Kava Drinking in Vitilevu Fiji 4

Oceania,Vol. 12, No. 3 (Mar., 1942), pp.
226-254
KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU, FIJI

By R. H. Lester
(ContinuedfromVol. XII, No. 2)
PART IV. DEVELOPMENT OF YANGGONA RITUAL- FINAL STAGES
Yanggona Chewing
importantdevelopmentto take place in the Mbau yanggonaritual
ANOTHER
was chewingtheroot(mama),whichsupersededtheancientmethodofshredding
it on a grater. The word mama is commonthroughoutPolynesiancommunities,
who practisedthe custom; but it also belongs to the Indonesianlanguages48
;
thereforethe origin of the custom cannot definitelybe assigned either to the
Polynesiansor to the Melanesians. It is certainthat everyPolynesiancommunity
did not chewthe root,just as it is certainthat everyMelanesiansocietydid not do
likewise. The Mangarevans,forinstance,have always pounded the root,singing
a cadenceas theydo so.49 Similarly,thereis also littledoubtthatthe rootwas not
chewed on Vitilevu. In my opinionyanggonawas introducedinto Vitilevuas a
resultof Tongan influencebroughthere by the Tuikambawho probablyprepared
theirown yanggonaby this methodsince the returnfromTonga of theirancestor
Kolomavu. Traditionsanctionsthe statementthat root chewingwas practisedby
thosehilltribeswhocameintocontactwiththeearlyTuikamba, whilethoseinfluenced
by the VunivaluunitsfromNakauvandradid notlearnthehabituntilalmostmodern
times. It is reasonableto presumethat,priorto the riseofthe Tuikambato almost
supremepower at Mbau, the religiousritual belongingto the Vusaratuwas not
since the latterwerethe seniorsat Mbau. Thus a coninfluenced
by the former,
of the chewingcustominto the Mbau yanggona
servativedate forthe introduction
ritualmightcoincidewiththe installationof the Tuikambapriesthoodduringthe
was drunksociallybythe Tuikamba
reignofRatu Tanoa. It is possiblethatyanggona
chiefsa fewyearspriorto theirelevationto Vunivalu,and that theyhad the root
preparedformixingby chewing,fortheirpowerin Mbanuve'sday was enormous.
" Some
Thomas Williamsmade an interestingobservationwhen he wrote:
old men(at Somosomo,thehomeofthei Sokulachiefswhentheysettledon Taveuni)
therootis bygrating,as is thepractice
assertthatthetrueFijian methodofpreparing
in two or threeplaces, but in this degenerateage the Tongan customis almost
universal(i.e.,chewing),theoperationnearlyalwaysperformed
by youngmen. . Z'50
48Authority of Dr. Capell.
49P. H. Buck, Ethnologyof Mangareva, Bishop Museum Bulletin, p. 449.
*Op. cit.,pp. 141-2.
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KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU
227
hadbeenpenetrated,
ofVitilevu
wrotethat,noneoftheinterior
WhenWilliams
"
"
refers
to thevicinity
or
in
three
two
is
the
so thathiswords as
places
practice
Tui
Thakau
of
the
and
the
domains
ofSomosomo
(ndrove).Youngnobleschewed
Mbau.
the rootat
root
oftheyanggona
therhizome
factthat,whenanalysed,
It is an interesting
in
water
in
but
not
soluble
is
which
a
substance
saliva,
;
readily
produces crystal
and thebeverage
is firstchewed,the flavouris different
and thatif therhizome
!51
becomesmoredigestible
The Yanggona Chant
ofyanggona
The climaxreachedin thedevelopment
ritual,fromtheprimitive
ofa yanggona
was
the
introduction
modern
the
form
to
technique,
political
religious
of
to
the
drink
the
ritual
into
the
meke
ni
chant(na
supersede
preparation
yanggona)
Vusaratu
the
recited
priests.
by
prayers
We are by no meanscertainwhenor wherethe chantwas firstperformed.
withRatu Sukuna,I suggested
the possibleperiodof introduction
In discussing
ofthe
theappointment
ritesfollowing
heardintheyanggona
thatthechantwasfirst
formula
oftheVusaratu
thatthereligious
chiefs.It is hardlyconceivable
Tuikamba
it is almostcertainthatthe ceremony,
was followed
; further,
by the Tuikamba
rather
was socialand political,
the
to
for
Vunivalu,
inaugurated dailyperformance
senior
chiefs
that
certain
be
seen
will
it
For
thanreligious. instance,
shortly
always
never
whereasit is certainthatthe Tuikamba
withthe Vunivalu,
drankyanggona
rite. It is thought
thereligious
drankwiththeRokoTutMbauduring
likelythat,
the Tuikamba
controlofMbauanaffairs,
beforetheirelevationto supreme
shortly
havetakenplaceduring
hadtheirownsocialyanggona
ritual,andthatsinging
might
ofto-day
Mabuan
at
the
is
which
chant
The
itspreparation.
ceremony
political
sung
a
Mbau
was
not
and
Christian
Thakombau's
tohavepre-dated
isknown
time,
officially
Tanoain 1852.
hisfather
centreuntila fewyearsafterhe succeeded
The wordsdo notbelong
ofthechantis quiteproblematical.
The authorship
Lau and Mbau. The
butto Mbua,Thakaundrove,
to a singledialector language,
" whoshall
the
of water/'suggests
line
verse
in
asked
IV,
cup
5,
carry
question
wateris servedafterthe
becausea cupoffresh
orLauanorigin,
Thakaundrove
either
in thelatter;
in theformer
to electedchiefs
state,andoccasionally
cupofyanggona
of Tuikamba
andalsowhenhe
thembuliceremony
at Mbau,thisonlyoccursduring
Vunivalu.Another
is mbuWd
intriguing
pointaboutthesongwhichno oneseems
able to solveis thefactthattwowomenare citedto takepartin theceremony
thatneverarises
oneto servethedrink,and theotherthewater a circumstance
"
in the" chieflyFijianceremonies.Theexplanation
givenforthevariousdialects
intothe chantis the factthatRatu Tanoa had made
and languagesintroduced
in thegroup,and
chiefdom
withwomenfromeveryimportant
politicalmarriages
thatthefreeuseon Mbauofthesedialectswashighly
probable.
51The resultof an experiment
carriedout locally.
228
Accordingto Thomas Williamsthe yanggonaceremonyto the Tui Thakau

(ndrove)was a religiousaffairduringthe eighteenforties,a periodwhenthe political
"
"
ceremonywas well establishedat Mbau.
Songs/'he wrote, weresungon social
occasions." But those describedwere nothinglike the Mbauan chant, eitherin
constructionor in performance.
The versionof the chant given in this paper differsslightlyfromHocart's52
but it is the authenticMbauan version,given to me by the Matanivanuato the
Vunivalu.
I
Mothemotheni mbongi* ma* singa

thake;
Singa a sa tangga*no ki langi.
Laki thavuna yanggoname titolati
Mbiu kotoki takari*ni vale.
We have slept throughthe night,and

day now dawns;
The sun is high in the heavens.
Go, uprootthe yanggona,and bringit
And place it on the thresholdof the
house.
The guest,at the upperend, is sleeping
[i.e., the chief'send].
Presentthe root,and let it be scraped:
It rests against a branchof langa kali
tree].
[a flowering
Liftdownthe tanoa [fromth wall] :
Prepare the root and proclaimit !
The acclamationrose skywards,
Reachingdistantlands !
Sola* ka sa motheno ki thake.

Soraki no yanggoname na kari:
Ra tauyano ki mbanilanga kali.
Tanoa, o thavutai thake:
Vakarau na yanggoname sevurakiI*
Sevuraki*ma keretumbui Langi,
Laki ondroondrovanua
!*
II
Mothemothe,
nggaisinga na vanua.
Mambuthi*rau tu na lewetua
Laki thavuna mbani*kasa vula :
Mbiu kotoki ra, nda kauta
Ru* tauyano ki mataravituya.
Ndru*yandrayandra
ka ra theretuyaI
Ndru* kathiviAndi yani i kumbuya
!
Sa singa raramana vanua :
Me mbasuna waka me tou ngunuva:
:
Lingi* na kena wai mbulambula
Na wai S0vuma* keresavuya,
Kena a mbisakotoma* na utha!
II
We have slept,and now day dawns.
Call two persons
To pull up the whitestem:
Put it downthat we may take it
And place it in frontof the house.
Let us awakenthe sleepers!
Let us call mylady fromthe upperend
of the house !
It is broad daylight:
Let us tear offthe rootlets,that we
may drinkthem:
Pour freshwater:
The water of the offering
bubbles and
splashes,
Resemblingfallingrain!
**Op. cit.,p. 65.

Ill
Kena a mbisa kotoma* na utha!
Na yanggona,au a laki thavuta,
Tara tu e ndua na matua*
" Laveta
nggosamu na Vanua ?
Mai mama na yanggona,Ravusa !
Wai liwaliaw o lave tambuyaI
"
Lingia* i mbatinitaunga!
229
Ill
Resemblingfallingrain!
The yanggonathat I had fetched,
Was touched [accepted] by the elder
[meaningMatanivanua]:
" I receive and let us
it,
conquer!
Come on you fellows,chew the root!
Pour in the water!
"
Let a man guard the tanoa!
Tonitonie ndua na matua,

na Vanua.
Thavutathokothoko*
The [Matanivanua] then calls out the

names of all theplaces that are to be
conquered.
Ai mbo,au vakalutuma
malua.
Tiko sombo,ru* thombuta
"
ni kua :*
Yanggonani Sau* ma* vaia*
"
Me kua soti na vakasausaI
vakandua.
e thangundu
Thombota
I droppedthe strainer
They sit down, and clap slowly.
" The lord's
yanggonais made to-day:
Let therebe silence!"
The clappingceased abruptly.
IV
IV
Lose oti na yanggona,ru* thombota.

Kena mbilo,au vitiki na longa;*
Era sa solata levu toka,
theindina mena Tu Yanggona?
" Ndi
Ngganu,me Tu Yanggona;
Senitumbalave wai ndroka*."
The yanggonaprepared,they clap.

I throwthe cup on to the mat ;
They are all wondering,
Who will be the Cup Bearer?
My Lady Haughtywill be Cup Bearer;
Senitumbawill carry(the cup of) fresh
water."
" Ndru thereI Ndruthere*malua!

Ndru mai lave i kumbuka ndua
" Arise!
Tiko kina na Sau ni Vanua."

