RF Mixers

By Leo de Vreede,
This course material is based on:

Original slides , ET4254 course 2012-2013 by

Prof. John Long,

Gudem and Larson (UCSD)

[Rezavi] RF Microelectronics

[Vendelin] George D. Vendelin, Anthony M. Pavio, Ulrich L.

Rohde, Microwave Circuit Design, Using Linear and Nonlinear
Techniques,

Example Multimode Receiver

Mixers
Outline
Mixing principles, some equations
o Linear multiplication
o Mixing by switching

Passive mixers
Single diode mixer
Single-balanced diode mixer
Double-balanced diode mixer

Active mixers
2-quadrant linear multiplier
4-quadrant linear multiplier

Switching mixer operation

Conversion gain & Noise Figure
Port-to-port isolation

Mixer design examples

Image-Rejection
Single-sideband Mixing

Passive mixer impedance transformation

Summary / Conclusions

Mixer Principles
Linear multiplication

Linear multiplication of two frequencies results in

the sum and difference frequencies

Mixing by switching
Periodically switching the RF signal (LO
controlled) results in all linear combinations of
the RF frequency with the spectral components
of a square wave (LO).

Mixer Principles, Some Equations

Linear multiplication
Perfect linear multiplier

When using a nonlinear element as linear multiplier (e.g. diode)

I d I s (e

The current voltage relation of a diode is:

Vd
Vt

1)

Use a Taylor series expansion until the 2nd term, yielding;

I d a0 a1vd a2vd 2 ...

When

vd vRF vLO

with:
both the RF as well the LO voltage appear over the diode

Then, I d a0 a1 ( vRF vLO ) a2 (v RF v LO ) 2 ...

DC term

Replica original
input signal

( vRF vLO ) 2 vRF 2 vLO 2 2vRF vLO

Desired mixing term
(linear multiplication see above)

Mixer Principles , Some Equations

Mixing by Switching

In this case the LO signal is so large that effectively switching occurs by the LO driven
nonlinear elements (diodes, FETS, BJTs). As such the RF signal will be mixed with all the
harmonics of the square wave resulting of from the LO signal that operates the switches

vout (t ) vin 2 (t ).S (t )

In which S(t) is a square wave toggling between 0 and
1 with a frequency, f1 1 (2 )
The resulting spectrum is the convolution of the RF
signal spectrum with that of a square wave.

Mixer Principles , Some Equations

Mixing by Switching (cont.)

Consequently, the resulting spectrum of the output voltage yields

(using the sinc function of the square wave),

Background

For a periodic square wave with a 50%

duty cycle there are only odd discrete
harmonics in the output spectrum
Multiplication in the time domain corresponds to a convolution in the
frequency domain (Note that Vin2(t) is centred around zero frequency [Rezavi]

Passive and Active Mixers

Mixer topologies
Passive mixers
Higher losses

higher noise,
no positive conversion gain (dBs)

Implementations
Classical (diode mixers)
FET mixers (no BJTs)

Active mixers
Conversion gain, lower noise, lower linearity
Single balanced, double balanced Gilberts mixer

Implementations
FETS
BJTs

Classical RF Mixer Topologies

Passive diode mixers
Single diode mixer

RF
IF

LO

VLO V g (t )
RF

Operation
Isolation of the spectral components (LO,
RF, IF) by filters, filters also optimize
power match/ transfer between sources /
loads and the diode at the various
frequencies. The filter implementation
requires larger IC/board areas, which
makes it expensive at frequency below
100GHz
high conversion gain (for a passive
mixer)
limited LO power needed
poor power handling
sensitive to terminations
small relative bandwidth due to filter
separation of the relevant frequencies
no suppression of spurious responses
Since not active, no positive conversion
gain (in dBs)

Classical RF Mixer Topologies

Passive diode mixers
Operation
Isolation of the RF / IF signal by
filtering. Isolation of LO from RF /IF
by balancing

Single-balanced diode mixer

RF

D1

IF

LO

D2
g (t ) VRF VLO

Virtual ground for LO signal

Some port isolation

Some suppression of spurious
responses for LO or RF depending
which one is balanced.
Improved power handling
compared to single diode version
Requires baluns and filters
No positive conversion gain (not
active)

RF signal appears in phase over the diodes. The differential LO yields the conductance
waves, when in phase with the RF signal the IF current flows the same direction, when in
opposite direction the IF current in the diode is reversed constructive summation
for the IF current occurs.

