well organised and efficient athlete
support team who held a focused common purpose - the athlete.
Ensuring the athletes rested well and did not encounter any unnecessary
energy drains, he explained the second priority:
SM: "Our second priority is to ensure that the athletes have all the
extrinsic strategies in place, so that they can realise their potential. So
often, we can put together great programming methods, and taper the
athletes perfectly, only for optimal realisation to be jeopardised by poor
control of peripheral factors uniquely present at an Olympic Games."
Being his 5th Olympic games as a coach, Stuart was very aware of how
external challenges involving housing, transportation, training equipment
and location, additional family and friends, increased athlete/group
integration, media, public scrutiny, etc. could lead to obvious deleterious
outcomes. Working with the athletes to share in finding solutions for
these issues was key as he commented that:
SM:"Preliminary planning, (involving the athletes), in addressing these
possible distractions can go a long way to reducing any potential negative
influence they may have."
Clearly inclusive to the athletes programming was the non-scientific
challenges faced during this run-in. However, reflecting on the currently
available scientific evidence base for peaking for competition, I wanted to
drill down to the actualities of the training plan.
NW: "We can read so much about tapering and peaking, the athlete
getting it right on the day, reaching 'optimal readiness'. What is your
approach to this?"
SM:"This leads me to our third priority, and perhaps most obviously, is
the realisation of athletic form. Typically, we will not introduce any new
training stresses for 5-6 weeks prior to the main competition. In our
experience, stabilisation of a new form can take up to 4 weeks. A further
2-3 weeks are necessary to realise that form under stressful
circumstances and in competition, as we taper, tweak, and micro-script
the programme. Through this period, only a general guide, or outline, is
pre-formulated. Although we pretty much know what type of work we will
be doing on a daily basis, exact details will be scripted acutely,
depending upon numerous factors involving the athletes readiness.
Quality of sleep, regeneration and health will take a paramount role in
the exact determination of micro-planning, as well as the specific volume
and intensity of the aforementioned outside distractions such as media
responsibilities."
With there being so many variables involved, I wondered, (again with my
evidence-based practice head-on), if there was any 'testing' performed.

34
NW: "Is there anything specific you look at to inform

the decisions you are making?"
SM: "A pre-training analysis of their function is crucial
in micro-scripting their plan. Typically, this will
involve a brief initial visual diagnosis as they begin to
move and warm up, and follows through to a series of
therapeutic tests and interventions, depending upon
that first visual analysis, as well as what you, (or
another therapist, or the athlete themselves), may
feel on the treatment table.
The odd fact about Stuarts role with athletes is that
in many cases he has been the technical coach
(sprinting, bobsleigh and skeleton starts coach), and,
for many years held a primary role in the manual
therapy of the athletes. In probing this therapyguided approach, he believes information attained
through the process of treating the athlete is
invaluable in ascertaining their level of function. This
outweighs anything that a coach may typically see
visually or through any testing. The immediacy of this
feedback is how its impact is distinguished from
typical physiological methods.
SM: The purpose of this pre-training-period is, as
much as possible, to optimize as many training
sessions, especially those when the athletes are
expected to perform at a high level, (e.g. maximum
velocity sprints, or maximum strength weights).
Through the remainder of the session, decisions are
made based upon pre-session expectations,
maintenance of quality through the session, and - to
a limited extent - athlete feedback. Technical
breakdown and/or mechanical dysfunction is a sure
sign that you have pushed a little too far, and the art
of coaching is to come as close to this period as
possible without actually reaching it. "
By this time, we should be well clear of any

appreciable amount of time spent on improving the
athletes weaker areas, and instead, are focussing on
what makes them elite in the first place; and what
they are most comfortable with - their strengths.
Continuity in the types of training that the athletes
are confident in then feeds the unique psyche that is
needed at this critical stage. Day to day management
of their psychological profile is crucial if we are to
expect an optimal performance. The donts are really
pretty obvious: no new stimuli and dont try too hard.
Adding new stimuli at this point of the process will
not give appropriate time to adapt, maintain, or for it
to be realised - thus the stimulus becomes an
unnecessary stressor that can get in the way of
optimal regeneration. We also need to appreciate that
if we have executed our plan properly, we simply
need to stay out of the way, and allow the athlete to
realise it. This does not mean, however, that we stop
coaching - the process just becomes less intrusive
and more organic. Over-coaching can be the instinct,
but we must refrain and trust the process - if the
work has not been done, it is too late now anyway!
And the results: gold, silver, and bronze medallists in
female bobsleigh; as well as gold medallists in mens
4-man bobsleigh, and although he won't claim this for
himself, he was influential in the Canada 1 bronze
medal placing in the four-man having been integral to
the work carried out in all years except the last year
of the cycle.
Stuart is currently due to work again with athletics,
as he looks forward to returning home to work as a
Senior Strength and Conditioning Coach with the EIS,
working specifically with UK Athletics at Lee Valley
Athletics Centre.
This left me wondering, with all the information that