Thombolaki
yanggonani Vanua :
Renai omboe mala usausa I
1' Vaka mbiu" O Matanivanua!
Arise,slowly!
Face towards the other end [of the
house],and directthe cup
To [the place] where the lord of the
land is seated."
[They] clapped forthe yanggonaof the
land :
Theirclaps made a colossal din !
"
[Cry] Desist !" O Matanivanuaf
It is practicallyimpossibleto rendera literaland intelligibletranslation: the

above is as nearlyliteral as circumstancespermit. The Fijian allows himselfa
amountofpoeticlicence\ forinstance,the 8thlinein IV, Ndrumailave
tremendous
230
i kumbuka ndua ! literallytranslatedwould read, " You [two, i.e. the ^pronoun
used forformaladdress,forthe Cup Bearer holds high chieflyrank] towardslift
to otherend." For thoseinterested,
the dialectwordsthat do not belongto Mbau
are as follows: {Note.- The dialect words,or phrases,are markedwith asterisks.
They read fromleftto right; e.g. line i of stanza I, (i), ni mbongi: (2) ma.)
Line i1, (1), "through the night" (Lau) ; (2), "and" (Mbau).
"
"
2, (1), high (Mbua and Thakaundrove).
" thresholdof the house"
4, (1),
(Thakaundrove).
5, (1), "the guest" (Thakaundrove).
"
"
9, (1), proclaim (Thakaundrove).
11, (1), "distant lands" (Thakaundrove).
13, (1), "call" (Thakaundrove).
"
.
ofthestem(Thakaundrove)
thewhiteness
14, (1), expletive,"qualifying
"
"
"in
front
16, (1), "you [two] (Thak) ; (2),
[of house] (Thak).
17, 18, (1), "us" (Thakaundrove),
"
"
21, (1), pour (Tonga and Lau).
21, 23 and 24, [1], "and" (Mbua).
26, (1), "elder, or senior" (Lau).
"
"
30, (1), pour (Tonga and Lau).
"
"
31, (1), elder,or senior (Lau).
32, (1), "all" [used here idiomatically](Thakaundrove).
"
"
34, (1), you [two] (Thakaundrove).
35, All Lauan, except conjunctionma, whichis Mbua.
"
"
38, (1), you [two] (Thakaundrove).
" mat "
39, (1),
(Thakaundroveand Lau).
" freshwater"
43, (1),
(Lau).
"
"
44, (1), arise, or rise up (Thakaundrove).
46, (1), "lord of the land" (Tonga and Lau).
Na Matanivanua
The climaxto the developmentof the Vunivalu'syanggonaritualwas reached
of the chantto supersedethe prayerssaid duringthe religious
withthe introduction
rite; but the inclusionhereof the role played by the Matanivanuain the political
ceremony,
developedby Ratu Tanoa, is not out of place.
The Matanivanuaaffiliations
have, so far,onlybeen alluded to briefly,
by the
of theMatanivanuadid not evolveuntilthe Yavusa
statementthat: " the functions
Kumbunawerefirmlyestablishedas a stable politicalentirety."
The part played by the Matanivanua in the Vunivalu*sceremonyis not
revolutionary
(likethe chant,or the wa ni tanoa); he was a memberof the tokatoka
/calledupon to fillthe vacanciescreatedby the flightto Vuna of the vusaratupriests
and matanivanuaaffiliations.The only change that came about occurredwhen
of the majorityof the priestly
was acceptedat Mbau, and the functions
Christianity
231
carriedon the
matanggaliceased. Those belongingto the matanivanuaaffiliation
social and political duties that they were responsiblefor prior to that event,
eliminating
onlythosedutiesthat werecontraryto the Christianritual.
To itemize the various divisions of the matanivanuaaffiliations
would be
in
will
suffice
to
name
divisions
of
irrelevant
it
those
order
;.
precedence,givingbrief
detailsof the functionsof onlythose who play a part in the yanggonaceremonies,
and to whomreferencewill later be made.
Komai, or Komai ni koto.
Whilethe Komai belongsto the yavusaturanga(i.e. the chief'sgroup),he is the
immediatechiefof the yavusa mbeteor mbatito whichthe priestlyunit of Mbau
belongs. The Komai is the head of a juniortokatokabelongingto the Vunivalu's
so that he can neveraspireto the paramountpositionin the comown matanggaliy
munityunless all the membersof the Vunivalu'stokatoka(and possiblyanother
have becomeextinct. His modernfunctions
are limitedto personal
seniortokatoka)
authorityover the yavusa mbeteor mbati; and to presidingat the meetingof the
heads of tokatokabelongingto the priesthoodand to the Matanivanua,when it is
necessaryto selectand create a new Vunivalu.
Vakavanua.
This officewas solely" clerical" and has now falleninto desuetude.
Matasau, Masau, or Tuni-masau.
The holderof this officeis " matanivanuae vale ni Tui" that is, " he is the
chief'spersonalherald." He was equivalentto tutorto the RokotuiMbau's children,
and selectedtheirwives or husbands. He arrangesthe dances (meke)and selects
"
those who take part in them. He may eat with the chief,and also u rambeta
his yanggona.63
Tuni, Tuni-tonga,or Tuni-mata.
is " matanivanuae vale ni Vunivalu,*' His functionsare precisely
This official
similarto thoseof the Matasau except forthe factthat the Tuni has no authority
and arrangementof dances.
over the organization*
Takala.
This officewas chieflyconcernedwithlaw and orderand is now extinct.
Matanivanua.
is themata-ni-vanua,
thatis, the " messenger
This official
belongingto theland."
He did not go abroad chiefsdid not go beyondthe limitsoftheirdomainwhenthis
**Whenthe past tenseis used, the sanctionhas practicallyfalleninto abeyance; when
the presenttenseis used, it is maintained.
232
- but he accompaniedhis chief

officewas evolved,unless on punitiveexpeditions
this
sometimes
involves
journeysanywherein the colony.
everywhere.Nowadays,
The matanivanuadividesup feasts,and presentsthemon his chief'sbehalf. In the
absence of any of his seniorswho were privilegedto rambetathe chief'syanggona,
the matanivanuadid so. Nowadayshe always does. He " entreats" the tatnbua,
to give a literaltranslationof the expressionused (sa vatonakana tambua)for" presentingthe tambua.'1 He presentsroots of yanggonaon behalfof his chief (the
onlyauthorityto whomthe Vunivalupresentsyanggonarootsis H.M. Government).
the
the presentationof feasts; informing
Finally,he is responsibleforproclaiming
which
news
and
of
of
arrived
at
in
decisions
council,
any
publicimportance
people
has been broughtby messenger.
s
Tuirara.
The Tuirara is assistantto the matanivanua; he helps him divide up feasts,
and actuallyfulfilsthe dutiesof " towncrier"which are officially
assignedto the
matanivanua.
Naitaka, Malotu, Malosivo,or Raitena.
This was the chiefpriestto thechief'sancestordeity,whowas also thewargod.
The Naitaka is also principalservantto the chief,afterhis installation(ve^mbuli),
and was responsibleforhis continuedgood health.
Matanathika,Mbouta,or Mbone.
Tunikalou,Tuni-makumbu,
He is anotherpersonalservantto the chief* He may touch his person,or
personalbelongings; bathe him whensick (and afterthe installationceremonies),
and is responsibleforlayingout his corpse,and also forhis burial. Thus thereis
"
nothingrevolutionaryin the fact that the modernMatanivanua is Master of
" at the Vunivalu1
s drinking. The Matanivanua to the Vunivalu is
Ceremonies
selectedfromeitherthe Matasau, Tuni or Naitaka.
Summary.
The mostradicalchangemade to bringabout the Vunivalu's yanggonaceremony
was the transitionfroma purelyreligiousto a politicalritual. But the root,and its
has retainedmuchof its ancientsymbolism; it is still
consumptionas a beverage,
"
" Na Wai ni Vanua "
; or, as the Mbauans put it, in their ritual, Yanggona
"
ni Vanua - when drunk, in solemn ceremonial,by the chief. Otherwise,it
"
fl
has no significance.Describingthe modernceremonyas a
political*'ritual
"
"
or politico-religiousmight
may not be quite accurate: either socio-religious,"
forthesakeofeuphony. Myreasonsforthispreference
and theformer,
be preferable,
will become obvious when the modernceremonyis describedin detail. Briefly
theyare this: At certainstagesin the ritual,clappingwithcuppedhands (tkombo)
handed downfromthe timewhenthe root
takes place. This clappingis definitely
233
"
mustperforce
was " sanctified
by thepriestsofthetemple,in whichcase thethombo
followeach timeit was subsequentlyhandled. This markof respectwas not paid
to the root,but to the kalou (god) to whomit was dedicated,namelythe chief's
- commonancestor. Its continuation
be
because
and thecommunity's
may required
- something
whichis consumed
ofthechief
theroothas becomethepersonalproperty
chief's
touch
his
one
to
this
No
him.
person,personalbelongings,
day may
by
drink,or foodwithimpunity; suchan act wouldbe unthinkable. Now,it is because
''he is the chief" ; in pagan times it was because he representedon earth the
commonancestorof the community.
Anothermark of respectincludedin the modernceremony,whichhas been
handeddownfromthereligiousrite,is the tama,whichis fullyexplainedin thenext
chapter. The tamais not, and neverwas, made to the yanggonarootitself,nor to
the beverage: it was intendedas a markof respectto the commonancestorgod,
or whicheverdeitytheyanggonawas beingdedicatedto. Now,thatmarkofrespect
belongsto the chiefas the premierauthorityin the land, and not as the senior
descendantof theircommonancestor. As far as Mbau is concerned,I am of the
opinionthat Ratu Tanoa was more responsibleforthe transitionto the political
yanggonaritual followedin the modernceremony,than the subsequentinfluence
of Christianity.
The forcesresponsiblefor the sudden developmentof yanggonaculture (at
Mbau) duringRatu Tanoa's reignwere,in orderof precedence;
of the Yavusa Kumbuna.
(a) The disestablishment
(b) The appearance at Mbau of the wooden tanoa.
(c) The customof chewingthe root; and
(d) The introductionof the yanggonachant.
forinventingthe wa ni tanoa; whilethe
The tanoa providedthe opportunity
the chant
of the vusaratupriestsprovideda reason forsubstituting
extermination
fortheirprayers.
Ratu Tanoa was too wisenot to see thathis drasticmethodswiththeimportant
who
effectupon the mindsof his community,
Vusaratumusthave createda terrific
had suddenlyto changetheirallegiance,not merelyfromone individualto another
who was the rightfulsuccessor,but to an entirelynew regime. He had no other
the social and religiousoutlookcompletely
courseopen to himthan to revolutionize
- or fall. And,he had to act quickly. He could
in orderto stabilizethecommunity
not appointa new priesthoodand permitthe old to continueto live,even in exile- so he exterminated
them.
therewas fartoo muchdangerof theirre-establishment
Tut Mbau forhe had absolutely
Similarly,he could not possiblybecomethe Roko
"
no claim to the title (which,I repeat,means the sacredchiefof Mbau "), nor to
ofthat office
the functions
; finally,no one was leftalive to mbulihimas Roko Tui.
forcontinuingthe daily religiousyanggonarite,
therewas no justification
Therefore
since it was offeredto the ancestorof an exterminatedbody of people. Nevertheless,the preservationof the continuityof the yanggonaculturewas necessary
in some formacceptableto the people. The only practicalmethodwas to trans-
234
formthe religiousyanggonarite into a politicalone ; i.e. by preservingmuch of

the ritualform,but presentingthe root,and the drinkto the chiefratherthan to
"
"
nobles
any deity; and by his sharingthe sacred cup with selected influential
withinthe community,whose allegiance was necessaryto his existence. These
facts explain the reason why the yanggonaceremonydeveloped so elaborate a
techniquein Mbau, and accountforthe two unique featuresin the Fijian yanggona
ceremony: the wa ni tanoa and the yanggonachant.
The only " foreigncultures" whichdirectlyinfluencedthe Mbauan ceremony
are : Lau, whichgave the wooden bowl ; and Tonga (or Lau ?), whose example
introducedthe root-chewing
custom.
PARTV. " THE YANGGONA,