Classical RF Mixer Topologies

Spurious responses, Single Balanced Mixer
The current in D1 can be expressed as:
where:
The current in D2 can be expressed as:
where:
Note that the IF current is the difference between the currents D2 and
D1

Straight forward substitution (see next slide) yields to the following

conclusions:
The LO signal is not present at IF node.
All responses m.fRF + n.fLO where m and n are both even are
eliminated.
The (m=2,n=1) are eliminated but not the (m=1,n=2)

Classical RF Mixer Topologies

Spurious responses, Single Balanced Mixer
Current diode 1
Current diode 2
IF current is the difference between the
diode currents (one diode is reversed

Voltage and phase relations

over the diodes

Classical RF Mixer Topologies

Passive diode mixers
Operation
Isolation of LO, RF and IF by
balancing

Double-balanced diode mixer

RF

Good port isolation

Suppression rejection of
both LO and RF
Good power handling
Requires baluns and filters
Poor conversion gain (not
active)

Virtual ground for LO signal

Differential LO conductance waves which in combination with the RF
signal yields constructive summing of the IF signal at the IF port

Classical RF Mixer Topologies

Passive diode mixers

Double-balanced diode mixer

g (t )

g (t )

IF
g (t )

IF

g (t )

When the RF and LO conductance

waveform are in phase we can
define an IF current in the same
direction. When the RF signal and
conductance waveform are out of
phase, the IF current will be
reversed. Since the conductance
waveforms of the D3 and D4 in
fact are reversed of that of D1
and D2 (they operate on the
negative going cycle of the LO)
their IF current is also reversed,
as such the resulting IF currents
can be summed at nodes R and R

Phase relations between LO, conductance waveform, RF and IF voltages:

a) diodes D1 and D2 conducting, b diodes D3 and D4 conduction with LO signal reversal

Active Mixers
Passive mixers required passive baluns,
hybrids and or filters, demanding a large IC /
board area. In addition passive mixers cannot
provide positive conversion gain (in dB)
In contrast Active Mixers can be more
compact, and provide active conversion gain.
Switching elements are now FETS or BJTs, which
are three terminal devices and as such already
provide some isolation to the controlling signal

2-Quadrant Linear Multiplier

I EE

vm
I C1 iC1 I C1

1 re1 REE

vm
I C1

re1 REE

(See next slide for the derivation)

Transconductance
stage main
limitation for
linearity

For small signal operation vapplied < vt

2-Quadrant Linear Multiplier (Background I)

Using KCL at the emitter node we write,

gm

Vbe

gm.Vbe
e

REE

Vm

Vbe gm Vbe

(Vm Vbe )
0
R ee

V
1
m
Making Vbe explicit, yields: Vbe

Ree gm gm 1

Ree

Using the fact that: ic= Vbe.gm, we derive,

Vm
gm
gm
ic
.
Vm .
Ree gm gm 1
Ree gm(1 )

Ree

Since,

gm

v
vt

re t

I E I c I b gm( 1)

V
.

m
1

1
.

R 1
ee
gm 1

(1)

1
i

V
.

m
, we can write for (1), c
Ree re
with:

( 1)

(Current gain CB stage)

2-Quadrant Linear Multiplier (Background II)

gm.Vbe 2

gm.Vbe 3

gm

gm

Collector current Q2

ic 2 vbe 2 . gm

vc
2

I EE

vc
2
gm

vc
gm
2

(2)

Taking into account that the emitter current IEE

splits equally over Q2 and Q3 and that,
I c ,Q 2
vt

2 I EE

yields with (2)

2vt

ic 2
vm

2 vc
4vt

. I EE

vt

This LO term
will be also
cancelled in the
4-Quadrant
multiplier

vt

vt

vc
vt

Linear operating region

4 Quadrant Linear Multiplier

A 4 Quadrant multiplier is 2
linear multipliers in parallel
Assume:

2 3 1a 1b
re1a re1b re
vRF
vRF
vRF

v
)(

v
)(

v
)(

)
2 1a
LO
3 1b
LO
LO
2 ( vLO )
3 ( vLO )

2
2
2
. I C1

. I C1

4.V

4.VT (2 re1a REE )

4.VT
4.VT (2 re1b REE )
2VT (2 re REE )
T

Left 2-Quadrant multiplier

Right 2-Quadrant multiplier

Factor 2 follows from voltage split in tail current

Taking the differential output:

ic _ diff

Ic(total)

( vLO )( vRF )
2VT (2 re REE )

4 Quadrant Linear Multiplier

vLO
vt

vt

vt

vRF
vt

Linearization adds noise

ic _ diff IF
v

The frequency conversion to the IF RF

frequency yields also an extra factor 2 in
gain (compare with previous page)

2vLO
VT (2 re REE )

Factor 2 follows from voltage split in tail current

Switching mixer operation

Switching differential pair with tail current source driven by a RF signal.

b) equivalent circuit of a) [Razavi]
In Switch mode operation the IF output signal no longer depends on the amplitude of
the LO (great!)
Switched mixing operation provides lower noise, e.g. the noise contribution of Q2 and
Q3 is significantly reduced
Harmonic content at the output drastically increases

Switching Mixer Operation

(Conversion Gain and Noise Figure)

See for schematic location (Zx = ZEE) and (RIF = RC) the next slide

Switching Mixer Operation

This way of biasing might

increase the noise, why?