is available out there to us as S&C coaches, what
simple advice or principles would Stuart always rely
on when guiding athletes in those last few weeks or
days before an Olympic Games.
NW: When you look back, are there any do's and
donts that come to mind in that final phase leading
to games time?
SM: The big dos are the 3 Cs: comfort, continuity,
and confidence; each one feeding the other. The most
important thing in the lead up to the Games, is
keeping the athlete within his or her comfort zone.
If you have an interesting

individual you would like us to
meet, why not submit a similar
article for the next edition?
NEWS
(continued from page 2)
UKSCA ASSESSOR AND TUTOR TRAINING

The UKSCA is committed to ensuring that the quality of tutoring on our workshops and assessing on assessment
days is of the highest order. With increasing demand for both assessment days and workshops and the
subsequent recruitment of new tutors and assessors, it is even more important to invest in the training and
development of the skills of our tutor and assessor group who are, first and foremost, some of the most
experienced and well respected S&C coaches in the UK. The first quarter of 2010 has seen our annual assessor
CPD day take place, as well as training for newly recruited tutors and assessors. New UKSCA assessors are
required to observe/shadow on assessment days and then begin assessing members under the supervision of an
existing assessor until deemed competent. UKSCA tutors go through a 3-day tutor training process using the
Sports Coach UK Coach Educator Training and then observe existing tutors on workshops before becoming a
support tutor.
Profiles of our tutors and assessors can now be found on our website.


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ISSN 1757-5834

The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association

No. 17 SPRING 2010

AUGMENTED ECCENTRIC LOADING

6th ANNUAL CONFERENCE

EXERCISE OF THE MONTH

THE FIVE PEOPLE YOU MEET IN

1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,

UKSCA'S PLANNING EFFECTIVE PROGRAMMES

Principles of training and planning

PRIVATE WORKSHOPS - MANCHESTER UNITED AND

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 17 | Spring 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

Human movement is made possible through the relative contributions

UKSCA | Issue 17 | Spring 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

1. Increased Neural Stimulation

2. Stretching of the Parallel and Series

3. The Elastic Nature of Tendons

lengthening enables a body to continue to drop

5. Postactivation Potentiation (PAP)

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 17 | Spring 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

A Brief Literature Review

Conversely, Moore et. al.,30 investigated the acute

Implications for increasing the

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

for all concentric phases), and an additional explosive

(p<0.05). However, the DAER group produced

Chronic Studies: Brandenburg & Docherty2 compared

Cluster set repetition loading

Box Squat with AEL

105/80/1 105/80/1 105/80/1

105/80/1 105/80/1 105/80/1

105/80/2 105/80/2 105/80/2

UKSCA | Issue 17 | Spring 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

training volume and time commitment

Summary of the Literature

Figure 1.1: Augmented loads are removed simultaneously

Figure 1.2: Finishing position for the box squat with

There is growing evidence to support the

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

30/1 30/1 30/1 30/1

30/2 30/2 30/2 30/2 30/2

60/1 60/1 60/1 60/1 60/1

30/1 30/1 30/1 30/1 30/1 30/1

Standard: 10/1 = 10 total repetitions broken down into 10 clusters of 1; 10/2 = 10

The implementation of AEL into

repetitions performed in a continuous fashion. A cluster

General conclusions and

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 17 | Spring 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

and resistance trained populations. Conflict

Figure 2.0: Start position for a drop jump when performed

Figure 2.1: Landing position for a drop jump, bands are

To assist strength and conditioning coaches

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

Bobbert, M.F., K.G.M. Gerritsen., M.C.A. Litjens &

Orthopaedics and Sports Physical Therapy, 17:17-23

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 17 | Spring 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

stability. Journal of Athletic Training, 37:71-79

Watkins, P.H (2009) The Stretch Shortening Cycle: A

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

nce again in 2010, the UKSCA has