SIR, IS PREPARED"
Mbau : The Political Ceremony

Materialsand Utensils.
The various materialsrequiredfor preparingand servingyanggonaat this
includethe*
root(vuni yanggona),and freshwater (wai ndroka54). At the
ceremony
modernceremony,yanggona,purchasedready groundfromthe local storekeeper,
is drunk,instead of using a portionof the root formallypresented. Some bowls
are of considerablesize and one threefeetin diameteris not an unusualsight. The
tanoa with a narrowrim is called tavatava. If it has a widerimit is called na
vakambati. Tanoa are neverused forany purposeotherthan to make yanggonain.
The strainerftmho)is made fromthin stripsof van bast. The vau belongsto the
hibiscusfamily,Hibiscua tiliaceus. Spread out, it is about threefeet in length.
Withconstantuse (and it is neverwashed),it assumesthesamecolouras thebeverage
whenstrained. Old strainersare preferred
by connoisseursbecause theymaintain
that the flavourof the drinkis improvedwhentheyare used ; but theircontinued
use cannotserve the interestsof hygiene55(Plate VIa.) The yanggonacup (mbilo
ni yanggona)is a coconutshell,cut transversely
in half,and highlypolished. The
cup should be well balanced and have a wide brim. The half with the pointed
end is used (Plate VIa), the otherbeingdiscarded. The pointis trimmedso that if
thrownto the groundwith a flickof the wrist,the cup will spin readily. This
propertyis essentialforthe chief'scup, as it is customaryforhim, when he has
drainedhis cup, to throwit downthe centreof the mat towardsthe tanoaso that it
will come to rest, spinningrapidlyin frontof it. The spinningpropertyis not
requiredin cups owned and used by othersbecause they do not throwtheircups
down the centreafterdrinking.56The root is sometimespounded at Mbau in a
54Theplantis calledyanggona; therootbearsthesamename. The
topoftherootwherethe
stemsof the plantshootfromis kasa ; the fleshypartof the root(therhizome)is lewena; the
rootletsare waka.
58Neithercup nor bowl is- as a rule- washed.
They are wiped clean with a piece ot
native bark cloth.
50Ratu P. . SeniloliThakombau,the late Vunivalu,was most
particularabout his
;
but he wouldprovidehis guestswith modelsthat would not spin at all. They couldcups
never
makeout whytheircupswouldnotspin,.andconsequently
marvelledat hisskill.
235
woodenmortar(tambili). The pestleis usuallyan old lengthof iron. The people

never went back to the old methodof shreddingand gratingafterchewingwas
prohibitedby government.57
YanggonaOfficials.
In addition to the Matanivanua,the yanggonaofficialsare the Cup Bearer
(Na Tu Yanggona),the YanggonaMixer(Na Ndau Lose Yanggona)and his assistants
(Na Nggaravina Tanoa), and the WaterPourer(Na Livi Wai).
As his Fijian title implies,the Cup Bearer is the only personwho may stand
uprightduringthe yanggonaceremony,and- like all the othertitles- it is handed
down fromthe days of the religiousrite. Quite apart fromthe yanggonaceremony,
no memberof the community(howevercloselyrelatedhe may be to the chief)may
of cup beareris the privilegeofthe leading
stand uprightin his presence. The office
so he naturallybelongsto thechiefstnatangnobleofthefirstdescendinggeneration,
gali.5S He is gorgeouslygarbedin a skirtof brilliantlycolouredleaves and belted
withnative bark cloth (mast)tied in a large knot at the back.59 The knothas a
special function: it signifiesrank accordingto its size- the greaterthe size, the
long trainsof masi are worn. Armsand
higherthe rank. In certainceremonies,
tied
aroundthe biceps and the ankles. His
of
bands
are
decorated
with
grass
legs
face is powderedblack- especiallyabout the eyes- emphasizingtheirgleam to a
remarkabledegree. His skin glistensfroma lavish smearingof coconutoil. His
coiffure
is a thingof dignityand beauty,and is the resultofmostlaboriouscombing
and preparation: nota hairis out ofplace,and it shinesfromthecarefulapplication
and colourfulfigure.
of oil. The Cup Beareris a mostdignified
oftheYunggonaMixer'stitleis " theYanggonaStrainer/'
The correcttranslation
"
"
but I am callinghim Mixer so that he may not be confusedwiththe article(ai
in frontof
mho)withwhichhe strainsthe yanggona. His two assistantssit slightly
"
him,oneon therightand theotherontheleft. Theyaregiventhetitleof Guardians
of the Tanoa.'* Actually,theyhave now no specialfunctionand are probablyrelics
of the archaic religiousrite.
The functionof the WaterPoureris obviousfromhis title,and the part played
is describedclearlyin the accountof the ceremonyitself.
him
by
571 aia informed
is so scarceat Mbau thatthepeople
thatyanggona
on excellentauthority
thereseldompoundtheroot: thenoiseofthepoundingattractstoo muchattentionfromthirsty
chewedi
neighbours.Eithertherootis purchasedreadyground,or elseit is stillsurreptitiously
58He wouldnot be theleadingnobleof his generation
ifhe did not.
89Masi is undyednativebarkcloth,made fromthe papermulberry,
Broussonetia.If the
in blackorred,overa whitebase,it becomesmasikesa. If it is ofthintexture,
clothis stencilled
and dyedbrownaH over,it is calledngatu. The Tonganvariety(whichis bark cloth,dyedin
patternswhere
patternsovera brownbase),is calledtapa. An expertcan tellfromthestencilled
a pieceofmasikesawas made; ifhe belongsto thatlocality,he willknowwhomadeit,because
everymatanggaliretains its own special patterns. Stencilsare cut out of banana leaves,
centresin Fiji
over smoke. Womenmake masi. The principalmanufacturing
strengthened
Vitilevu; Nandrongaand Ra, on Vitilevu; and Natewa
are : VatuleleIsland, south-western
on Vanua Levu. Largequantitiesare made in Lau.
236
The yanggonaassemblyis termedat Mbau,NaVeinggaraviVakaturanga,

which,
" chief-like
attendants."
All
who
the
claim
attend
have
some
ta
means,literally,
social statusfromthe lowest,the head of the tokatoka,
to the highest,the Vunivalu,,
who presides. They take theirplaces in the assemblyaccordingto precedence,the
a part of the chorus,who are
seniorsbeingclose to the chief,and the least forming
seated to the rearof the tanoa.60 As a rulethe assemblyforgathers
in the Council
Vota
ni
at
Tawake.
The
built
which
is
at
House,
assemblyappears ftrstglance
examina(see figure)to conformcloselyto the Tonganceremony; but upon further
In
difference.
there
the
is
no
chorus
is
a
considerable
there
tion,
Tongan pattern
i
2
5
4
5
LESSER
LESSER
f
CHIEFS
CHIEFS
AND
AND
ELDERS
ELDERS
I Tahoa I
a
d
NA LEWE NI MEKETAKI YANGGONA(Chorus)

6
1.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Na Vunivaluand two hi Matanivanua.

The seniorlivingrepresentative
oftheRokoTutMbau.
His Matanivanua.
Na Nondra na Turanga na Mbati.
His Matanivanua.
a. The YanggonaMixer, b and c, his assistants.

d. The Cup Bearer, e, e, his assistants.
/. Na Wa ni Tanoa.
g. The Water Carrier.

MBAU YANGGONA ASSEMBLY.
60The heirarchy
of noblesof the Mbau chief
dom,or state (Matanitu)are: the Vunivalu,
Na Turangani Matanitu; Na Turangani Vanua,who is the head of a confederacy
ofyavusa
whoacknowledge
a commonancestor; Turangani Yavusa, Turangani MatanggaH
and Turanga
ni Tokatoka,see footnote31.
237
sittingbehindthe tanoa; secondly,the Mbauan chiefpossessesonly one herald

who sitsnextto him,whilethe Tonganchiefhas two. No highchiefof Mbau ever
to
sits behindthe tanoaand drinks,as is the case in the Tongan ceremonyreferred
above. As regardsthe appearanceof the two assemblies,thereis hardlyany scope
for variation.
The Ceremony.
The Vunivaludrinksthe firstcup, and his Matanivanuathe second. In recent
the
yearsMbauhas recognizedtheexistenceofa descendantofthe Vusaratu(through
:
chief
next
to
the
him
social
accorded
femaleside), and has
premier
precedence
" drinksthe third
"
his
followed
Mbau
Tui
Roko
of the
this representative
by
cup,
Matanivanua. The fourthto drinkis thehead ofa groupknownas the Vusarandave,
who bears the title of Na Nondrana Turangana Mbati; he is the electedreprewho wereinvitedby Ratu Tanoa to selecta
sentativeof the Mbati (bordertribes61),
The heads of the Mbati nominatedtheir
name.
in
him
their
chiefto drinkwith
representative.
words:
A Mbauanchiefdefinedthepoliticalyanggonaceremonyin thefollowing
" The
to
chief
their
the
of
acts
in
the
people
homagepaid by
ceremony
culminating
' withthem".
' sacred
the
to
them
in whichhe is broughtcloser
yanggona
by drinking
The peopletakingpart in the drinkinghave been called together,eitherby the
beatingof woodengongs(lali- Plate VIIa) or by the Tuirara.
The presentation
ceremonyis called ai sevusevu,and followsthe patternset by
the religiousrite,save that the rootis now presentedto the chiefinsteadof to the
ofa sevusevu
is a description
ancestordeity. The following
ceremony
(takenverbatim)
visitedMbau on one
former
when
the
Vunivalu
the
Thakau
to
Tui
made by the
occasion:
:
Presentation
Oi kemuni,saka, Na Turanga Levu,
na Vunivalu, e ndua nai sevusevu
lailai . . .
(Interjection by the Vunivalu: ka
levu/)
. . . au mani vakathamboratoka e
matamunia nondraisevusevuna nomuni
tamata: ke lailai, monivosota. . .
(Interjection: sengai, sa ka levu! or,
levu,levu,levu!)
. . . mera lomani tiko na nomuni
tamata,ka me tau tikovei ira na lewa
To you,sir,greatchiefand Vunivalu,
this is a small sevusevu. . ,
(Interjectionby the Vunivalu: a great
thing!)
. . . which I am presentingto you,
fromyourpeople. If it is insignificant,
. . .
we beg forgiveness
is
a
it
no,
("
greatthing!" or"great,
!
great,great ")
. . . may yourpeoplebe cherishedand
alwayshave yourgoodwill. The speech
61The relationship
betweenchiefand bordertribesis veimbati
; the formeris Linga ni
Mangiti(" thehandthattakesfeasts"), and thelatterare Linga ni Wau (" thehandthatholds
theclub"). Mbatiwereexemptfromthepaymentoftribute,loia.
238
loloma. Ka mani mbalavu na kena is long belongingto the presentation