Gilbert IC Mixer Example

Transformer is not compatible with DC requirement

Put biasing on
centre tap Lee to
lower noise

Mixer Bias Considerations

(3V supply 10% = 2.7V min.)
1.5 to 1.7 V

Low voltage swing less

headroom required

= 200-300mV

zin 1 / gm

Double-Balanced Mixer in CMOS

Current bleeding to optimize bias
level RF stage independently of
switching core (K can be as big as
0.9) Having current bleeding
improves linearity RF stage,
increase gain, M1a,b lowers noise
M2a,b transistors)

(e.g. input
impedance
transimpedance
amplifier)

DC CMFB to increase IIP2 forces

drain voltages to be identical for DC
Output capacitance M1a&M1b
reduces output impedance (and as
such the IP2 of the switching core),
one tries to tune this out this
capacitance to the 2nd harmonic of
the LO with the isolation inductor Liso.
As such the down conversion of the
noise of M4, with 2nd harmonic LO to
baseband is reduced

Make the voltage swing very small by using a transimpedance amplifier as load, this reduces
the voltage swing for the switching core transistors what helps to improve their linearity due
their nonlinear output capacitances, see also next slide, where is applied on a passive mixer.

References
Cherazai04 [4]
Andrews10 [42]
Soer10 [43]

CMOS Passive Mixer

Basically K = set to 1 here, no DC
current flowing through the
switches no IF noise (AC
coupled)
minimum noise figure can be as
low as 4 dB (compare to 9 dB
using an active switch core)
Transimpedance amplifier
reduces the voltage swing
improving the linearity

Advantages:
Elimination of 1/f noise
Low NF = conversion loss (min. 4 dB)
IIP3 > +10dBm

Disadvantages:
IF bandwidth depends on gain transimp. amp,
IIP2 depends on FET and LO duty cycle matching
Large LO swing required (e.g. 1Vp-p )

Mixer Noise Figure

Mixer Noise Figure

Single Side Band Noise Figure

Single Side Band Noise Figure

Double Side Band Noise Figure

Impact of Harmonics on Noise Figure

Mixer Noise

Impact of LO Noise on Mixer Performance

Harmonic Rejection Mixer, I

7xLO

Harmonic Rejection Mixer, II

Weldon01 [38]
Multi-phase LO waveforms driving a number of mixers can give harmonic
rejection at the IF output (3rd and 5th in this 3 mixer example). Bias current
in second mixer is scaled to produce desired composite LO

Increase in fundamental output increases gain. Reduction in aliasing of noise

at the IF also improves signal-to-noise ratio. Also applicable to passive mixers

Image Problem in Hetrodyne Receivers

Solving the Image Problem

Filter char.

Desired
signal

image

Solving the Image Problem,

The Image Reject Receiver

Solving the Image Problem,

The Image Reject Receiver, Visualization

Solving the Image Problem,

The Image Reject Receiver, Shifting with +90o

Solving the Image Problem,

The Image Reject Receiver, Visualization

Solving the Image Problem,

The Image Reject Receiver, Visualization

Cancels!

Image-Rejection, Concepts

Bandpass filtering to suppress the unwanted image signal (e.g. to reject the noise
in that band)

Image-Rejection / Quadrature Mixing

Needs precise quadrature
phase relations and
amplitude matching in mixer
paths
Quadrature quality and
amplitude matching at mixer
output may be compensated
at baseband
LO quadrature is easier to
realize than in the RF path as
the signal is narrowband and
predictable.

Image Rejection Ratio (IRR)

Phase and Amplitude Tuning

Quadrature Generation Methods

I/Q Downconverter

Frequency Halver with Phase Control

Swept RF-LO Image-Rejection

Image Rejection with Passive Mixers

Red and blue signal paths are both active when LO

clocks overlap, this reduces the isolation between the
signals that we try to down convert, so the isolation
between the mixers need to be improved

Passive I-R Mixer LO Waveforms

It is significantly more difficult to generate precisely the 25% clocks

Passive Mixer Impedance

Transformation

(Relative new research topic, to reduce number of SAW filters required)

Summary / Conclusions
Mixers are essential in performing a frequency conversion
Mixers introduce Noise & Frequency Spurs optimize mixer design / topology
Traditionally

passive (diode) mixers

Today

Modern integration technologies enable active mixers, which

provide small form factors + conversion gain lower noise?

Latest trends

Combination of active gm stage and passive FET based mixing

core (lower noise, reduction of 1/f noise)

Homodyne systems

Allow higher integration (less filters) but are more

challenging in achieving good performance,
Quadrature mixers are essential to these systems but
require special measures to obtain good rejection.

Summary / Conclusions