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SYLLABUS:
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2. Architecture Vs Organization:
Architecture is the set of attributes visible to the programmer
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Figure 3
Basic block
diagram of a computer
The functional units of a computer are Arithmetic and logic unit, Control unit, Memory unit
Input unit & Output unit.
Arithmetic & Logic Unit:
It is the unit of the system where most of the computer operations are carried out.
For example if we perform any arithmetic or logical operation we have to fetch the required
operands from the memory into processor and in processor the required operation is carried out
by ALU.
The result may be stored in memory or retained in the registers for immediate use.
Control Unit:
It is the unit which co-ordinates the operations of ALU, Memory, Input and output units.
It is the nerve center of the computer system that sends control signals to other units.
Data transfer between computer and memory is controlled by control unit through timing signals.
Memory Unit:
The function of the memory unit is to store program and data.
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executed.
If the instruction involves any operation to be performed by ALU, it is necessary to
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When the operand has been read from the memory into MDR, it is transferred from MDR
to ALU.
After fetching one or more operands in this way ALU can perform the desired operation.
If the result of the operation is to be stored in the memory then result is sent to MDR.
The address of location where the result is to be stored is transferred to MAR and write
cycle is initiated.
Somewhere during the execution of the current instruction the contents of the PC is
incremented and the PC contains address of the next instruction to be executed.
As soon as the execution of the current instruction is completed, a new instruction fetch
may be started.
Bus Structure:
The group of lines that connect CPU and the peripherals is termed as BUS. The three types of
buses are Address bus, Data bus and Control bus. Typically, a bus consists of 50 to hundreds of
separate lines. On any bus the lines are grouped into three main function groups: data, address,
and control. There may also be power distribution lines for attached modules. The Address bus is
unidirectional because it carries only the address information from CPU to Memory. The Data
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Figure 5 Basic
Bus structure
structure
reduces the
complexity of
the bus
connections,
but it allows
only single
Fetch
Decode
Execute
Store
The basic function performed by a computer is execution of a program, which consists of a set of
instructions stored in memory. The processor does the actual work by executing instructions
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Availability.
Scalability.
Lastly,
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5.
Technology Trends:
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Integrated circuit costs are becoming a greater portion of the cost that varies between machines,
Figure 9 Wafer chopped into dies
especially in the high-volume, cost-sensitive portion of the market. Thus computer designers
must understand the costs of chips to understand the costs of current computers. Although the
costs of integrated circuits have dropped exponentially, the basic procedure of silicon
manufacture is unchanged: A wafer extremely is still tested and chopped into dies that are
packaged (see Figure above). Thus the cost of a packaged integrated circuit is
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wafer yield accounts for wafers that are completely bad and so need not be tested. --is a
parameter that corresponds inversely to the number of masking levels, a measure of
manufacturing complexity, critical to die yield.
Example:
Find the number of dies per 30-cm wafer for a die that is 0.7 cm on a side.
Solution:
The total die area is 0.49 cm 2 thus,
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Direct costs refer to the costs directly related to making a product. These include labor
costs, purchasing components, scrap (the left over from yield), and warranty
Gross margin, the companys overhead that cannot be billed directly to one product.
Indirect cost- It includes the companys research and development (R&D), marketing,
sales, manufacturing equipment maintenance, building rental, cost of financing, pretax
,profits, and taxes.
Average selling pricethe money that comes directly to the company for each product
sold.
List price-that companies offer volume discounts, lowering the average selling price.
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The phrase the throughput of X is 1.3 times higher than Y signifies here that the number of
tasks completed per unit time on machine X is 1.3 times the number completed on Y. Because
performance and execution time are reciprocals, increasing Performance decreases execution
time.
Measuring Performance:
The most straightforward dentition of time is called wall-clock time, response time, or elapsed
time, which is the latency to complete a task, including disk accesses, memory accesses,
input/output activities, operating system overheadeverything. With multiprogramming the
CPU works on another program while waiting for I/O and may not necessarily minimize the
elapsed time of one program. Hence we need a term to take this activity into account. CPU time
recognizes this distinction and means the time the CPU is computing, not including the time
waiting for I/O or running other programs. (Clearly the response time seen by the user is the
elapsed time of the program, not the CPU time.) CPU time Can be further divided into the CPU
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Toy benchmarks
Toy benchmarks are typically between 10 and 100 lines of code and produce a
result the user already knows before running the toy program.
example Puzzle, and Quicksort
Synthetic benchmarks
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7. Dependability:
The Infrastructure providers offer Service Level Agreement (SLA) or Service Level
Objectives (SLO) to guarantee that their networking or power services would be
dependable.
Systems alternate between 2 states of service with respect to an SLA:
1. Service accomplishment, where the service is delivered as specified in SLA
2. Service interruption, where the delivered service is different from the SLA
Failure = transition from state 1 to state 2
Restoration = transition from state 2 to state 1
The two main measures of Dependability are Module Reliability and Module Availability.
Module reliability is a measure of continuous service accomplishment (or time to failure) from a
reference initial instant
1. Mean Time To Failure (MTTF) measures Reliability
2. Failures In Time (FIT) = 1/MTTF, the rate of failures
Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) measures Service Interruption
Mean Time between Failures (MTBF) = MTTF+MTTR
Module availability measures service as alternate between the 2 states of accomplishment and
interruption Module availability = MTTF / (MTTF + MTTR)
Parallelism:
It is one of most important methods for improving performance.
One of the simplest ways to do this is through pipelining ie, to over lap the instruction Execution
to reduce the total time to complete an instruction sequence.
Parallelism can also be exploited at the level of detailed digital design.
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Amdahls law is used to find the performance gain that can be obtained by improving some
portion or a functional unit of a computer Amdahls law defines the speedup that can be gained
by using a particular feature.
Speedup is the ratio of performance for entire task without using the enhancement when possible
to the performance for entire task without using the enhancement. Execution time is the
reciprocal of performance. Alternatively, speedup is defined as the ratio of execution time for
entire task without using the enhancement to the execution time for entire task using the
enhancement when possible. Speedup from some enhancement depends on two factors:
i.
The fraction of the computation time in the original computer that can be converted to
take advantage of the enhancement. Fraction enhanced is always less than or equal to
Example: If 15 seconds of the execution time of a program that takes 50 seconds in
total can use an enhancement, the fraction is 15/50 or 0.3
ii.
ii. The improvement gained by the enhanced execution mode; ie how much faster the
task would run if the enhanced mode were used for the entire program. Speedup
iii.
Enhanced is the time of the original mode over the time of the enhanced mode and is
always greater than 1.
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