ai sevusevu. of the yanggonaroot, the sevusevu.
vosa,ai yambani yanggona,
Let it be presented.
A sosoratuI
(All presentclap theircuppedhands,thombo.*2)
:
Acceptance
Au tauta manda nga nai sevusevu
tiko mai
vakaturangasa vakathambora
na Tui Thakau,thakatikoyani vua na
Turangana Vunivalu, Ai sevusevuni
mbula,ni ndei,Moni mbulatikongaka
sautumandana vanua !
Mana . . . e ... ye . . . endina!
I accept the chieflysevusevu,pre-
the Tui
sentedto the Vunivalu*\>y
Thakau. Sevusevuof health, and
strength,may health and prosperity

be always with you !
Mana . . .e.. . . so be it !
Throughoutthe acceptance,the Matanivanuahas gentlylaid his hands on the

root. Withthe finalprayer,he may snap o an end of one of the rootletswitha
flourish. Then he sitsback on his heels and claps gentlytwo or threetimes,before
:
utteringthe finalcompliment
A yanggona,saka ! . . . E levu, ka
liu, ka Hu
A munduo/63
The yanggona,sirs! ... It is great,

exceedinganythinggone before!
A munduo
!
* Vakatarataraor Vakathombothombo
is an ancientreligiouscustom,and is a mark ofreverence
to the spiritof the ancestor deity,na kalou vu. Afterthe priesthas explained to his audience the
wishes ofthe god, and what is likelyto befallthem,the deityhimselfwas then supposed to descend
and enter the body of the priest, that functionaryfallingto the ground in agony as the spirit
entered him. Massage was
applied ; when finished,the masseuse thombo'dand the priest cried,
"
" Mbula ! "
(" Health ! - the meaning that he was recovered; and also a formof blessing on
the masseuse). This custom originatedthe habit of clapping, which has since become a mark of
respectwhichis paid aftertouching,or handling,anythingsymbolic ; or the person,or belongings,
of a chief; or upon enteringand leaving a house in which he is seated.
The symbolic articles referredto above are the tambua and yanggona roots, afterthey have
been formallypresented.
63The cry, " A manduo ! " is thought to be an archaic formof tama. Here is a definition
of the tama which is more detailed than that given by Hazlewood, who, it must be remembered,,
was one of the early pioneer missionariesand naturally unsympatheticwith pagan practises and
notions.
A tama or Vakasalevu. The tama is a custom that was firstcarried out to our several places
of origin (as sanctioned by tradition). It "is not a secular act, but a purely religious"one. If" the
tama was made to individuals, " Verata would never tama to " Mbatiki," nor Mbau to
" Vuna-na koro." The tama which these two
chieflystates make to Mbatiki Island, and Vuna"
nakoro,respectively,is Nduo-o !" The replymade (whichis really a responsefromthe ancestor,
vu) is "O"
The formof tama throughoutFiji is :
Nduo-o
,
Tailevu, Rewa, Naitasiri, Tholo East
..
..
. . Nduo-nduo-nduo
..
Ra
,.
Nduo-nduo-o!
Thakaundrove
Mathuata and Mbua
Oo-iya
..
..
..
.*
O-owa
..
..
Lau
The tama is not given elsewhere in Fiji.
239
The cry, " A munduo! " is taken up by all present(except the Vunivalu),
followingthis formula:
" A munduo/ . . . nduo1 . . . nduo! . . . A munduo! "
forabouthalfa minute.
and all present,includingthe Vunivalu,thombo
intermittently
The root is then removedfromthe Council House.
Afterthe sevusevuis removed,the tanoa is set up in positionwith the wa ni
tanoa directedtowardsthe chief.
Completesilencereignsin the assembly. Once this rule applied,not only to
the precinctsof the temple,but to the wholeisland; this is a customnow rapidly
the islandis not rigidlyenforced.
on the wane,and silencethroughout
The yanggonamixerplaceshis handsoverthebowl so thatthetipsofhis fingers
over the lug. Witheyes cast down,regarding
restlightlyon the rim,immediately
of the bowl,he murmursin a low
onlythe smallpile of shreddedrootin the centre
"
the Vunivaluthat the
voice : "Sa vakarau oti, saka, na yanggona informing
rootis readyformixingand straining. Then he withdrawshis hands and tiltsthe
bowltowardshis chiefso thathe mayviewthecontents. The matanivanua,
replying
"
on behalfof the Vunivalu- who remainssilent- ordersthe speakerto knead the
"
"
Loweringthe bowl, the mixer solemnlydoes as he is
powder," LombaI
instructed.
Whenthe Water Carrier(whohas been watchingthe mixerknead the powder)
seesthathe is nowreadyforthewater,he comesforward,
actingon his owninitiative,
does
not walk upright,but
He
water-container
bamboo
a
{mbitu).
carrying long
croucheslow. Kneelingclose to thebowl,on themixer'sright,he gentlylowersthe
mouthof the bamboo (whichis stopperedwith clean grass) over the centre. The
water,controlledby the grass stopper,flowsgentlyover the powder.
Takingthe strainer(ai mbo),whichhas been lyingfoldedin the bowl,themixer
has been attained,
slowlystirsthe liquid. When he thinksthe correctconsistency
above
the bowl : the Water
he gives a finalstirand raises the saturatedstrainer
The
matanivanua
watchesthe
Poureralso raises his bamboo, but does not shift.
for
chief
the
his
strength
fallingliquid carefully,as he is personallyresponsibleto
waterhas been added,he ordersthemixer
ofthe drink. If, in his opinion,sufficient
to straintheliquid (" Lose ! "), and theWaterPourerreturnsto therearfromwhence
waterhas been
he came,his dutiesnow fulfilled. If, on the otherhand,insufficient
"
"
na wai ! "),
E
tale
manda
!
ndua
water
("
added,thematanivanuawillorder, More
is repeated
above
recorded
the
and
and the orderis obeyedaccordingly,
procedure
until the matanivanuais satisfied.
Up to this stage,the wholeassembly,exceptingthe principals,have remained
silentand absolutelystill. But as soon as the mixeris told to go ahead withthe
thosegatheredbehindthe tanoabreakinto song,led by an elder(possibly
straining,
theMasau). The last verseof thischanthas to be listenedforand the instructions
givenin it carriedout promptly: the mixerhas to completethe strainingoperation
to coincidewiththe singingof line 9 in verseIII.
240
Carefullydrawinghis strainerthroughthe liquid,keepingit on the floorof the

bowl, the mixerfoldsit threeor fourtimes,gatheringup in the processas many
particlesof insolublerootfibres(na kenakosokosoni yanggona)as he can. Raising
the foldedstrainerwell above the level of the liquid,he wringsit out. This movementis watchedwithadmirationby the audienceas it followsa prescribedorder,
and musclesare seen to advantage. Wrungout,the straineris passed to the rearor smartlythrown,and as smartlycaught- to be shakenclear of the fibres. The
removalof the strainerfromthe liquid is a signalforthe singingto stop,and it is
not resumeduntilstrainingis recommenced.This goes on untilthe liquid is freed
must coincideexactly with the
fromall sediment,which- as I have described^of
chant.
line
the
of
a
certain
singing
The strainingcompleted,and the singingstopped,the mixertakes the strainer
ofthathand on therimofthe
in therighthand and lightlylays thetipsofhis fingers
of
one
end
of
hold
the
strainerin the lefthand and
to
his
close
bowl
body. Taking
the
the
bowl directlytowardsthe
as
he
he
draws
strainer
across
it
unravelling
goes,
rimimmediately
overthe
hand
on
the
of
that
rests
the
and
chief,
lightly
finger-tips
wa
in
line
must
be
done
and
ni
tanoa
are
this
without
strainer
;
wetting
lug so that
the strainer. This positionis retainedfora fewseconds,and then the straineris
fromthe
looselyfoldedin both hands (stillwithoutwettingit), and, commencing
of
his
handsrim
of
the
bowl
with
a
mixer
the
farside,the
singlesweep
dry
wipes
to
This
called
and
the
left.
is
then
firstto the right,
act
tangava.
removed.
The straineris nowdroppedback intotheliquidand thenimmediately
all
rolled
intoa
for
time
his
it
is
the
last
It is wrungdry
; and, exercising
strength,
ball and grippedin the righthand. Holdingthe strainerclose to his body, with
his lefthand lightlycuppedovertheright,and witheyesfixedupontheliquidhe has
it can hardlybe heardoverthehushthat
prepared,the mixer,in a voice so low that
"
" the
that
informs
the
Vunivalu
yanggona,sir, is now strained (" Sa"
prevails,
"
lose, saka, oti na yanggona! ") Replying,the matanivanuaorders Thombo!
and the mixerand his two assistantsclap : the formerclappingthe freelefthand
against the strainerclutchedtightlyin the right.
The straineris thendroppedback intothe liquid,and the yanggonais readyfor
serving.
Servingthe Yanggona,
The chant is now resumed.
I droppedthe strainer.
They sit down: they clap, slowly.
" The lord's
yanggonais made to-day:
Let therebe silence! "
The clappingceased abruptly.
The yanggonastrained,they clap.
I throwthe cup on to the mat . . .
241
One of the elderspromptlythrowsa cup into the centreso that it comes to

restalongsidethewa ni tanoa; it is forservingthechiefwiththe " sacredyanggona.1'
They are all wondering,
Who will be Cup Bearer? ...
In answerto this question,the Cup Bearer immediatelyrisesto his feetand
goes forwardto retrievethe cup- if it has fallenon his side of the wa ni tanoa;
if it has not, he must go roundbehindthe tanoa to get it because it is expressly
foranyoneeitherto crossoverthewa ni tanoa,or evento stretchacrossit.
forbidden
is the continuationof an old law forbidding
anyonefrompassing
(This prohibition
betweenthe presidingchiefand the yanggonabowl ; it was death to anyonewho
this law. The yanggonawill be servedto him on whicheverside the cup
infringed
fell. He has no timeto pause, forhe has firstto coil up the wa ni tanoaagainstthe
tanoa,pickup the cup and go to thetanoawithit, kneeldownso thathis back is not
turnedtowardsthe Vunivalu(no one turnshis back on his chief),and usingboth
hands to hold it, stretchforththe cup over the tanoa. Yanggonais pouredinto it
by holdingthe saturatedstraineraloftand lettingthe liquid fall into it. All this
mustbe accomplishedduringthe singingof thesetwo lines.
My Lady Haughty will be Cup Bearer;
Senitumbawill carry (the cup of) freshwater . . .
to the Cup Bearer,whichare carried
The next lines issue furtherinstructions
out as he hears them sung.
Arise! Arise,slowly!
Face towardsthe otherend [ofthehouse],and directthe cup
To [the place] wherethe lord of the land is seated . . .
He is now standingalmostupright(save fora slightcrouch),facingthe chief
withthe cup ofyanggonastretchedout beforehimin bothhands,and he retainsthis
positionwhilethe chant is broughtto a close.
They clapped forthe yanggonaof the land :
Their claps made a colossal din !
"
Cry Desist !" 0, Matanivanua!
As soon as the chant is concluded,the Cup Bearer sinks slowly,almost (but
- filledto thebrimnotquite) to his ankles,retainingthewhilethecup ofyanggona
featto perform
withthe
stillstretchedforthin bothhands. This is a mostdifficult
smoothgracethat is demandedof him. Not a drop of the liquid may be spilt.
"
The Masterof Ceremoniesnow takes control. So be it !" he criesin a loud
voice.
" //. . .
. . , Tu ! " respondthe people
. . . Ye ! . . . (crescendo)
(fortissimo)
at the top of theirvoices,and in perfectrhythm.
"
" A tu
yani ki thakele ! commandsthe Matanivanuaof the crouchingCup
"
Bearer, biddinghim Rise up !"
D
242
Obeyingthe order,the Cup Bearerrisesto fullheight: lowersthe cup ; and,

assuminga naturalpoise,goes forwardto wherethe Vunivaluis seated. Kneeling
the cup, whichis takenby the Vunivaluin bothhands.
beforehis chief,he proffers
until
the
Waiting
Cup Bearer has returnedto his place beside the tanoa,and
the
Vunivalu
thenraisesthe cup to his lips and drinks. Led by the
clappedsoftly,
"
"
Matanivanua,who beats time by clappinghis hands, the people proclaim the
formula,untilorderedto desist:
drinking,
repeatingthe following
" Ye I . . . Ya I . . . E ndua sa . . . oi ! . . . E ndua thombo
! . . ."
While this is goingon, the Matanivanuais also carefullywatchinghis chief,
and as soon as he perceivesthathe has finisheddrinking,
he calls in a loud voice- to
be heard of the din that is goingon- " Mbiu ! " Instantlythe people desist,with
'
a finalcryof " 1 1 . . .Ye! . . .Ya ! " and clap loudly. Coincidentwiththis the
chiefhas thrownhis cup fromhim,and it is now spinningin frontof the tanoa.
The ceremony
is completedafterthematanivanuato theM bali chiefhas drunk;
all the subsequentdrinking
has been done in silence,brokenonlyby clappingas the
and
returned
is
to the Cup Bearer. The Cup Bearertakes his place in
drained,
cup
frontof the tanoa, and claps softly; and the proceedingsare terminatedby the
"
yanggonamixer,who,in his naturalvoice,declares: Sa matha,saka, na yanggona
"
vakaturanga." The Matanivanuacommandshim to clap," and he and hisassistants
do so threetimes.
The formulaused in terminating
the ceremonyis anotherrelic of the archaic
rite
it
informs
that
the chief-likeyanggonais drained. In
;
religious
everyone
actual fact,in the modernceremony,
thisis not the case, but the Cup Bearerto the
chiefswho have drunkthe " chief-likeyanggona" relinquisheshis duties to an
assistantwho, so far,has taken no part in the proceedings,and most of the chiefs
presentare servedwith the drink. While this is goingon, everyonerelaxes (but
maynot shiftfromhis place), smokesand chatsquietlywithhis neighbour.
No attempthas been made to translatethe formulae
shoutedduringthe final
of
the
from
ritual
the
time
that
the
chief
to
stages
begins drink,untilhis cup is
tanoa.
before
the
In
a
it
is
form
of tamathat has comedown
spinning
my opinion,
fromthe religiousritual.
PART VI.
DIFFUSION OF THE MBAUAN YANGGONA CULTURE
Yanggona Customs on Vitilevu

The modernyanggonacustomsthroughout
Vitilevu- as observedby the casual
- do notapparentlydiffer
witness
greatlyfromtheMbauanpattern,and he has every
excuse fordismissingthemall as similarin character. This similarity
of patternis
of Mbauan culturewhichhas takenplace since
purelythe resultof a rapiddiffusion
cession. The primarycause of this is, I think,the Great Councilof Chiefs,which
meetseverytwo years,at whichrepresentatives
fromall parts of Fiji attend,and
whichfirstassembledabout theyear1876. People fromall partsofVitilevuand the
Fiji Group(but our subjectis confinedto Vitilevu)witnessedforthefirsttimemany
243
to thegreatmatanitu,
namely,Mbau,Rewa,Thakaundrove,
chieflycustomsbelonging
them
etc.,and found
good,so theywenthomeand did theirbestto emulatethem.
Speaking generally,it may be truthfullystated that the formalyanggona
ceremoniesthat are now providedto governmentofficialsand importantvisitors
followone of two patterns: that set by Mbau, and the other(whichhardlydiffers)
as set by Rewa, forthe rest of Vitilevuchiefdomsacknowledgefortheirpolitical
overlord,eitherthe Vunivalu(Mbau), or the Roko Tui Ndreketi(Rewa). To this
statement,I make but one exception: Namosi.
Carefulenquiries,made on the spot, have producedinteresting
information,
and it is possibleto reconstruct
typesof yanggonaculturethat existedpriorto the
diffusion^
Namosi.
Namosi is a small matanituwhose territorystretchesfromthe coast, about
miles into the hills leading towardsthe
twelve miles fromSuva, fortwenty-five
but
centreof the island. Politically,Namosi ranksquite highin Fijian politics,64
because of its geographicalposition(it is curiouslyinaccessible)and the fact that,
it is the smallestprovincein the colony,it is usuallyrelegatedintothe
numerically,
background.
The chieflyhouse of Namosi originallycame fromNambukembuke,Nakau->
vandra,and arrivedat Namosi towardsthe close of the eighteenthcentury. The
language of the Namosi people (accordingto Dr. Capell) suggeststhat they had
definitecontactwiththose who later became Mbauans; the fact that theyare of
" Vunivalu" stock
proves this.
mai Nambukembuke
Vunivalu
the
(to give the Namosi chiefone of
Although
the Vunivaluand Tuikambaas hissuperioroverlord,
histwotitles)nowacknowledges
he was neveractuallysubduedby Mbau in warfare,neitherhave thepeopleabsorbed
- they are too isolatedto do so ; yet the
a great deal of modernMbauan culture
Namosiyanggonaritualis highlydeveloped(a factthat can onlybe expected,consideringthe apparentdevelopmentof the Na Ngangarites),and a studyofit shows
that,in spiteof the influenceof Mbau- whichis veryobvious- muchof the archaic
ritualhas been retained,possiblyfromthe Na Ngngrite.
"
'*
The second title given to the Namosi chiefis connectedwith his clerical
"
"
status in the community
; it is The spirit(or god) fromNambukembuke (No.
kalou mai Nambukembuke).
64Accordingto the Native Lands Commission
records,the political(and therefore
social)
in Fiji is :
.
orderofthechiefdoms
Mbau, Rewa, Naitasiri,Namosi,Nandronga(Vitilevu).
Mbua, Mathuata,Thakaundrove(Vanua Levu).
Lau Group; and the Kandavu Group.
Mba, Serua and Tavua (Vitilevu).
afterthe
All exceptingMba and Kandavuare matanitu
; but Seruaonlybecamea matanitu
of the colony.
took over the administration
ColonialGovernment
244
The Namosiyanggonaassemblyis termedNa NggaraYanggona," The Guardians

of the yanggona." The whole proceedingsare called Na Veivakavuraki,which
"
is divided into three
means, the ceremonialpresentations." The Veivakuvaraki
and
Na
Na
Matakarawa.
:
Na
Nggalonggalovi,65 Kathivi,
parts
Na Nggalonggalovi.On the chief'sarrival at one of his villages,,a gong is
sounded. The gongused is reservedexclusivelyforthe purposeso that as soon as
the villagershear its note theyare immediatelyaware of its message,namely,the
call to meetthe chief,and thoseof the elderswho are privilegedto take part in the
proceedingsat once repairto the headman's house, wherethe functionwill take
place. There they await the entryof the Vunivalumai Nambukembuke.As he
the nggalonggalovi,
entersthe house, all tama. The tambua,representing
is then
who
a
short
over
to
it
and
direct
the
hands
it
to his
chief,
says
prayer
presented
of
matanivanua(whosetitlein Namosi is ai Thaumbuta),
.whosespeech acceptance
followsa set formula,as is the case at Mbau.
Na Kathivi. Immediatelyafter the tambua has been accepted, the host's
matanivanuacalls out : " He has ascended among us, in a chief-like
manner,the
" The chief's
!
Nambukembuke
from
with
those of
matanivanua,together
spirit
his retinuewho are present,respondswiththe words: " May therebe peace in the
" This
"
land, and yourprogenymultiply!
ceremonyis entitled The Calling."
Na Matakarawa. The host's matanivanuathen presentsa root of yanggona,
withthe
togetherwithfood(usuallyyamsand taro). This ceremonyis synonymous
sevusevuof Mbau, exceptthat herefoodis includedin the presentation. I can find
no suitabletranslationforMatakarawa,as yet,and can onlyexplainwhat it represents: The Thaumbutaaccepts the presentationon behalfof the chief.
Na Yanggona Sevuraki. Following the matakarawacomes the ceremonial
"
drinking,called here Proclaimingthe yanggona." The yanggonaofficialshave
of the proceedings,
forit is prohibitedforany
been presentsincethe commencement
enter
or
to
the
to
ceremonies.66
either
departduring
person
pieceofthe rhizomeofthe rootis removed,scrapedclean,and handedto the
his chiefthattherootis preparedreadyforgrating," Sa vakarau
mixer,whoinforms
"
thaka,saka, na yanggona,"whereuponthe chief,not his Thaumbuta,replies, Let
it be made." The grating(yatha)is carriedout by rubbingtherhizomeovera rough
The gratingcompleted,the chiefis informed
of the fact
piece of stone (Mbulewa).
"
" 5a
:
na
!
words
the
The
Thaumbuta
saka,
yatha,
yanggona
by
(not the chief,
this time) commandsthe mixerto go ahead withthe straining,
whichneed not be
describedbecause thereis verylittle(ifany) variationfromthe Mbauan pattern.
65Thisis definitely
to swim. Beforecoming
Mbauan,and the wordis derivedfromfiggalo
ashorefroma voyage,Someof his subjectsswimout to the vessel and presenttheirVunivalu
witha tambua,hencethename. In Namosi,thechieflivestwentymilesfromthecoastt
66My informant,
Ratu Suani Rauto,Na Thaumbuta
to the Vunivalu,Namosi,informs
me
in a note," Nowadays,afterthepresentation
therootis removedfrom
(at Mbau)ofthesevusevu,
theyanggona
assembly; but heresuchpracticeis absolutelyprohibited."
Afterthegongcallingthepeopleto thechiefsyanggona
has sounded,children
mustcease to
playon thevillagegreen,normaytheysit aroundon it ; theymaynotevencrywhilethechief
is takingpart in the veivakavuraki.
245
Noteson theNamosiProcedure, The nameforsomeofthematerialsand utensils

fromthe Mbau, as mightperhapsbe expected:
differs
Namosi.
Mbau.
i ndave
. . na tanoa
wooden bowl
a unu
.. i mho
..
strainer
. > Na ndau lose na Yanggona Na nggaraYanggona
the Mixer . .
I Thaumbuta
. . Na Matanivanua
the Herald . .
the restof the titlesare similarto the Mbauan,so faras I have been informed.
An important
dutythatis neglectedat Mbau is collectingtheinsolubleyanggona
fibres(na kenakosokosoat Mbau, and na kenakota,here)as theyare shakenout of
to scatterthesefibresin Namosi,theymustbe collected
thestrainer. It is forbidden
and parcelledup in leaves similarto thoseused forliningovensor wrappingpuddings
(vakalolo). In Namosi, these leaves are called i lou : at Mbau, they are termed
i tutuni lovo (I do not knowtheirbotanicalname). The officialemployedin collectingtheyanggonafibreshas a specialtitle,na vakamirakota. Afterthe yanggona
has been strainedand the chantis concludedthe mixerintimatesthisfactwiththe
"
- and not the
words; " Sa ndarama,sakaf na yanggona! to which,the chief
"
"
'
- replies: Ombo!
thaumbuta
fromthe Mbauan, and the wordsbear no relation
The chantis quite different
and is veryobviously
whatsoeverto the proceedings. It is a formof vakamaloto*1
ritual.
to
the
addition
a recent
AnotherMbauan feature,which is only seen at the chief's yanggona(and
is thewoodenmixingbowland the wa ni tanoa. The wooden
to officials)
ceremonies
a
still
bowl is
great rarityin Namosi.
the
Serving Yanggona. The Cup Bearer's ritual dinersconsiderablyfromthe
Mbauan, and here,I think,one findsthe formulahanded down fromthe archaic
the chiefthat
religiousrites. The chantceases fora space whilethe mixerinforms
in
his
hands
obedience
to
and
his
is
the yanggona strained,
reply. The chorus
claps
his place and goes
Bearer
from
and
the
rises
once
into
breaks
then
more,
Cup
song
to receivethe
over
bowl
he
the
then
holds
the
wa
ni
tanoa
the
coil
to
forward
;
cup
up
the chorus
would
that
and
at
this
it
ceases
The
chant
appear
stage,
yanggona.
Mbau.
The
at
is
the
case
as
than
the
rather
the
follows actors,
cup filled,
opposite,
the Cup Bearerrisesand, holdingthe cup aloftin both hands,he facesthe people,
"
who are gatheredbehindthe bowl, in orderthat they may know that the lord
"
"
and chiefof the land is about to drinkthe yanggonaof the land," and that they
must behave themselveswith the properreverenceand respectthat this solemn
occasiondemandsof them. Aftera pause, he lowersthe cup and turnstowardsthe
yanggonaroot. Holdingthe cup aloftonce moreand pointingit towardsthe root,
containedin thecup,has been
thechief(bythisaction)thattheyanggona,
he informs
The Cup Bearerremains
to
him.
root
from
the
just previouslypresented
prepared
"
" the
in that positionuntil,to quote my informant's
words,
yanggonais called
Cf. R. H. Lester: " Notes fromFiji/' Oceania,Vol. IX.
246
"
"
{but I am not toldhowthe calling is done),whenhe turnstowardsthechief,and
his chief'scup from
proceedsto serve him. Afterthe Thaumbutahas rambetcCd
"
three to fiveeldersand chiefsmay also drink,togetherwith their tambe!*and
"
"
thattheyanggonahas been clapped so that they
the peopleoutsideare informed
may go about theiraffairsonce more. The reasonsgivenforcertainactionson the
; I have merelytranspart of the Cup Bearerare not my own,but my informant's
lated his account into English.
is similarto thereconstructed
Conclusion. Muchofthisceremony
religiousrite
was not in any way influencedby
suggestedforMbau. But that reconstruction
had (so far as I am aware)
what is knownof the Namosi ritual. My informants
never been there. The chief'swooden mixingbowl is still a rarityin NamosiTonly saw two duringa tourthroughmostof the provincelast May. The pottery
ndatringgaleis generallyused. The veryname givento the woodenbowl calls to
when the ancestorspassed
mindthe days of the migrationfromNambukembuke,
throughthe area that stillretainsthe customof drinkingfromthe individualndave.
Namosi is the only area on Vitilevuwhichhas taken the woodentanoa, but not
accepted the name given to it.
It is a factthat Namosiwas neverinfluenced
by Tongancultureat any period
of its history; neitherdid it come underthe influenceof Mbau untilpost-cession
thatthepeoplemayhave had was duringthetime
days. The onlyoutsideinfluence
of the early tuikambapeople, and as a resultof solevu. We
of the peregrination
was an establishedcustom
have on record,however,the factthatyanggonadrinking
at Namosi in the early sixties,when Dr. Seeman visitedthe place. Then again,
thereis the findingof the ancientNa Ngngsite,whichprovesthat therewas an
elaborate ritual therenot less than 150 years ago. It is certainthat this latter
ritualmusthave been broughtto Namosifromsomewhereon the coast of Vitilevu,
in thehillsofthisisland. The ritualmay have
because no potteryis manufactured
come fromany potterycentre,extinctor stillin existence; the extinctareas are
Votua, Mba (not far fromNakauvandra),and Mbau. Other centreswhich still
producepotterybeingVutia, Rewa ; Serua,rightnextto Namosi,and Nandronga.
This suggeststhat the westerntribes(Nandronga,Lautoka, and Mba) broughtwith
themto Fiji a knowledgeof potterymaking,sincethe generalsurmiseis that the
"
" Nakauvandra
migration did not come directlyfromthe westernPacific- where
but via Samoa, whereit is not ; and thatthe latermigrapotteryis manufacturedwho werelivingin the vicinityof
tion musthave learntthe art fromthe former,
Nakauvandra and who we may presume traded potteryforother articles. If
thisis correct,theNamosipeoplewouldhave carriedwiththemto theirnewhomea
knowledgeof the art, and on discoveringthe clay on the Serua coast (whichthey
owned until comparativelyrecently)they would have put theirknowledgeinto
practice.
to assumethat Namosi did not
it is not difficult
From the above possibilities,
cultureor
requireMbauan cultureto assist themto developeithertheiryanggona
potteryculture.
247
Vunda, Lautoka.
Situated on the west coast of Vitilevu,almost exactly due west fromMbau,
lies a chiefdomcalled Vunda. The people claim to have migratedto Fiji with
Lutunasombasomba(thenquote theirtraditionconcerningthe presentationof the
- on landing!), and theirclaimhas been generallyacceptedas
tambuato that chief
correctbecauseno one has takenthe troubleto contradictit. Dr. Capell,however,
has definitely
decidedthat the Vunda people (and also thoselivingin Mba, Nandi
and Nandronga)belongto an earliermigration. Theirlanguage(it is not a dialect)
and similarityof wordswiththe Banks
fallsinto line in grammaticalconstruction
factis that,
Is. and Malaita and Floridain the SolomonGroup. A veryinteresting
in his enquiries,Dr. Capell discoveredthe name of the rootand the beveragethat is
the subject of this paper is nggonaand, moreover,that it also means tfbitter"
"
"
(the Mbauan word for bitter is nganga).
It has not yet been definitely
proved,but it is possiblethat the people who
drinkfromthe individualwoodencup might(fromtheirlanguageaffinities)
belong
to.yet anothermigration,
but if the Vunda people came to Fiji throughthe Banks
habit,a custom
Islands,it is onlynaturalto assumethattheyassimilatedthedrinking
there
to
this
day.
prevailing
is available concerningthe archaicyanggona
So farbut verylittleinformation
"
cultureofthe Vunda people,but I am almostcertainthattheyfollowedthe ndave
ritual." It is a factthatthe coastaltribeshad no yanggonaoftheirowncultivation,
as the climateis too dry; but thiswouldnothave entirelypreventedthe chieffrom
obtainingsomerootsfromhis kinsmenwho lived in the hills,onlya shortdistance
away, by solevuexchanges; later,some of the hill folkwere subdued in warfare,
rootsformedan essentialpartofthetributewhichtheyhad to produce
and yanggona
periodically.
It is knownthat the sevusevucustomwas not a featureof the Vunda people
untilaftercession. It was introducedby one Emosi, chiefof Vunda, on his return
fromthe GreatCouncilof Chiefs,whichmetat Waikava,whichlies on themainland
of Vanua Levu, just close to the islandof Thakaundrove,and was one of the first
of these meetingsto be called. The only ceremonialpresentationritual that the
"
has already
peopleapparentlypossessedwas the Na Tambua'' to whichreference
been made.
The people who gave theirname to this Vanita, the kai Vunda, were later
whohail froma villagenearby,called Lomodefeatedby theyavusaSatnbutoyatoya,
lomo (incidently,the village that Lutunasombasombaactually landed at). The
also conqueredtwo otheryavusa,livingin the foothillsa fewmiles
Sambutoyaioya
inland. The namesofthesewere: Navatulevu(" The Greatstone") and theViyangoof Saukova "). It was these two yavusa who were
i-saukova(the " Grandchildren
for
their
lord with yanggona. The ceremonyin whichthey
responsible supplying
the chief(Momo Levu in this area) is called Le
their
tribute
to
formallypresent
"
tiki koyatwhichwas interpretedinto Mbauan forme as The
Matumboromboro
"
Cleaningup (of theirdebt ?).
248
the Ndau ni Vuihu,whosepositionis synonymous

Accordingto my informant,
withthe Matasau of Mbau- only the chiefand his priestsdrankyanggona; they
a potteryone- thetanoais stillquiterareheregatheredarounda bowl,presumably
and
all dippedtheircups intotheliquidand drank
the
in
the
centre
of
house,
placed
at
Viseisei
No
one
living
to-dayhas ever witnessedthe archaicrite,but
together.
me that his fatherhad taken part in such a drinking
the Ndau ni Vuthuinformed
and had told his son about the procedure. Personally,I am verymuch
ceremony,
inclinedto thinkthatsomething(ormuch)has beenheldback,foruntila personhas
- a thingthat he
of a Fijian, he will not run the riskof ridicule
the fullconfidence
hates and fearsmore,perhaps,than anything.
riki koya. This ceremonyis closelyallied to the subject
Le Matumboromboro
of " Totems," but it must be describedhere, because it concernsyanggonaalso.
is a species of sugar-cane,
One of the " totems" of the yavusa Sambutoyatoya
indigenousto Fiji, called Ndovu Lisilisi. Afterhis people (not the subject tribes)
have renderedthe firstfruitsto theirchief,he grantsthemspecial dispensationto
eat certainfishand food (breadfruit,
uto), and finally,the sugar-cane. Then the
subject yavusa are called in fromthe hills to bringtheirtribute(quite a different
- in Fijian eyes- to the firstfruits),namelyyanggona,and yams, and taro
thing
of this tribute,and the yanggonadrinkingthat follows,formthe
The presentation
above-namedceremony. (I shouldadd that onlythe yanggonarootsare presented
is another,whichdoes notconcern
ofthefoodstuffs
thepresentation
in thisceremony,
this paper.)
The subjectyavusaarrivein the chief'svillage,and theirchiefspresentthem"
selvesbeforethe Momo Levu. The proceedingsopen witha Na Tambua." Folthe yanggonarootsto the chief,and
lowingthis ceremony,the Mbatirarapresents
"
which
called
is
uses the following
formula,
Entreatingthat the chief'sangermight
melt a little
"
(Nei ravu ni Idloa sema).
An entreatyto the chiefthat his anger

mightmelt a little.
This
ko
kei
t'Ha
koto
ro
ndei
Ei sa tara
ya
(thing)that I touch is entreating
...
sewa
loloa
nei ravu ni
you that your anger might melt a
little.
(The Mbatirara,who has been touchingone of the rootslightlywithhis fingertips,thenclaps. He sitsback on his heels,and continues. . .)
Ourlargegardensarefilled. We present
Sa tawa kotona lenda werelevu. Miti
to our chiefthe fruitsof the soil. It
sa nggwarakotona lendu Momo, se
is only a small thingto quench your
ko mutouna kea nia na vanua. E i
t'Ha mbotonei ravua ni Idloa sewa,sa
anger,that lies beforeyoureyes. Be
naki kotoi mutumata. E vina me
pleased to accept it in a spirit of
manner.
tau ki na yalo vina,nggaine kea,yalo
goodwill,and in a chief-like
Do not be angry[?] because my
vakamomo. Me kua t'lia na kea
vatuwaiko na lematula me nggitamu
speechis a long one. The speech of
Nei ravu ni Idloa sewa.

tata mbalavu ndo kei lata. A sa nia
nggilinggilimbotona tata ni ravu ni
lloa, so nggi kwaya koto ya i ve
kemutouna lendu momo.
Ma nggi mutu ma nggei no koto Nggu
nggei tata mbalavutaki koto na kwa i
naki koto i mutu mata. Mbalambalavu koto na kea tata. A thelemaki koto ngga thambe! I . . .
e . . . vu ! I ...
e . . . ndrau !
"
I na lendu were levu tavu ngi I
249
entreatythat your angermightmelt

is sufficient.Let thembe presented
to our chief.
(The rest of the speech is confinedto
furtherapologiesforits length. . .)
From the beginning! To the end I
May our gardensprosper!
All presentthen clap, and aftera shortspeechof acceptancethe ceremonyis

concluded.
to go intothe gardensand fetcha bunch
One or two youthsare now instructed
- the indigenousvariety), and some sugar-cane. These are
of bananas (vundi
formally
presentedto thesubjectchiefs,whoare invitedto eat thesugar-cane,which
is cut into small pieces; the subject chiefseat first,are followedby theirretinue
the way, speak of " drinkingthe cane "). Afterthis ceremonial
(the Fijians, by
"
eating of the totem,"the chiefsand eldersforgatheronce more in the chief's
house, and drinkyanggonawith him.
of a tambuato the chiefwhich
Na vakasovuna Momo. This is the presentation
immediatelyprecedesthe modernyanggonaceremonyat Vunda. The tambuais
presentedby the Ndau Vuthu. He comes beforehis chiefon his knees,gentlylays
the tambuaon the mat,and claps softly. Thenhe picksit up again and presentsit,
with the followingwords:
Here in the presenceof the chief,the
Miti no kotona Momo na Momo Levu
i Vunda, e t'Ha na wawa sewa ni
great chief of Vunda, lies a small
tambuabelongingto this your land.
lemuru Vanua ko e. Na kemurui
It is to welcomeyourdescentamong
vakasirose kemurui vakasovu. Me
us. Descend among us in goodwill.
murusir me i na yalo vin. Nggi
I crawl before you [as an ant]
kasi nggi kasi marni tylia lomani
lemuru i thola. A thelemakikoto
cravingyourgood health. Let it be
rikinggathambe. I . . . e . . . Vu !
presented! From the beginning! To
the end ! To our chieffromSambuI ... e . . . ndrau! I na momoki
'
A
tu!
Sambutoyatoya.
toyatoya. Let it stand
The chiefof Vunda does not touch the tambuaas is the case in both Mbau
and Namosi; it is passed directto his M batir
ara, who takes it, kissesit (by gently
it) and lays it on the mat beforehimwithoutso farspeakinga word. Then
sniffing
words:
he claps softly,and pickingup the tambua,acceptsit in the following
E sir na wawa ni Momo,na wawa ni
Sau, na kemarui vakasirose kemarui
vakasovu. E sir kotonga ndondonu
I take [down] the chief'stambua,the

tambuabelongingto the Sau, at the
time of our descentamong you, and
250
our welcome. We descend in goodwill and health. May you too have
health,that healthmay be ours,and
peace be upon the land. Mana !
So let it be ! !
"
"
A ku . . . u . . . w!
All presentcry:
(meaningnot known) and the
"
Mbatiraracontinues: Ai ... o I E ... e ... e ... e ... e ... e. A ! . . .ia
mendu. . . thombo
! " tellingthe peoplethereinto clap, whichtheydo, continuing
" 0 . . . ooooo. . . re . . . wa! Ie . . . o ! E . . .
iye ... e ... e ... e . . .
e m#. e t " - ^whichsimplymeans, " rise up !" What the inferenceis, no one can
tell.
The Yanggona Ceremony.The preparationof yanggonafollowsthe Rewa
patternclosely,and so does the service. The variationsthat are worthrecording
illustrates
deal withthewa ni tanoawhichis enormous(Plate VIIb- the photograph
several
borne
is
it
of
the
out
the ceremoniallaying
youngmeneach
by
appendage;
in
cowries
of
white
the
bunch
open palm, several
spaced a fathomapart, carrying
in
this
tanoa
the
coiled
fathomsof thisropewas
particularceremony.) The
against
is the customat the Roko
which
ni
wa
the
firstcup is servedbeforecoiling
tanoa,
Tut Ndreketi's(Rewa) yanggonaceremony.
and the chorusare seatedbetweenthe tanoaand the
The chantis a vakamalolo,
so
that the movementof theirarms may be seen to
chief
(Plate VIIIa)
presiding
In Plate VIIIa wateris beingpouredinto the
Rewa
custom.
another
advantagebowlfroman earthenware
jar stopperedwithgrassto controltheflow. Afterthefirst
whiletheMbatirara
withdrawn
fewdropsofwaterhave flowed,thejar is temporarily
offersa shortprayer: the yanggonamixerkneelsall the time he is strainingthe
liquid- at Mbau, he sits.
Plate VIIIb showsthe cup bearerawaitingthe orderto rise and presentthe
cup. Note thepositionofthehandsofthe chorus. The Fijian alwaysclasps hands
duringthe ceremonials.
ngga i na moli. Miti thola vin na
kea momo, maru thola vin ngga
sautunga na vanua. Mana ! A . . .
e ... e ... e ... e ... i ndina! I
PART VII.
CEREMONIES INVOLVING YANGGONA DRINKING
Social Ceremonies
There are several importantand interestingcereNa Vakasenungganungga.
"
"
monies which^re precededby the Chief-likeYanggonaDrinking and which
in orderto completethispaper. Onlythe Mbauansocialceremonies,
bear description
are described. The firstof these is giventhe above name, whichmeans literally:
" The
flowers." It is a ceremonyof welcome
garlandingwith the nungganungga
froma journeythat took himoutside
return
on
his
to the Vunivalu,whichis given
matanitu.
the boundariesof his
Both sexes take part in this ceremony,with the exceptionof the yanggonawhichis confinedto the men. It takes the formof a sevusevu(preceded,
drinking,
251
I should have said, by the Nggalonggalovi),

followedby the yanggonadrinking;
and concludedby a feastand dances,providedby everybody.
Na MbongiNdrau. Certaincelebrationswereheld followingthe " Hundredth
"
infantofeithersex to the Vunivalu(orany very
night afterthebirthofa firstborn
high-ranking
chief),providedthattherankofthemotherwas ofsimilarstatus. The
reasonforthesecelebrationswas that,up till the hundredthnight,the royalinfant
had neverbeen laid downupon a mat, but was nursedcontinuously
in the armsof
relaysof handmaidens(vanda). On the hundredthnightthe infantwas solemnly
laid on its mats. This customhas now falleninto desuetude,the principalreason
beingthatno chiefs(sincemonogamywas thrustupon them)have- forpreference
"
marriedwhat Thomsondescribesas theirconcubitants,"and what the natives
" because such
call " theircustomarywives." I use the phrase " for preference
of such unionsare still living; but
marriageshave taken place, and the offspring
nonehas occurredin recentyears,and thereare no " royalbabes " underfortyyears
of age who have experiencedthis formof nursing. The chiefshave wed, instead,
women of theirown choice.
The fullyanggonaritualopens the proceedings,
and feastingfollows.
Na Veimbulini Tui. Quite a lot of reference
has been made in this paper to
chiefswho were" mbuli'd,"or,whohave been " veimbuli1
d " ; it is the mostsolemn
and important
ofall thesocialceremonies,
and thefullyanggonaceremonialplaysthe
principalpart. I am goingto give a shortdescriptionof the installationceremony
belongingto the Tuikamba(his ceremony,when installedVunivalu,is a separate
to thisone). All greatand pettychiefsof Fiji
affair,but is similar,fundamentally,
"
"
- even the King is solemnly" veimbuli'
d," all
undergothe veimbuli ceremony
the chiefsof Fiji attendingthe ceremony.
The ceremonyconfirmsthe chiefin what is practicallyhis birthright,
giving
him thatadded prestigethat birthright
alone cannotgivehim. Fromthattimeon,
his authorityin all thingswhichare sanctionedby customand traditionis never
questioned; and his ordersconcerningthem are blindlyobeyed. He has been
publiclyproclaimed,beforeall the people in the land, and he is the subjectof the
choiceoftheirrepresentatives.To quote theChiefNativeClerkin theNativeLands
"
"
Commission,Savanatha M. Koto, who is also a fountof knowledge as far as
"
Fijian customis concerned: Yanggonaof the Land is drunk,that the peoplemay
knowwhothe sacredone of the land is [he uses the wordsNa Vu ni Vanua] so that
his responsibletask as ' head of the people.' They
theymay assisthim to perform
have hithertoalwayshonouredhim,but theyhave neverfearedhim. Followingthe
veimbuliceremony,and the yanggonadrinking,
theyfearand reverencehim witha
truespiritof loyaltybecause the statusthathe now holdsamongthem."
It is a factthat a Fijian willblindlyfollowa bad leader- albeitwithperhapsa
"
d "- ratherthan a good
tinge of regretand providedthat he has been veimbuli'
leaderof perhapsnearlyequal rankand influence
who has sprungup in theirmidst.
To deposea chief,once he has been " veimbuli'
d'' is unthinkable.
252
The privilegeof selectingthe futureTuikambafallsupon the heads of all the

. The presidingofficer
or mbati
at thismeeting
tokatoka
belongingto theyavusambete
are
who
attend
the
Komai
those
the
is
Vakavanua,Matasau, Tuni, Takala,
;
(mbose)
M atanivanua,and the Naitaka,in that orderof precedence. The futurechiefmust
be selectedfromtheseniortokatoka
belongingto hisyavusa. If therewas no suitable
candidateamongstthem,one mightbe " lakovi'd" (" fetched") fromamongthesons
of one ofthewomenmembers. (I use thepast tensepurposelybecause the veilakovi
a scion fromthe secondtokatoka
does not happen now.) If no lakoviis permitted,
have no hope
wouldbe chosen. The Komai and membersofthe selectioncommittee
of beingelected,unless the seniortokatokahave all becomeextinct,in whichcase
- but in thateventhe wouldnot be a partyto theselection*
theKomai mightinherit
All nominationsare put beforethe meeting,and the matteris discusseduntila
unanimousagreementhas been reached. In the meantime,all details of the disare kepta secret.
cussion,togetherwiththe nominations,
A decisionreached,a publicmeetingis called, and the chiefsand eldersof the
ofthe finalchoice,and a date forthe veimbuliis arrangedand
matanituare informed
agreed upon. Preparationsare immediatelyput in hand forthe feast (mangiti),
and thegoods(yau),whichwillbe presented. Blood kinofthefuturechief(members
of his tokatoka)have to presenta special feastforthe occasion.
The house in whichthe ceremonyis to take place (it used to be the temple;
nowit is the CouncilHouse, whichoccupiesthe siteofthe former
building)has to be
or rebuilt.
reconditioned,
On theappointedday,thematanivanuato thechieforderseveryoneto hishouse,
and wherehe must remain. Childrenare forbiddento play on the village green,
or to sit about on it. Special mats are laid forthe chiefto sit on. Only one other
personmay sharethesemats withhim,namely,his matanivanua,who may be any
of these: Matasau, Tuni, Takala, or Matanivanua (the Vunivalumay select his
Naitaka to be his matanivanua,but just now he is onlythe Tuikamba). From the
matanivanuaaffiliations
alreadyreferredto, the Tuikambawill select his Mata to
otherMatanitu(e.g. Mata ki Rema,Mata ki Lakemba,etc.).
All the chiefsand eldersof the land assemblein the CouncilHouse, and there
await the chief,who willenteraccompaniedonlyby his Matanivanua.
The yanggonais preparedby membersofthe Komai's matanggali,but the drink
is servedto the Tuikambaby the senioryouthof his own matanggali.belongingto
thedescending
generation; theassistantserver,whobearsa cup offreshwaterto the
Tuikambaafterhe has drunkyanggona,
willalso be a memberofthe samematanggali.
This,I wouldadd, is theonlyoccasionwhenfreshwateris servedin Mbauanyanggona
ceremonial,and onlythe Tuikambadrinksit. A maximumof fourchiefsdrinkon
this occasion,togetherwith theirtambe.
Afterthe yanggonadrinkingis completed,a piece of masi is tied aroundthe
chief'srightarmby an official
whohas notbelongingto theMatanivanuaffiliation
as yet been referred
to, namely,the Ramalo or Vunimasi. This tyingof the masi
on the armis actually" na veimbuli"and so the fundamental
ofthewholefunction.
253
The feastis nowpresented. The specialfoodthatwas preparedby themembers

of the chief'sown tokatokais called the " share belongingto the yanggona" (na
and is to be eatenby onlythosepeoplewhodrankyanggona;
kenai waseni yanggona),
thisis presentedfirst,the main part of the feastfollowing
after.
immediately
forfourdays and nights.
Feastingand dancingcontinuewithoutintermission
On the fourthday, the chiefundergoesa specialformof bathing. The officials
who take part in the proceedingsare the Matasau, Mboutaor Mboneor Lingatambu
as thelatteris termed; thelattertitlemeans" forbidden
hands/'and describesthe
Mboutaor Mbone; the Ramalo and the Raitena also officiate. This bathingconcludes the veimbuliceremony.
Sorcery Ceremonies
Sova Yanggona. Spillingtheyanggona,''as thisceremonyis called,is usually
over a house site wherea head of the householdlies buried,forhis spirit
performed
continuesto remainin the vicinity. If no house site is available- and government
has prohibitedthis type of burial formany years- a graveyardwill do.
If an individualdesiresthe death of his neighbour,he will presenta tambua
"
"
to a memberof the communitywho is gifted with the powerof sorcery,and
ask him to accompanyhim to the grave site of an ancestorof his intendedvictim,,
and thereprepareyanggona.
Afterpreparation,eitherthe whole contentsof the tanoa,or else the firstcup
is enacted)
(dependinguponthearea in Fiji in whichthisrite,whichis fairlygeneral,
"
will be pouredover the grave accompaniedby the followingwords: This, sir,is
"
someyanggonafor. . . May it please you to punishhimin some formor other!
This ritualwill be repeatedeach nightuntilthe prayeris answered.
Afterthe victimis dead, thosewho took part in the sorceryrepaironce more
to the grave in orderto give thanksto the ancestorfor answeringtheirprayer.
whichis poured
takes the formof anotherlibationof yanggona,
This thank-offering
"
over the grave to the accompanimentof these words: We thank you, sir, for
"
answeringour prayer - or words to that effect.
"
Witchcraft
" which
"
told me
my informant
Yanggona,in Namosi,has a giftof healing
" in his conversation.
"
" was infallible." But he referred
a
child
to
little
only
If a littlechildis sick,a branchof the yanggonaplantis suspendedfromthe roofof
thehousein whichthechildliesin sucha positionthatit maybe seenby thepatient.
remainedsilentwhen
Aftertwo or threedays health is restored. My informant
asked what formulawas recitedover the branch.
Vakasaliwai
This is a formof divination. My accountis taken fromthe unpublisheddic" A rootof
yanggona
tionarycompiledby FatherNeyret,S.M., of Cawaci,Ovalau.
254
to the god, thenthe prieststretchesforthhis hand and freshwateris

is firstoffered
into
it.
He liftsup his arm; if the waterrunsalonghis arm and shoulder
poured
withoutspillingover,theman willlive. If the waterfallsdownbeforereachingthe
shoulder,the man will die."
Yanggona Offerings
me
Mr. G. T. Barker,Curatorof the Fiji Museum,Suva, has kindlyfurnished
with some notes on the above subject.
; not to
Yanggonawas pouredover a treeselectedby the Mataisau (craftsman
for
of
the
Matanivanua
canoe
be confusedwithMatasau,
affiliation)
building. The
when
the
was
felled
the
cool
down.
Sometimes
treewas always
season,
during
sap
in
for
be
this
and
not
cut
but the
a treewould selected
way
manyyearsafterwards,
had
been
executed
was
sufficient
for
the peopleto
knowledgethat the yanggonarite
respectthe resultanttaboo.
to the god of war (who,incidentally,
was
Use in War. Yanggonawas offered
ofboastingand reviewby thechief
theancestor,kalouvu) at thetanga,theceremony
priorto the departureof the warriorsto war. It was at thistimethat the god was
" consulted"
by the priest,the Naitaka, as to whetherwar was propitiousat this
time.
to thegod ofcropswhenthefirstyam seedswereplanted.
Yanggonawas offered
"
of
this
In some parts Fiji
ceremonywas called the prayerto Ratu matmbulu"
of the " firstfruits" were taken to the
At harvesttime,when the offering
temple,yanggonawas offered.
Afterthe circumcisionof the youthshad taken place, a space of fourdays
confined
to theirhouse. Thena feastwas held,and yanggona
elapsed,whentheywere
"
was preparedby the surgeon,"and the firstcup poured on to the groundas a
libationto the god of circumcision,Teve.
Yanggona was frequentlyofferedto Ndakuwangga,the shark spirit,in the
vicinityof theSomosomoStraits,betweenTaveuniand Vanua Levu, wherehishome
was not of preparedyanggona,
but the whole
was supposedto be. The presentation
rootwas cast overboard,entreatingthe spiritto providea favourablewind,and to
preventthe vessel frombecomingwreckedon the treacherousreefsthat abound in
the vicinity.
R. H. Lester.
KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU, FIJI. PLATE VI
A Fibre strainer
: specimensof yanggonacups: basketcup holder: bundleof
of the Trustees,Fiji Museum). B. Preyanggonarootlets
(photoby permission
sentinga matakarawa,Vitongo,Lautoka.
t- I
>
2
->
I-H
fa
D
i
'c
%
>
feo
S
I-H
PQ
t-H
3
<
KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU, FIJI. PLATE VIII
: pouringin thewater,Viseisei, Vunda. B. The cup

A. Yanggona ceremony
bearerawaitingtheorderto anse ana serveme yanggona,viseiset, vunaa.

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Oceania,Vol. 12, No. 3 (Mar., 1942), pp.

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU, FIJI

*Op. cit.,pp. 141-2.

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

Accordingto Thomas Williamsthe yanggonaceremonyto the Tui Thakau

Mothemotheni mbongi* ma* singa

We have slept throughthe night,and

Sola* ka sa motheno ki thake.

**Op. cit.,p. 65.

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

Tonitonie ndua na matua,

The [Matanivanua] then calls out the

Lose oti na yanggona,ru* thombota.

The yanggonaprepared,they clap.

" Ndru thereI Ndruthere*malua!

Tiko kina na Sau ni Vanua."

It is practicallyimpossibleto rendera literaland intelligibletranslation: the

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

- but he accompaniedhis chief

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

formthe religiousyanggonarite into a politicalone ; i.e. by preservingmuch of

PARTV. " THE YANGGONA,

Mbau : The Political Ceremony

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

woodenmortar(tambili). The pestleis usuallyan old lengthof iron. The people

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

The yanggonaassemblyis termedat Mbau,NaVeinggaraviVakaturanga,

NA LEWE NI MEKETAKI YANGGONA(Chorus)

Na Vunivaluand two hi Matanivanua.

a. The YanggonaMixer, b and c, his assistants.

g. The Water Carrier.

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

sittingbehindthe tanoa; secondly,the Mbauan chiefpossessesonly one herald

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

loloma. Ka mani mbalavu na kena is long belongingto the presentation

I accept the chieflysevusevu,pre-

strength,may health and prosperity

Throughoutthe acceptance,the Matanivanuahas gentlylaid his hands on the

The yanggona,sirs! ... It is great,

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

Carefullydrawinghis strainerthroughthe liquid,keepingit on the floorof the

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

One of the elderspromptlythrowsa cup into the centreso that it comes to

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

Obeyingthe order,the Cup Bearerrisesto fullheight: lowersthe cup ; and,

DIFFUSION OF THE MBAUAN YANGGONA CULTURE

Yanggona Customs on Vitilevu

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

The Namosiyanggonaassemblyis termedNa NggaraYanggona," The Guardians

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

Noteson theNamosiProcedure, The nameforsomeofthematerialsand utensils

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

KAVA DRINKING IN VITILEVU

the Ndau ni Vuihu,whosepositionis synonymous

(Nei ravu ni Idloa sema).

An entreatyto the chiefthat his anger